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Spanish Language Television (Chicano Studies)

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Jul 12th, 2017
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  1. Introduction
  2. During the last decade, Spanish-language television has generated much interest among media scholars. The most recent census numbers demonstrated that Latina/os are the fastest growing minority in the United States, and the ongoing debates around immigration and the configuration of a Latino market heralded by advertisers for its “buying power” have prompted researchers to look at Spanish-language television as a site through which narratives about race, ethnicity, class, gender, and national and transnational identities intertwine. Although Spanish-language television has aired on the mainland United States since the 1960s, it was not until 2007 that the top broadcast television networks, Univision and Telemundo, joined the big leagues of television audience measurement research. The highly competitive rating numbers revealed by Nielsen indicate that Spanish-language networks are consistently in the top ten ratings during primetime. Currently a vastly growing industry, Spanish-language television is marked by its history of consolidation and conglomeration. For example, Univision was bought and sold to several companies, including Hallmark, and Telemundo is currently owned by the National Broadcasting Company (NBC). Additionally, due to partial foreign ownership from Mexican television companies, such as Televisa, much of the programming on Spanish-language networks in the United States is imported from Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Venezuela, and other parts of Latin America. Although US Spanish-language television has historically focused their content and marketing to Spanish-dominant immigrants, Univision and Telemundo have recently ventured into targeting bilingual and English-dominant second- and third-generation Latinos. For example, consider Univision’s website La Flama and Telemundo’s mun2 cable network that focus on creating bilingual and bicultural/hybrid content. While Univision and Telemundo continue to be the top Spanish-language networks in the United States, other cable networks (i.e., Azteca, Galavisión, LATV, and Vme) continue to add new spaces and voices to the industry. This article reviews the most pertinent scholarship on Spanish-language television and highlights some of the prominent themes to consider in this area of research. Early work on Spanish-language television focused largely on providing historical overviews and profiles of Univision and Telemundo. Later work examines issues of representation, especially in terms of race, nation, gender, and class. More recent work also carefully documents the recent growth in Spanish-language television along with shifting strategies to accommodate the growing Latina/o viewership. This scholarship also includes analyses of regulation, particularly regarding ownership, as they relate to Spanish-language television industries. Most of the literature discussed in this article focuses on Spanish-language television in the United States, but there is some research included that addresses this medium in other countries, such as Mexico and Spain. Overall, the burgeoning research in this area emanates from a variety of disciplines (e.g., communications, film studies, sociology, and political science) and methodologies (e.g., content analysis, interviews, participant observation, etc.), but more work is needed to understand fully the political, economic, and cultural impact of Spanish-language media.
  3. Anthologies
  4. To date, there are no anthologies exclusively focused on Spanish-language television. The volumes discussed in this section, however, do contain some essays that detail the history and political economy of Spanish-language television in the United States In particular, Albarran 2009, an edited volume, provides several key essays on Spanish-language television in the United States and Latin America. Deepening some of the issues presented in Albarran’s volume, the anthology Dávila and Rivero 2014 offers recent industrial analyses of Spanish-language television in the United States. While both anthologies provide accessible introductions to Spanish-language television, the volume Albarran 2009 is better suited to undergraduates while Dávila and Rivero 2014 is appropriate for both advanced undergraduate and graduate students. One of the earliest essays on Spanish-language television can be found in the anthology Rodríguez 1997, a survey of Latina/o-oriented media in the United States.
  5. Albarran, Alan, ed. The Handbook of Spanish-Language Media. New York: Routledge, 2009.
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  7. This collection offers essays on Spanish-language media in Latin America and the United States. Most chapters are basic overviews of Spanish-language media in a specific country with some more thematic essays at the end of the anthology.
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  9. Dávila, Arlene, and Yeidy Rivero, eds. Contemporary Latina/o Media: Production, Circulation, Politics. New York: New York University Press, 2014.
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  11. This anthology presents some of the most cutting-edge scholars on Latina/o media in the United States. Best suited to advanced undergraduates and graduate students, the collection contains a few chapters that focus on Spanish-language television.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Rodríguez, Clara E. Latin Looks: Images of Latinas and Latinos in the U.S. Media. Boulder, CO: Praeger, 1997.
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  15. Although now dated, this book provides an introduction to Latina/o-oriented media, including Spanish-language television. The chapter titled “Hispanic Oriented Media” by Subervi-Velez and others is especially relevant.
