Republicanism

Introduction

The term “republicanism” has many meanings, but in contemporary political theory and philosophy it is most often used in two related senses. On the one hand, it refers to a distinct tradition or family of writers in the history of political thought, the main line of which runs from Machiavelli through Harrington to Madison, incorporating a great many other fellow travelers along the way. The writers in this tradition held numerous common ideas and concerns, such as the importance of civic virtue and an active citizenry, the benefits of a mixed constitution and the rule of law, and above all a passionate commitment to political liberty. These writers are sometimes called the “classical republicans,” in part because of their fondness for using classical examples most often drawn from Cicero and the Latin historians. On the other hand, the term “republicanism” also refers to the contemporary heirs of that tradition—and especially to the “civic republicans” such as Philip Pettit and Quentin Skinner—who aim to develop insights from the classical republican tradition into an attractive political doctrine suitable for modern pluralistic societies. Central to their efforts have been an interpretation of political liberty as freedom from arbitrary power or domination, together with an instrumental rather than perfectionist argument for civic virtue. The contemporary civic republicans regard their doctrine as an inclusive and progressive alternative to mainstream liberalism, one that avoids familiar problems and pitfalls associated with communitarian or populist approaches.

General Overview

The most important contemporary republican text is Pettit 1997: this work was decisive in presenting the republican tradition as a unified and rigorous public philosophy that could address a wide range of contemporary issues and concerns in a compelling manner. Published around the same time, Skinner 1998 has cemented a complementary historical interpretation of the classical republican tradition. Together, these are far and away the most frequently cited sources on contemporary republican political theory. Both have built on earlier efforts at revitalizing the republican tradition, such as Skinner 1984, Sunstein 1988, and Pettit 1989. Broad overviews of republicanism can be found in Viroli 2002, Laborde 2013, or Lovett 2014. Important critical responses include Patten 1996 and Larmore 2001.

Laborde, Cécile. “Republicanism.” In The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies, Edited by Michael Freeden, Lyman Tower Sargent, and Marc Stears, 513–535. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An article-length overview of contemporary republicanism, with a focus on its development as an alternative to mainstream liberal political doctrine. Suitable mainly for graduate students and interested scholars.
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Larmore, Charles. “A Critique of Philip Pettit’s Republicanism.” Philosophical Issues 11 (2001): 229–243.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1758-2237.2001.tb00045.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A sympathetic critical response to Pettit 1997, arguing that republican insights can be incorporated into liberalism without abandoning the latter. Clearly written and accessible to advanced undergraduates, as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Lovett, Frank. “Republicanism.” In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edited by Edward N. Zalta. 2014.
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An article-length overview of both contemporary republicanism and historical debates regarding the classical republican tradition, directed mainly at graduate students and scholars.
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Patten, Alan. “The Republican Critique of Liberalism.” British Journal of Political Science 26 (1996): 25–44.
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The most-cited critical response to civic republicanism, this article argues that those republican ideas which are not flawed are indistinguishable from ideas already present in the liberal tradition. Somewhat technical.
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Pettit, Philip. “The Freedom of the City: A Republican Ideal.” In The Good Polity. Edited by Alan Hamlin and Philip Pettit, 141–168. Oxford: Blackwell, 1989.
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One of the earlier attempts to present republicanism as an attractive public philosophy suitable to modern conditions.
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Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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The most important and influential statement of contemporary civic republican doctrine. After presenting a detailed account of the republican conception of freedom as non-domination, Pettit outlines a public philosophy in which promoting freedom so understood is regarded as the central value. Clearly written and engaging, this work is suitable for advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Skinner, Quentin. “The Idea of Negative Liberty: Philosophical and Historical Perspectives.” In Philosophy of History: Essays on the Historiography of Philosophy. Edited by Richard Rorty, J. B. Schneewind, and Quentin Skinner, 193–221. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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An earlier attempt to reinterpret the classical republicanism, this article has been influential in explaining the instrumental connection between civic virtue and liberty in Machiavelli’s writings.
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Skinner, Quentin. Liberty before Liberalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
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Published around the same time as Pettit 1997, this short book reinterprets the English republican writers such as Harrington, Milton, and Sidney as centrally committed to a conception of liberty as non-domination. Though clearly written, it relies on sophisticated historical techniques and often cites primary texts familiar only to specialists.
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Sunstein, Cass R. “Beyond the Republican Revival.” Yale Law Journal 97 (1988): 1539–1590.
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Law review article arguing that the classical republicans, as exemplified by Madison, among others, regarded the importance of civic virtue as instrumental. Influential in suggesting that republicanism might be compatible with modern pluralistic political conditions.
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Viroli, Maurizio. Republicanism. Translated by Antony Shugaar. New York: Hill and Wang, 2002.
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A relatively short book that reviews both the historical and the contemporary republican tradition, written in an accessible and nontechnical style so as to appeal to a broad audience.
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Republican Liberty

Providing unity and coherence to a republican public philosophy is the conception of political liberty as freedom from arbitrary power or domination. This “republican” conception of liberty was developed in the context of a long-standing debate between positive and negative conceptions of liberty. Not everyone has been convinced, however, that the civic republicans succeed in articulating a third way.