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  17. Books
  18. The only book that exclusively foregrounds Spanish-language television is Wilkinson 2015. This book provides a thorough history of US Spanish-language television that highlights issues of policy and technology. Building on the historical research on Spanish-language networks, Rodriguez 1999 provides early profiles of Univision and Telemundo that focuses on their news production. Highlighting Telemundo’s start as a network in Puerto Rico, Rivero 2005 documents Telemundo’s earlier programming, especially in regards to issues of race. Other referred works in this section include Dávila 2012 and Chavez 2015 which tackle the subject from an audience/market perspective. Unfortunately, no undergraduate textbooks exist yet on the subject of Spanish-language media.
  19. Chavez, Christopher. Reinventing the Latino Television Viewer. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015.
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  21. Chavez interrogates how US Spanish-language television networks are shifting their notions of the Latina/o audience as bilingual and English-dominant. The book is best suited for upper-level undergraduates and graduate students.
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  23. Dávila, Arlene. Latinos Inc. The Marketing and Making of a People. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.
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  25. Arlene Dávila investigates how Latino culture is commodified by the Hispanic advertising industry through an ethnography of Hispanic advertising agencies and consumer focus groups. One chapter, in particular, examines how United States Spanish-language television networks sell Latino audiences to advertisers as Spanish-dominant, family-oriented, and brand loyal.
  26. Find this resource:
  27. Rivero, Yeidy M. Tuning Out Blackness: Race and Nation in the History of Puerto Rican Television. Durham, NC, and London: Duke University Press, 2005.
  28. DOI: 10.1215/9780822386803Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  29. This book explores representations of blackness in Puerto Rican television. Given that Puerto Rico had the earliest forms of US Spanish-language television (before California and Texas), this book provides an important historical foundation.
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  31. Rodriguez, América. Making Latino News: Race, Language, and Class. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1999.
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  33. This book offers a foundational look at the creation of print and broadcast Latina/o-oriented news, including newscasts on Spanish-language television. Its significance largely lies in its early historical overviews of Univision and Telemundo.
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  35. Wilkinson, Kenton T. Spanish-Language Television in the United States: Fifty Years of Development. New York: Routledge, 2015.
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  37. This is the most comprehensive overview of Spanish-language television to date. The book offers historical and political-economic perspectives suitable for undergraduates.
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  39. General Overviews
  40. The scholarship included in this section provides general overviews of the landscape of Spanish-language television. All of the citations are written with broad scopes that offer a glimpse into the history of Spanish-language television networks and point to some of the most important issues concerning policy, ownership, content, language, and culture. Castañeda 2008 highlights the significance of US Spanish-language media at large and does make mention of television in particular. Piñón 2013 provides a much-need basic overview of the Spanish-language television industries published in Spanish. Likewise, Wilkinson 2009 and Wilkinson 2013 offer general overviews of Spanish-language television industries in English, paying attention to recent changes in regulation and technology. Coffey 2008 and Coffey 2009 illustrate recent trends that have led to Spanish-language media’s dramatic growth in the last twenty years. Moreno Esparza 2011 analyzes how recent changes in media policy are shaping new transnational consolidations with Spanish-language television industries. Slocum 2009 provides a rare comparative analysis of Spanish television news in three different countries. Each of these essays is appropriate for a general readership and undergraduates.
  41. Castañeda, Mari. “The Importance of Spanish Language and Latino Media.” In Latina/o Communication Studies Today. Edited by Angharad N. Valdivia, 51–66. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
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  43. Castañeda underscores the contemporary significance of Spanish-language broadcast and print media by highlighting the growth of these outlets and their mobilization of Latina/o communities. The essay is accessible to undergraduates.
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  45. Coffey, Amy Jo. “U.S. Trends in Spanish Language Television, 1986–2005: Networks, Advertising, and Growth.” Journal of Spanish Language Media 1 (2008): 4‒35.
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  47. Coffey examines the patterns and trends that led to the growth of Spanish-language television since the mid-1980s. The issues covered are similar to Castañeda 2008, but they are discussed in more detail.
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  49. Coffey, Amy Jo. “Growth and Trends in Spanish Language Television in the United States.” In The Handbook of Spanish Language Media. Edited by Alan Albarran, 203‒217. New York: Routledge, 2009.
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  51. This essay provides a brief overview of the factors contributing to the growth of Spanish-language television from 1985 to 2005. Suitable for a general readership and undergraduates.
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  53. Gibens, Guillermo. “Univision and Telemundo: Spanish Language Television Leaders in the United States.” In The Handbook of Spanish Language Media. Edited by Alan Albarran, 237‒244. New York: Routledge, 2009.
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  55. The essay offers a brief history of Spanish-language television. In particular, Gibens provides profiles on Univision and Telemundo.
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  57. Moreno Esparza, Gabriel Alberto. “Televisa and Univision, 50 Years of Media Post-Nationalism.” Global Media and Communication 7.1 (2011): 62‒68.
  58. DOI: 10.1177/1742766510397939Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. This short commentary analyzes the relationship between Televisa and Univision in creating a transnational Spanish-language television industry. The essay illuminates some of the ownership issues within Spanish-language television.
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  61. Piñón, Juan. “Televisión Hispana en los Estados Unidos: Una Industria que Crece y se Diversifica.” In Zapping TV. El Paisaje de la Tele Latina. Edited by O. Rincón Rodríguez, 71‒81. Bogotá, Colombia: FES COMUNICACIÓN y Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2013.
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  63. This essay provides a brief overview of the US Spanish-language television industry. This is one of the few overviews available only in Spanish.
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  65. Rodriguez, América. “Creating an Audience and Remapping a Nation: A Brief History of US Spanish Language Broadcasting 1930–1980.” Quarterly Review of Film and Video 16.3–4 (1997): 357–374.
  66. DOI: 10.1080/10509209709361470Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. This article provides a history of US Spanish-language radio and television. In particular, Rodriguez offers a useful explanation of how US Spanish-language audiences were constructed.
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  69. Slocum, Phyllis. “Television News: Spain, Mexico, Colombia and the United States.” In The Handbook of Spanish Language Media. Edited by Alan Albarran, 218‒236. New York: Routledge, 2009.
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  71. This chapter uses political economy to sketch a comparative analysis of the United States, where Spanish TV news is a solid industry within the national media landscape, to three models of television news in the Spanish-speaking countries of Spain, Mexico, and Colombia.
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  73. Wilkinson, Kenton. “Spanish Language Media in the United States.” In The Handbook of Spanish Language Media. Edited by Alan Albarran, 3‒16. New York: Routledge, 2009.
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  75. Wilkinson offers a broad overview of Spanish-language media, including print, radio, and television. The essay is accessible to a general readership and undergraduates.
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  77. Wilkinson, Kenton. “Spanish Language and Latino/a-oriented Television.” In Latinos and American Popular Culture. Edited by Patricia M. Montilla, 49‒68. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO-Praeger, 2013.
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  79. This chapter offers a brief history of Spanish-language television and why it has grown exponentially in the United States in the last three decades. The author highlights the move toward accommodating bilingual and bicultural audiences and the effects of digitization.
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  81. Flows
  82. The recent growth of US Spanish-language television challenges traditional assumptions about the flow of television. Since the advent of television, many media scholars assumed that television is distributed in a one-way flow whereby US content is circulated to the rest of the world. Until fairly recently, non-US television programming was rarely available in the United States With the advent of technologies such as VHS and VCRs, satellite television, and most recently digital streaming services, the flow of television is no longer a one-way flow. Prior to the availability of these technologies, US Spanish-language television was a forerunner in expanding the flow of television from a one-way direction to a two-way stream. During their early years, the two US Spanish-language broadcast television networks, Univision and Telemundo, heavily imported Latin American content to fill their programming schedules. Today these networks still import programming from Latin America, but some of their content is now produced in the United States. For example, Sinclair 2003 discusses how Miami, Florida, is becoming a hub for telenovela production, which departs from the tradition of filming in Latin America. Gómez, et al. 2014 documents how Mexican television networks currently create programming with US audiences in mind. Donoghue 2011 provides an analysis of how telenovelas are adapted for viewers around the globe.
  83. Donoghue, Courtney Brannon. “Importing and Translating Betty: Contemporary Telenovela Format Flow within the United States Television Industry.” In Soap Operas and Telenovelas in the Digital Age. Edited by Diana I. Rios and Mari Castañeda, 257‒274. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.