Three Concepts of Liberty

Importantly for republicans, liberty as non-domination is distinct from either the so-called negative conception of liberty often favored by liberals (e.g., Berlin 1969), or the so-called positive conception of liberty often favored by communitarians and populists (e.g., Taylor 1979). That an alternative republican account of liberty might exist was first suggested in historical studies such as Skinner 1984 and Skinner 1991, and then has been presented most influentially in Pettit 1997. Other significant contributions include Spitz 1995 and Skinner 1998.

Berlin, Isaiah. “Two Concepts of Liberty.” In Four Essays on Liberty. 118–172. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.
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An extremely influential and widely read paper that characterized the positive liberty versus negative liberty debate for a generation. Berlin ultimately endorses the later view.
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Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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In this important text, Pettit provides a sophisticated account of freedom as non-domination and presents it as a third way between the unsatisfactory negative and the positive liberty views. He also sketches the history of freedom as non-domination and its eclipse after the 18th century under the influence of Jeremy Bentham and others.
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Skinner, Quentin. “The Idea of Negative Liberty: Philosophical and Historical Perspectives.” In Philosophy of History: Essays on the Historiography of Philosophy. Edited by Richard Rorty, J. B. Schneewind, and Quentin Skinner, 193–221. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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An influential article that explains the instrumental connection between civic virtue and liberty in Machiavelli’s writings.
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Skinner, Quentin. “The Paradoxes of Political Liberty.” In Liberty. Edited by David Miller, 183–205. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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This paper expands on Skinner 1984, developing the idea that the classical republicans understood freedom in ways not easily captured by the then-dominant liberal account of negative liberty.
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Skinner, Quentin. Liberty before Liberalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
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In this book, Skinner explicitly adopts the non-domination conception of freedom proposed by Pettit 1997, and applies it to an interpretation of the English republican writers of the 17th century. Appearing shortly after Pettit 1997, it strongly buttressed Pettit’s historical claims.
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Spitz, Jean-Fabien. La Liberté politique: Essai de généalogie conceptuelle. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995.
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Unfortunately never translated into English, this work developed a republican conception of liberty in tandem with Pettit and Skinner. Influential in suggesting that republican liberty is instantiated through institutions, an idea further developed in Pettit 1997.
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Taylor, Charles. “What’s Wrong with Negative Liberty.” In The Idea of Freedom. Edited by Alan Ryan, 175–193. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
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An influential paper characterizing the positive liberty versus negative liberty debate somewhat different from Berlin 1969, and ultimately endorsing the former view. Interesting primarily to specialists.
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Further Developments

Pettit has rigorously developed the republican conception of liberty in a long series of writings, including Pettit 2001, Pettit 2012, and Pettit 2014. Many writers have challenged the republican approach: the most important are probably Kramer 2008 and Carter 2008, which argue that republican liberty is not usefully distinct from negative liberty. Harbour 2012 responds to this critique. Wall 2001 argues that republican and negative conceptions of liberty are best seen as complements to each other, and Markell 2008 that freedom from domination needs to be supplemented by a concern with usurpation.

Carter, Ian. “How Are Power and Unfreedom Related?” In Republicanism and Political Theory. Edited by Cécile Laborde and John Maynor, 58–82. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008.
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Together with Kramer 2008, an influential critique of the republican conception of liberty. Both argue that properly understood, negative liberty can incorporate republican insights, while avoiding its problems. Somewhat challenging for the general reader.
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Harbour, David Michael. “Non-domination and Pure Negative Liberty.” Politics, Philosophy, and Economics 11 (2012): 186–205.
DOI: 10.1177/1470594X11416781Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A sophisticated reply to the Carter 2008 and Kramer 2008, defending the republican conception of liberty. Of interest primarily to the specialist.
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Kramer, Matthew H. “Liberty and Domination.” In Republicanism and Political Theory. Edited by Cécile Laborde and John Maynor, 31–57. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008.
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Together with Carter 2008, an influential critique of the republican conception of liberty. Both argue that properly understood, negative liberty can incorporate republican insights, while avoiding its problems. Somewhat challenging for the general reader.
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Markell, Patchen. “The Insufficiency of Non-domination.” Political Theory 36 (2008): 9–36.
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This paper argues that without a consideration of usurpation, non-domination by itself is insufficient to capture the ideal of human agency, and thus under-describes the wrongs of slavery and colonialism. Of interest primarily to specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. A Theory of Freedom: From the Psychology to the Politics of Agency. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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This book further develops the non-domination account of political liberty, presenting it as the natural upshot of a philosophically attractive account of free agency. Though clear and broadly accessible to students and scholars, this book is primarily directed at a philosophical audience.
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Pettit, Philip. On the People’s Terms: A Republican Theory and Model of Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139017428Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this book, Pettit further updates and develops the republican conception of freedom as non-domination. Domination is now cast as “uncontrolled” power rather than, as traditionally, “arbitrary” power. The second half of the book presents a detailed account of the sort of popular control necessary to ensure that citizens are not dominated by their government. More technical than the previous two books, this contribution is aimed primarily at interested specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. Just Freedom: A Moral Compass for a Complex World. New York: Norton, 2014.
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Part one of this book usefully sums up Pettit’s many years of thinking about the republican conception of freedom. Uses Written in clear and accessible language, this work is suitable for a general audience.
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Wall, Steven. “Freedom, Interference, and Domination.” Political Studies 49 (2001): 216–230.
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This paper argues that the best account of freedom would include both noninterference and non-domination conditions. Clearly written and suitable for interested graduate students and scholars.
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Classical Republicanism