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  85. Donoghue conducts an industrial and textual analysis of the US telenovela adaptation Ugly Betty and offers a clear overview of how telenovela formats are globalized.
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  87. Gómez, Rodrigo, Toby Miller, and André Dorcé. “Converging from the South: Mexican Television in the United States.” In Contemporary Latina/o Media: Production, Circulation and Politics. Edited by Arlene Dávila and Yeidy Rivero, 44‒61. New York: New York University Press, 2014.
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  89. The authors explore the convergence between Mexican and US Latina/o media industries, such as the relationship between Televisa and Univision. Historically, US Spanish-language networks imported most programming (particularly in the form of telenovelas) from Mexico, but now Mexican television companies also produce content specifically with US Latina/o audiences in mind.
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  91. Gutierrez, Felix F., and Jorge Reina Schement. “Spanish International Network: The Flow of Television from Mexico to the United States.” Communication Research 11.2 (1984): 241–258.
  92. DOI: 10.1177/009365084011002007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  93. This is one of the earliest essays on US Spanish-language television networks. Gutierrez and Schement note that Spanish-language television in the United States challenges the one-way flow model of television.
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  95. Sinclair, John. “The Hollywood of Latin America: Miami as a Regional Center in Television Trade.” Television and New Media 4 (2003): 211–229.
  96. DOI: 10.1177/1527476403254159Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97. This article explores Miami as a media cityscape, a center for the production and distribution of Spanish-language television, and includes a useful overview of Spanish-language television in the United States.
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  99. Children and Youth
  100. Children and youth have not always yielded much interest from US Spanish-language television networks in the United States. Historically, Univision and Telemundo focused on adult Spanish speakers in the United States and generally ignored second- and third-generation Latina/o viewers who are more English-dominant. In 2007, Univision was fined by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for neglecting to comply with the Children’s Television Act, which requires all broadcast networks to air educational children’s programming three hours per week. This was the largest fine ever issued by the FCC. In response, some of the Spanish-language networks have aired some programming in Spanish, but the shows are often originally created in English and dubbed into Spanish (Moran 2007). In more recent years, US Spanish-language networks are making efforts to appeal to bilingual and English-dominant Latina/os as evidenced in Univision’s joint venture with ABC and Disney to create Fusion TV, an English-language cable network catering to millenials with substantial Latina/o content. Piñón, et al. 2013 documents these recent efforts to attract younger audiences. At the same time, as De Casanova 2008 discusses, the Spanish language is deployed more in mainstream English-language television. Interestingly, research on youth includes several empirical audience studies, which is an understudied area in scholarship on Spanish-language television. Moran 2011 and Rivadeneyra 2006 are studies of Latina/o viewership that highlight youth who consume both English-language and Spanish-language television.
  101. De Casanova, Erynn Masi. “Spanish Language and Latino Ethnicity in Children’s Television Programs.” Research in Race & Ethnic Relations 15 (2008): 159‒185.
  102. DOI: 10.1016/S0195-7449(08)15008-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. Casanova conducts a sociolinguistic analysis of mainstream children’s television shows that contain Spanish-language dialogue and Latina/o-themes. Analyzing Dora the Explorer, Dragon Tales, and Maya & Miguel, she finds that Spanish is used in a variety of ways and to different degrees to invoke Latina/o identity and teach children about multiculturalism.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Moran, Kristin C. “The Growth of Spanish-Language and Latino-Themed Programs for Children in the United States.” Journal of Children and Media 1.3 (2007): 294‒300.
  106. DOI: 10.1080/17482790701532076Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Moran notes the rise in Spanish-language and Latina/o-oriented television programming for children. At the same time that there are more educational programs available in Spanish, there is also a growth in bilingual and bicultural programming (i.e., Dora the Explorer, Maya & Miguel, and Handy Manny).
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Moran, Kristin C. Listening to Latina/o Youth: Television Consumption within Families. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.
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  111. Moran interviewed Latina/o families in San Diego, California, in order to understand how and why they consume Spanish and English-language television. The book is accessible to a general readership and undergraduates.
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  113. Piñón, Juan, L. Manrique, and Tanya Cornejo. “USA: Looking for a Younger Audience: Rebranding of the Hispanic Television.” In Television Fiction and Social Memory. Ibero-American Observatory on Television Fiction OBITEL Yearbook 2013. Edited by G. Orozco and M. Immacolata, 305–338. Sau Paulo, Brazil: Globo Universidade, Editora Sulina, 2013.
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  115. This essay provides an overview of Spanish-language media’s marketing and programming geared toward Latina/o youth. Accessible to a general readership and undergraduates.
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  117. Rivadeneyra, Rocío. “Do You See what I See? Latino Adolescents’ Perceptions of the Images on Television.” Journal of Adolescent Research 21.4 (2006): 393‒414.
  118. DOI: 10.1177/0743558406288717Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Through questionnaires and focus groups, Rivadeneyra finds that Latino adolescents view Spanish-language television as less stereotypical in terms of Latino representation than mainstream, English-language television. Suitable for undergraduates.
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  121. Gender
  122. Scholarship reveals that Spanish-language television programs tend to reproduce traditional gender roles for women and men. In particular, Univision and Telemundo have been heavily critiqued for hypersexual depictions of women. Content analysis research of gender portrayals in fictional series airing on US Spanish-language television, particularly Glascock and Ruggiero 2004; Mastro and Ortiz 2008; Rivadeneyra 2011; and Gutiérrez-San Miguel, et al. 2014, all conclude that women tend to be represented more as caretakers than white-collar professionals, whereas men are portrayed as working outside the home in high-status professions. Fernández L’Hoeste 2011 is a study of one popular serial that argues that representations of women focus on the body and especially sexualize female characters. Guerra, et al. 2011 examines how telenovelas are forms of sex education for adolescents and adults and also inform romantic relationships between men and women. Fictional television is not the only television arena where stereotypical images of gender appear. Sports broadcasts are popular programs on the Spanish-language networks, and Cashman and Raymond 2014 finds that the language used during and after games is very gendered. Rojas 2004 presents an important and rare reception study of Latina television viewers who contest sexualized imagery of women in Spanish-language media. Some of the essays, such as Mastro and Ortiz 2008, Rivadeneyra 2011, and Rojas 2004, include an intersectional analysis that considers how gender, race, and class operate together in representations on Spanish-language television.
  123. Cashman, Holly R., and Chase Wesley Raymond. “Making Gender Relevant in Spanish-Language Sports Broadcast Discourse.” Gender & Language 8.3 (2014): 311‒340.
  124. DOI: 10.1558/genl.v8i3.311Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  125. This article illuminates how sports language is gendered, particularly in Spanish-language television broadcasts of FIFA’s Women’s World Cup. Suitable for undergraduates.
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  127. Fernández L’Hoeste, Héctor. “Gender, Drugs, and the Global Telenovela: Pimping Sin Tetas No Hay Paraíso.” In Soap Operas and Telenovelas in the Digital Age. Edited by Diana I. Rios and Mari Castañeda, 165‒182. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.
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  129. This chapter analyzes the popular serial Sin Tetas No Hay Paraíso, focusing on gender and the body, as a case study of a global telenovela. Due to its theoretical focus, this essay is most suitable for advanced undergraduates and graduate students.
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  131. Fullerton, Jami A., and Alice Kendrick. “Portrayal of Men and Women in U.S. Spanish-Language Television Commercials.” Journalism and Mass Communication 77.1 (2000): 128–142.
  132. DOI: 10.1177/107769900007700110Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133. This article presents the results of a content analysis that examines gender portrayals in commercials aired on US Spanish-language television network. The authors find that women are largely portrayed in traditional roles (e.g., as homemakers).
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  135. Glascock, Jack, and Thomas E. Ruggiero. “Representations of Class and Gender on Primetime Spanish-Language Television in the United States.” Communication Quarterly 52.4 (2004): 390‒402.
  136. DOI: 10.1080/01463370409370208Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  137. This article offers a content analysis of fictional programming on Spanish-language networks in terms of gender and class. Suitable for undergraduates and graduate students.
  138. Find this resource:
  139. Guerra, Petra, Diana I. Rios, and Robert Forbus. “Fuego en la Sangre Fires Risky Behaviors: A Critique of a Top-Rated Telenovela and Its Sexual Content.” In Soap Operas and Telenovelas in the Digital Age. Edited by Diana I. Rios and Mari Castañeda, 147‒164. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.
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  141. This essay examines a popular telenovela as a form of sex education for Latina/o audiences, particularly youth. Written in an accessible manner, the chapter will appeal to undergraduates.