The contemporary civic republicans build on a rich early-modern historical tradition that runs roughly from the early 16th to the late 18th century. The civic republican interpretation of that tradition, however, is not entirely undisputed. Some argue that classical republicanism was not a coherent tradition at all, while others argue that the contemporary civic republicans mischaracterize the central commitments of the classical republicans.

Primary Sources

Classical republicanism encompasses a wide range of writers, providing fertile material for historians of political thought. Unfortunately, like many early modern texts, these materials can often be challenging for nonexperts to understand and appreciate without background knowledge, and not all are available in contemporary editions. Exceptions include Machiavelli 1983, Montesquieu 1989, and Hamilton, et al. 2011—all works that are widely available and commonly read by undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars. Rousseau 2012 is of course also widely read, but deeply enigmatic and unrepresentative of the tradition. For those pursuing a more in-depth study, the additional primary sources in this section provide a reasonable starting point. Leading republican tracts from the English Commonwealth period include Harrington 1992 and Milton 1999. Sidney 1996 and Trenchard and Gordon 1996 are works that kept republican ideas in circulation after the Restoration, and supporters of the American cause such as the author of Paine 1995 reinvigorated the tradition. Classical republicanism might be said to end with Adams 1797, though some would also cite Tocqueville 1969.

Adams, John. A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Budd and Bartram, 1797.
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One of the last significant classical republican writings, this sprawling three-volume work serves as a sort of summation of the tradition. Though long sections merely reprint or digest the writings of earlier authors, there is also much interesting original material. Challenging reading for nonspecialists, especially since no modern edition has been published.
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Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, and John Jay. The Federalist. Edited by Terence Ball. Fairford, UK: Echo Library, 2011.
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The famous series of essays, first published in 1788, supporting ratification of the American constitution. In building their various arguments, the authors draw heavily on classical republican ideas (especially those found in Montesquieu 1989), while also reshaping the tradition in new and interesting ways. Comparatively easy reading for students and scholars alike.
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Harrington, James. The Commonwealth of Oceana and A System of Politics. Edited by J. G. A. Pocock. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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Probably the most important English republican of the Commonwealth period, Harrington served as the crucial bridge between Machiavelli and the later tradition. The “Preliminaries” to the Commonwealth of Oceana, originally published in 1656, contains his most important ideas, but is unfortunately difficult reading, probably suitable only for graduate students and scholars.
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Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Discourses. Translated by Leslie J. Walker. London: Penguin, 1983.
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Eminently readable and often entertaining, this work published posthumously in 1531 served as a touchstone for later republicans, who frequently cited the “divine Machiavel” as an authority. Taking the form of an extended series of reflections inspired by reading Livy’s history of the Roman republic, The Discourses lacks clear organizational structure, but still manages to convey many insights that would subsequently become central to republicanism.
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Milton, John. “The Readie and Easie Way to Establish a Free Commonwealth.” In Areopagitica and Other Political Writings. By John Milton, 415–445. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1999.
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A last-ditch passionate plea on behalf of the republican cause in England in 1660, when restoration of the monarchy was immanent. Contains many interesting arguments for free government and proposals for institutional reform, but difficult reading for the nonspecialist.
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Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat. The Spirit of the Laws. Edited by Anne M. Cohler, Basia C. Miller, and Harold S. Stone. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
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An extremely influential text, this work, originally published in 1748, was regarded in its time as the state of the art in political science. Crucial for transmitting republican ideas to later writers (see especially the lengthy digression on the English constitution in Book 11), even though the author’s own political commitments are somewhat ambiguous. Easily read by undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Paine, Thomas. Rights of Man, Common Sense, and Other Political Writings. Edited by Mark Philp. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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Though not particularly original, Paine’s essays published in the late 18th century inspired many American revolutionaries, and are sometimes credited with raising their sights from mere reform to outright independence. Reasonably accessible to interested undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Basic Political Writings. 2d ed. Translated by Donald A. Cress. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2012.
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An extremely influential and often mesmerizing author, Rousseau is often associated with republicanism, but his writings are subject to widely divergent interpretations. He is at is most republican in the dedicatory letter “To the Republic of Geneva.” With some exceptions, however, contemporary civic republicans usually do not regard Rousseau’s overall work as properly belonging to the classical republican tradition.
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Sidney, Algernon. Discourses Concerning Government. Edited by Thomas G. West. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1996.
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Long and rambling, but also pregnant with a wealth of republican ideas. The unpublished manuscript of this work was submitted as evidence at Sidney’s trial for treason, for which he was convicted and executed. Eventually published in 1698, the Discourses has inspired many later republican authors.
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Tocqueville, Alexis de. Democracy in America. Translated by George Lawrence. New York: Harper Collins, 1969.
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This classic study of American politics and society in the early 19th century is widely read by a diverse audience. Republican ideas are discernable, though obscured by many new concerns.
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Trenchard, John, and Thomas Gordon. Cato’s Letters, or, Essays on Liberty, Civil and Religious, and Other Important Subjects. 2 vols. Edited by Ronald Hamowy. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund, 1996.
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These anonymous opinion pieces appearing in the London Journal between 1720 and 1723 were later gathered together in a single multivolume edition of 1733 revealing the authors. Engaging with a wide range of issues of the day from a broadly republican point of view, these letters greatly influenced subsequent writers in the tradition. Difficult to appreciate, however, without significant background knowledge.
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Secondary Sources

Historical scholarship on the republican tradition is now extensive. Early works Arendt 1963, Wood 1969, and especially Pocock 1975 are important because they initiated modern scholarly interest in the tradition, but their authors portray republicanism as a perfectionist and anti-liberal doctrine. This view was first challenged by Quentin Skinner, and then overthrown by the many writers who have followed his lead. For representative civic republican studies of Machiavelli, see Skinner 1983 and Viroli 1998; for studies of the English republicans, see Dzelzainis 1995, Skinner 1998, and Lovett 2012; and for a study of the republican influence on the framers of the American constitution, see Sellars 1994. Representative of those continuing in the spirit of Pocock is Rahe 1992, and of those disputing the notion of a distinct classical republican tradition at all is Haakonssen 2007.

Arendt, Hannah. On Revolution. New York: Viking, 1963.
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An extremely influential exploration of the American and French revolutions, this work inspired subsequent interest in recovering the republican tradition, though interpreted along anti-liberal lines. Engaging and accessible to a general audience.
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Dzelzainis, Martin. “Milton’s Classical Republicanism.” In Milton and Republicanism. Edited by David Armitage, Armand Himy, and Quentin Skinner, 3–24. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511598456Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Scholarly study of the poet John Milton’s contribution to the republican tradition, suitable primarily for specialists.
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Haakonssen, Knud. “Republicanism.” In A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. 2d ed. Vol. 2. Edited by Robert E. Goodin, Philip Pettit, and Thomas Pogge, 729–735. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007.
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This brief review of the revival of interest in the republican tradition challenges the notion that it was genuinely distinct from the liberal tradition. Reasonably accessible to advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Lovett, Frank. “Harrington’s Empire of Law.” Political Studies 60 (2012): 59–75.
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An attempt to correct earlier misinterpretations of Harrington and his contribution to the republican tradition. Directed to a scholarly audience.
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Pocock, J. G. A. The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.
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The most influential work in establishing the existence of a distinct and unified republican tradition connecting Machiavelli to Madison. Inspired by Arendt, however, Pocock interprets the tradition along perfectionist lines, a reading later disputed by Skinner and the civic republicans. Long and difficult reading for the nonspecialist.
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Rahe, Paul A. Republics Ancient and Modern: Classical Republicanism and the American Revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
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Counter to the recent trend, this expansive survey of the republican tradition continues in the line of interpretation set by Arendt and Pocock.
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Sellars, M. N. S. American Republicanism: Roman Ideology in the United States Constitution. New York: New York University Press, 1994.
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This fairly accessible book traces the evolution of republican ideas throughout the early modern period down to the time of Madison. Provides a civic republican counterpart to Wood 1969.
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Skinner, Quentin. “Machiavelli on the Maintenance of Liberty.” Politics 18 (1983): 3–15.
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Scholarly article discussing the connection between liberty and civic virtue in the writings of Machiavelli. Of interest mainly to specialists.
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Skinner, Quentin. Liberty before Liberalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
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In this book, Skinner explicitly adopts the non-domination conception of freedom proposed by Pettit and applies it to an interpretation of the English republican writers of the 17th century. Appearing shortly after Pettit 1997 (cited under General Overview, among other sections), it strongly buttressed his historical claims.
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Viroli, Maurizio. Machiavelli. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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A detailed study of Machiavelli from a republican point of view. Useful primarily for graduate students and scholars.
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Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of the American Republic: 1776–1787. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1969.
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This very influential study of the ideology of the American revolutionaries overturned the earlier assumption that they were simply liberals following in the tradition of John Locke. Relying on a detailed examination of often obscure primary source material, this work is best suited to graduate students and interested scholars.
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Republican Self-Government