  142. Find this resource:
  143. Gutiérrez-San Miguel, Begoña, Ricardo Martínez-Ibañez, Rodrigo Carcedo-González, Lorenzo Mateo Bujosa-Vadell, Carlos del Pozo, and Martín Diz. “Gender Roles and the Spanish Media, a Three-Decade-Long Comparative Study.” Revista Latina De Comunicación Social 69 (2014): 213‒228.
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  145. This is a longitudinal, quantitative study examining changing gender role portrayals in Spanish television spanning from the 1960s to 2000s. Suitable for undergraduates and graduate students.
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  147. Mastro, Dana E., and Michelle Ortiz. “A Content Analysis of Social Groups in Prime-Time Spanish-Language Television.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 52.1 (2008): 101‒118.
  148. DOI: 10.1080/08838150701820916Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  149. This article uses social identity theory to explore the representation of men and women in 2004 prime-time, Spanish-language television. Suitable for undergraduates and graduate students.
  150. Find this resource:
  151. Rivadeneyra, Rocío. “Gender and Race Portrayals on Spanish-Language Television.” Sex Roles 65.3–4 (2011): 208‒222.
  152. DOI: 10.1007/s11199-011-0010-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  153. The author conducts a content analysis of telenovelas to analyze representations of race and gender. She finds that women are portrayed as caretakers with a focus on their physical appearance while men are depicted as workers. Actors tend to be light-skinned, and the few darker-skinned characters tend to be portrayed as stereotypes.
  154. Find this resource:
  155. Rojas, Viviana. “The Gender of Latinidad: Latinas Speak about Hispanic Television.” Communication Review 7.2 (2004): 125‒153.
  156. DOI: 10.1080/10714420490448688Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  157. This study focuses on Latinas’ evaluations of gender, race, and class representations in the talk shows El Show de Cristina and Laura en América and the way audiences used their criticism of women’s sexualization on Spanish-language television as a strategy to escape labels and stereotypes ascribed to Latinos by the majority groups.
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  159. Language
  160. Language is one of the main ways Spanish-language television has differentiated itself from other US media products. Programming in Spanish has historically been the mainstay of major networks like Telemundo and Univision. While Spanish-language networks in the United States do recognize that some of their viewers might be bilingual, they reproduce industry lore that the Spanish language is more emotionally appealing to Latina/o viewers regardless of language preference or competency. Some research, such as O’Ouinn, et al. 1985, also perpetuates the notion that Spanish is preferred by Latina/o viewers. Burton and Yang 2014 challenges this assumption and finds that Latina/o viewers do not always prefer Spanish-language content. Similarly, Dávila 2000 demonstrates that Univision and Telemundo largely circulate a pan-ethnic, “Walter Cronkite” version of Spanish that does not inflect any particular dialect. Arlene Dávila’s analysis in Dávila 2012 (cited under Books) suggests that the networks’ use of Spanish erases linguistic, regional, and class differences among Latina/o viewers to create and maintain a national Latina/o audience. At the same time, in a rare comparative study of English-language and Spanish-language television news, Moran 2006 finds that the address, content, and structure of these programs are very similar despite being in different languages. Noting the US Spanish-language television networks’ recent attempts to attract younger, bilingual audiences, Chavez 2015 and Piñón and Rojas 2011 document current trends in English-language programming and marketing aimed at Latina/o youth. While English-language programming with Latina/o content has yet to be successful long-term—consider the recent closings of NBC Latino and Telemundo’s mun2 cable network—US Spanish-language television networks are recognizing the political, economic, and cultural importance of younger and bilingual viewers.
  161. Burton, John M., and Kenneth C. Yang. “Acculturation Effects on Consumers’ Attitudes Toward English or Spanish-Language TV Commercials: The Moderating Role of Bilingualism.” International Journal of Hispanic Media 7 (2014): 35‒56.
  162. DOI: 10.1300/J046v13n01_04Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. This study demonstrates that ethnicity does not predict how television viewers relate to Spanish-language commercials. The article challenges industry lore that assumes that Latina/o audiences also respond positively to Spanish-language content.
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  165. Chavez, Christopher A. “‘News with an Accent’: Hispanic Television and the Re-negotiation of US Latino Speech.” Communication and Critical/Cultural Studies 12.3 (2015): 252‒270.