Republicans hold that freedom from domination is instantiated through specific political and social institutions and practices such as the separation of powers, constitutionalism, and the rule of law. Insofar as these institutions disable actual or potential exercises of arbitrary power, that fact in itself constitutes the freedom of those enjoying their protection, an argument most clearly articulated in Spitz 1995 and Pettit 1997. Republicans further claim that these freedom-constituting institutions can be effective and resilient only in self-governing polities. Self- governing polities are characterized on the one hand by democratic controls, and on the other by an engaged and virtuous citizenry. There is considerable debate regarding the former condition, with Pettit 1999, Pettit 2012, Pettit 2014, and Maynor 2003 endorsing indirect “contestatory” democracy, while Bellamy 2007 and McCormick 2011 call for a more direct and participatory democracy. As to the latter condition, critics such as the author of Goodin 2003 have accused republicans of rejecting individualism and advocating heroic self-identification with the community for its own sake. In response, Dagger 1997, Viroli 2002, and Costa 2009 have insisted that reasonable levels of political engagement and civic virtue are important only for their instrumental value in maintaining the health of republican institutions.

Bellamy, Richard. Political Constitutionalism: A Republican Defense of the Constitutionality of Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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A wide-ranging discussion constitutionalism and an attack on the institution of judicial review from a broadly republican point of view. Suitable for interested graduate students and scholars.
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Costa, M. Victoria. “Neo-Republicanism, Freedom as Non-domination, and Citizen Virtue.” Politics, Philosophy, and Economics 8 (2009): 401–419.
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Explores the sorts of civic virtues necessary to the maintenance of a self-governing republican polity. Addressed mainly to specialists.
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Dagger, Richard. Civic Virtues: Rights, Citizenship, and Republican Liberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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The most comprehensive treatment of the role of civic virtue in modern pluralistic societies. Dagger argues that various civic-minded dispositions are necessary to the maintenance of liberal democracy, but he agrees with the contemporary civic republicans that they are instrumentally and not intrinsically valuable. He rejects any hard distinction between liberal and republican political doctrine, provided each is interpreted reasonably. Clearly written and organized, this book is accessible to a wide audience.
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Goodin, Robert E. “Folie Républicaine.” Annual Review of Political Science 6 (2003): 55–76.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.polisci.6.121901.085542Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A broad critique of the republican tradition on a variety of grounds, not all of them relevant to the contemporary civic republican program in particular.
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Maynor, John W. Republicanism in the Modern World. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2003.
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Chapters 6 and 7 of this book present an account of republican self-government broadly allied to that of Pettit. Accessible to a general audience.
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McCormick, John P. Machiavellian Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
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This book proposes a more populist interpretation of Machiavelli as against the usual civic republican reading associated with Pettit and Skinner. Proposes a range of novel institutional devices, inspired by Machiavelli, to enhance popular participation and direct democratic control over government. Suitable for interested graduate students and scholars.
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Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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The most important and influential statement of contemporary civic republican doctrine. The relationship between institutions and freedom is discussed in chapter 3, while chapters 6 through 8 further develop the republican idea of self-government. Clearly written and engaging, this work is suitable for advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Pettit, Philip. “Republican Freedom and Contestatory Democratization.” In Democracy’s Edges. Edited by Ian Shapiro and Casiano Hacker-Cordón, 163–190. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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Discusses the relationship between democracy and political liberty in republican theory, advocating a “contestatory” account of democracy as against a more “electoral” one. Useful for presenting the main contours of Pettit’s views in a short essay.
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Pettit, Philip. On the People’s Terms: A Republican Theory and Model of Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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The second half of the book presents a detailed account of the sort of popular control necessary to ensure that citizens are not dominated by their government. More technical than Pettit’s previous books, this contribution is aimed primarily at interested specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. Just Freedom: A Moral Compass for a Complex World. New York: Norton, 2014.
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Chapter 5 of this work presents the main arguments of Pettit 2012 more briefly and for a general audience.
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Spitz, Jean-Fabien. La Liberté politique: Essai de généalogie conceptuelle. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995.
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Unfortunately never translated into English, this work developed a republican conception of liberty in tandem with Pettit and Skinner. Chapters 4 and 5 develop the claim that republican liberty is constituted by institutions.
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Viroli, Maurizio. Republicanism. Translated by Antony Shugaar. New York: Hill and Wang, 2002.
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A review of both the historical and the contemporary republican tradition, written in an accessible and nontechnical style so as to appeal to a broad audience. Chapter 5 overviews the republican account of civic virtue.
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Republican Policy

Contemporary civic republicans endorse a public philosophy in which promoting everyone’s freedom from domination is regarded as the central value. Broadly speaking, a person’s freedom from domination can be threatened from two different directions. On the one hand, it can be threatened when one’s state is too powerful and insufficiently controlled. Republican Self-Government is the remedy for this first danger. On the other hand, a person’s freedom from domination can also be threatened by one’s fellow citizens, whenever some gain uncontrolled or arbitrary powers over others. Republicans support a wide range of laws and policies to remedy this second danger.

Law and Criminal Justice

Imagine there was no system of domestic criminal or civil law. Citizens would not know where they stood with one another: their interrelations would be governed by force, which is to say, by the arbitrary whim of the momentarily stronger party. Thus to enjoy some degree of republican freedom, it is absolutely essential to have a domestic legal system governing citizens’ mutual relations, as discussed in Pettit 1997 and Dagger 2009. Pettit 2012 and Pettit 2014 detail the specific bundle of rights and liberties citizens should enjoy. Notice that, as Pettit 2009 shows, laws do not merely protect some freedoms at the expense of others, but rather themselves actually introduce or enable that freedom. Bellamy 2007 argues that law is freedom-enabling only when it is thoroughly subordinate to the democratic political process, contrary to Pettit 1997, which supports constitutional courts with review powers. Effective laws clearly must be supported by an effective criminal justice system. Republicans are concerned, however, that enforcement practices themselves not compromise our freedom from domination in the process. Braithwaite and Pettit 1990 and Martí 2009 discuss how republicans would substantially reform existing enforcement practices.

Bellamy, Richard. Political Constitutionalism: A Republican Defense of the Constitutionality of Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511490187Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This book argues, contrary to Pettit’s view, that the rule of law enables republican freedom only when it is thoroughly subordinate to democratic politics. Suitable for interested graduate students and scholars.
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Braithwaite, John, and Philip Pettit. Not Just Deserts: A Republican Theory of Criminal Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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Braithwaite and Pettit reframe the justification for criminal justice enforcement along republican lines. This discussion leads to a strong critique of existing practices of criminal punishment, which seriously and unnecessarily compromise freedom. Reasonably accessible to advanced undergraduates, as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Dagger, Richard. “Republicanism and Crime.” In Legal Republicanism: National and International Perspectives. Edited by Samantha Besson and José Luis Martí, 147–168. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559169.001.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper explores various republican accounts of crime as an offence against the public, and the justifications for enforcement that flow from this view. Addressed primarily to interested scholars.
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Martí, José Luis. “The Republican Democratization of Criminal Law and Justice.” In Legal Republicanism: National and International Perspectives. Edited by Samantha Besson and José Luis Martí, 123–146. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559169.001.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An attack on existing practices of criminal justice enforcement, this paper proposes a more democratic system in line with republican self-government. Addressed primarily to interested scholars.
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Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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Chapter 1 explains the connection between law and republican liberty. Chapter 6 briefly discusses the role of constitutional courts in a properly designed republican polity. Clearly written and engaging, this work is suitable for advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Pettit, Philip. “Law and Liberty.” In Legal Republicanism: National and International Perspectives. Edited by Samantha Besson and José Luis Martí, 39–59. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559169.001.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
On the negative conception of freedom, all law necessarily restricts some liberties, though it might secure other liberties in the process. In this paper, Pettit details the contrary republican view, according to which law enables or constitutes freedom. Addressed primarily to interested scholars.
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Pettit, Philip. On the People’s Terms: A Republican Theory and Model of Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139017428Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In chapter 2, Pettit details a republican account of the basic liberties. More technical than his other books, this contribution is aimed primarily at interested specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. Just Freedom: A Moral Compass for a Complex World. New York: Norton, 2014.
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Chapter 3 of this work presents a republican account of the basic liberties that is substantially similar to the one in Pettit 2012, but addressed to a broader audience.
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Economic Policy and Distributive Justice

Compared to other areas of central concern to modern political theory and philosophy, the republican literature on economic policy and distributive justice remains comparatively underdeveloped. Indeed, the basic republican stance on the market economy has not been entirely settled: Gaus 2003 argues that republican theory is naturally hostile to markets; Taylor 2013 argues on the contrary that it should celebrate them. Most republicans, such as Pettit 1997, fall between these extremes. Dagger 2006 specifically suggests that republicans would support constrained markets, progressive taxation, dispersed property ownership, and a guaranteed social minimum. Raventos 2007 and Lovett 2009 go further and advocate an unconditional basic income on republican grounds.

Dagger, Richard. “Neo-Republicanism and the Civic Economy.” Politics, Philosophy, and Economics 5 (2006): 151–173.
DOI: 10.1177/1470594X06064219Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A broad-ranging exploration of the implications of republican theory for economic policy. Argues that republicans should support market regulation, progressive taxation, the dispersion of property, and a guaranteed social minimum. Addressed primarily to interested specialists.
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Gaus, Gerald F. “Backwards into the Future: Neorepublicanism as a Postsocialist Critique of Market Society.” Social Philosophy and Policy 20 (2003): 59–91.
DOI: 10.1017/S0265052503201047Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A liberal critic of republicanism, Gaus argues that the contemporary republican revival was actually motivated by the eventual failure of the socialist critique of market society. Addressed primarily to scholars.
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Lovett, Frank. “Domination and Distributive Justice.” The Journal of Politics 71 (2009): 817–830.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022381609090732Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper draws out the distributive-justice implications of republican political doctrine. It argues that markets are consistent with freedom from domination only if they are supplemented by an unconditional basic income. Addressed primarily to interested specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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In chapters 4 and 5 of this work, Pettit mentions various implications of republican theory for economic policy and distributive justice, but not in any great detail. Clearly written and engaging, this work is suitable for advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Raventos, Daniel. Basic Income: The Material Conditions of Freedom. Translated by Julie Wark. London: Pluto, 2007.
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A thorough discussion of the basic income idea, justified specifically on republican grounds. Accessible to a general audience.
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Taylor, Robert S. “Market Freedom as Antipower.” American Political Science Review 107 (2013): 593–602.
DOI: 10.1017/S0003055413000300Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper considers the appropriate republican stance on markets, and argues, contrary to Gaus 2003, that a concern for freedom from domination should lead one to celebrate the market economy. Addressed primarily to interested scholars.
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Feminism and Multiculturalism

Historically speaking, the classical republicans cannot be described as particularly attuned to the politics of difference: their model of virtuous citizenship was implicitly masculine and culturally parochial. Accordingly, some have worried that republican political doctrine is insufficiently sensitive to the concerns of feminists (see Friedman 2008), and unable to address the challenges of modern multiculturalism. Contemporary civic republicans, however, argue that the narrow-mindedness of the classical republicans was not inherent in their political doctrines, but merely accidental. Properly developed, Pettit 1997 insists, the republican ideal of freedom from domination has much of value to contribute to such issues. Among others, Phillips 2000, Coffee 2012, and Costa 2013 have explored the usefulness of republicanism for feminist theory, while Maynor 2003, Laborde 2008, Lovett 2010, and Bachvarova 2014 have explored the implications of republicanism for policies of multicultural accommodation.

Bachvarova, Mira. “Multicultural Accommodation and the Ideal of Non-domination.” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 17 (2014): 652–673.
DOI: 10.1080/13698230.2013.826500Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article explores the value of approaching debates regarding policies of multiculturalism from a republican point of view, and argues that the latter holds important advantages over traditional liberal approaches. Addressed primarily to interested specialists.
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Coffee, Alan M. S. J. “Mary Wollstonecraft, Freedom, and the Enduring Power of Social Domination.” European Journal of Political Theory 12 (2012): 116–135.
DOI: 10.1177/1474885111430617Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper offers a compelling republican interpretation of the early feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft. Addressed primarily to interested specialists.
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Costa, M. Victoria. “Is Neo-Republicanism Bad for Women?” Hypatia 28 (2013): 921–936.
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Considers and ultimately disagrees with the feminist critique of contemporary republicanism. Addressed primarily to graduate students and scholars.
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Friedman, Marilyn. “Pettit’s Civic Republicanism and Male Domination.” In Republicanism and Political Theory. Edited by Cécile Laborde and John Maynor, 246–268. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008.
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This essay levels various critiques of republican political theory, especially as represented by Pettit 1997, from a broadly feminist point of view. Suitable for graduate students and interested scholars.
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Laborde, Cécile. Critical Republicanism: The Hijab Controversy and Political Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199550210.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A thoughtful book-length treatment of one of the more notorious contemporary multiculturalism debates. Laborde approaches the controversy from a broadly civic republican point of view, critiquing views commonly associated with “republicanism” in the French political context. Sophisticated and detailed, this work is probably suitable only for specialists.
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Lovett, Frank. “Cultural Accommodation and Domination.” Political Theory 38 (2010): 243–267.
DOI: 10.1177/0090591709354870Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article investigates the in-group domination objection to multicultural accommodation. It argues that, while the objection should be taken seriously, republicans should nevertheless support accommodation under specific circumstances. Addressed primarily to graduate students and scholars.
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Maynor, John W. Republicanism in the Modern World. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2003.
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Chapter 5 of this book outlines a republican approach to modern pluralism. Accessible to a general audience.
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Pettit, Philip. Republicanism: A Theory of Freedom and Government. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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Chapter 5 argues that republican theory is eminently suited to addressing the concerns of feminists and multiculturalists. Clearly written and engaging, this work is suitable for advanced undergraduates as well as graduate students and scholars.
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Phillips, Anne. “Feminism and Republicanism: Is This a Plausible Alliance?” Journal of Political Philosophy 8 (2000): 279–293.
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9760.00103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article favorably explores the compatibility of republican and feminist perspectives. Addressed primarily to graduate students and scholars.
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International Relations and Global Justice

Historically, republicanism has not seemed to be a particularly cosmopolitan political doctrine: its primary preoccupation has been the realization of freedom through citizenship in a bounded, self-governing polity. In recent years, however, an increasing number of authors have begun to apply republican ideas to thinking about global justice. Bohman 2004, Bohman 2007, and Bohman 2009 propose a republican account of global democracy and rule of law. Laborde 2010 and Lovett 2010 consider republican arguments for redressing global inequality. Somewhat more modestly, Pettit 2010 and Pettit 2014 propose a “republican law of peoples” in which a community of republic states refrain from dominating one another. Bachvarova 2013 argues that republican approaches to global justice should supplement, but not replace, existing accounts. Fine 2014 considers how republican might approach the ethics of migration.

Bachvarova, Mira. “Non-domination’s Role in Theorizing Global.” Journal of Global Ethics 5 (2013): 173–185.
DOI: 10.1080/17449626.2013.818434Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
In this essay, the contribution of republicanism to debates concerning structural global inequality is favorably assessed. However, the article is best at providing an account of what would make global political institutions legitimate, and not at providing an account of global distributive justice. Addressed primarily to specialists.
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Bohman, James. “Republican Cosmopolitanism.” Journal of Political Philosophy 12 (2004): 336–352.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9760.2004.00203.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article argues that republicanism provides stronger reasons for forming a global political community than traditional liberalism, since the processes of globalization create many new opportunities for domination. Addressed primarily to specialists.
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Bohman, James. Democracy across Borders: From Dêmos to Dêmoi. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2007.
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In this book, Bohman argues that globalization has undermined traditional conceptions of democracy. The only way to realize republican freedom is to guarantee a minimum degree of democracy in all communities, while also building transnational democratic institutions. Fairly technical, and thus suitable only for graduate students and scholars.
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Bohman, James. “Cosmopolitan Republicanism and the Rule of Law.” In Legal Republicanism: National and International Perspectives. Edited by Samantha Besson and José Luis Martí, 60–77. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199559169.001.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An essay arguing that the growing number of persons without clear citizenship status are vulnerable to domination. Calls for a global rule of law on republican grounds. Addressed primarily to specialists.
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Fine, Sarah. “Non-domination and the Ethics of Migration.” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 17 (2014): 10–30.
DOI: 10.1080/13698230.2013.851481Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A preliminary investigation of how republicans might address the ethics of migration, this paper finds that the approach has some advantages, but also some disadvantages. Addressed primarily to specialists.
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Laborde, Cécile. “Republicanism and Global Justice: A Sketch.” European Journal of Political Theory 9 (2010): 48–69.
DOI: 10.1177/1474885109349404Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This essay argues that republicans should be concerned about the imbalance of power between states. Since excessive poverty undermines republican self-government, it is important to give poor states greater voice in setting the terms of the global economy. Addressed primarily to specialists.
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Lovett, Frank. “Republican Global Distributive Justice.” Diacrítica 24 (2010): 13–30.
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In this article, liberal and republican approaches to global justice are compared. Contrary to expectation, republicanism is shown to have stronger reasons for being concerned with global poverty and inequality. Addressed primarily to specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. “A Republican Law of Peoples.” European Journal of Political Theory 9 (2010): 70–94.
DOI: 10.1177/1474885109349406Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper argues that the citizens of a self-governing republic cannot fully enjoy freedom from domination unless their state is not itself dominated by other states in the international system. Thus a “republican law of peoples” would involve a community of republican states that mutually ensure no state dominates any other state. A fairly technical discussion addressed primarily to specialists.
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Pettit, Philip. Just Freedom: A Moral Compass for a Complex World. New York: Norton, 2014.
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Chapter 6 of this work presents a republican model of international relations similar to the one in Pettit 2010, but addressed to a broader audience.
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