  166. DOI: 10.1080/14791420.2015.1037778Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. The article examines Latina/o-oriented television’s attempts to address English-dominant Latina/o audiences using Fusion as a case study. Chavez provides a good theoretical framework for understanding Spanish-language television’s recent shift toward more programming in English.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Dávila, Arlene. “Mapping Latinidad: Spanish, English and “Spanglish” in the Hispanic TV Landscape.” Television and New Media 1.1 (2000): 73‒92.
  170. DOI: 10.1177/152747640000100105Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. This essay considers the politics of language in Spanish-language media, especially in relation to the concept of cultural citizenship. More suited to advanced undergraduates and graduate students.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Moran, Kristin C. “Is Changing the Language Enough? The Spanish-Language ‘Alternative’ in the USA.” Journalism 3 (2006): 389–405.
  174. DOI: 10.1177/1464884907074805Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. Moran conducts a content analysis that compares news from a US English-speaking mainstream television channel to a Univision affiliate in San Diego, California, and finds that the stories told on both outlets are not that different because of their similar corporate structure. Accessible to undergraduates.
  176. Find this resource:
  177. O’Ouinn, Thomas C., Ronald J. Faber, and Timothy P. Meyer. “Ethnic Segmentation and Spanish-Language Television.” Journal of Advertising 14.3 (1985): 63–66.
  178. DOI: 10.1080/00913367.1985.10672961Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. This is one of the earliest journal articles on Spanish-language television viewers and suggests that Mexican-American audiences prefer Spanish-language to English-language content. Also, differentiates Spanish-language television viewers from radio listeners.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Piñón, Juan, and Viviana Rojas. “Language and Cultural Identity in the New Configuration of the U.S. Latino TV Industry.” Global Media and Communication 7.2 (2011): 129‒147.
  182. DOI: 10.1177/1742766511410220Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. The authors examine the language politics operating among contemporary Latina/o-oriented television networks, particularly the recent attention toward bilingual and non-immigrant audiences. Suitable for undergraduates.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Rojas, Viviana, and Juan Piñón. “Spanish, English or Spanglish? Media Strategies and Corporate Struggles to Reach the Second and Later Generation of Latinos.” Journal of Hispanic Media 7 (2014).
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. The authors highlight recent efforts made by Spanish-language networks to target bilingual and bicultural second- and later-generation Latina/os. One of their central claims is that the US Latina/o viewer is no longer addressed in Spanish, but now in Spanglish and English.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Politics and Media Advocacy
  190. When, in the spring of 2006, millions of immigrants and their supporters took to the streets of cities around the United States to protest the immigration reform proposal HR 4437, networks like Univision and Telemundo played a major role in the mobilization of the Latino community. In 2012, these same networks were reporting the results of the presidential election while acknowledging that for the first time in history, the Latino vote proved to be nationally decisive. These series of events evidenced that Spanish-language television has been an intrinsic space to channel the voices of Latino immigrants around issues related to political activism and social advocacy. However, it is also a terrain of struggle for matters pertaining to media policies and regulations between the networks and the FCC. The works included in this section explore many of these themes from an array of approaches and methodologies. For example, from a historical perspective Wilkinson 2009 surveys the instances of media advocacy that took place in the Spanish-language television industry between the 1970s and 1990s. Subervi-Velez 1999 considers how television news coverage of health issues can be a form of advocacy for Latina/o viewers. Other works like Amaya and Perlman 2013, Coffey and Sanders 2009, and Mora 2011 tackle specific case studies related to media mergers (i.e., the 2003 Univision and Hispanic Broadcasting merger) and other policies concerning ethnic media (i.e., the use of Spanish language). Delving more into the theme of politics, the edited collection Subervi-Velez 2008 is one of the most comprehensive pieces on Latinos, media, and general elections. This edited collection, although framed within the broad spectrum of mass media and politics, contains three chapters focusing on Spanish-language television and the coverage of the 2004 presidential elections. This seminal work precedes the comparative content analysis in Eshbaugh-Soha and Balarezo 2014 that compares the coverage of the 2012 presidential race produced by Spanish-language (Telemundo) and English-language (NBC) news media.
  191. Amaya, Hector. Citizenship Excess: Latino/as, Media, and the Nation. New York: New York University Press, 2013.
  192. DOI: 10.18574/nyu/9780814708453.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  193. Amaya introduces the concept of “citizenship excess” to argue that Spanish-language media is “politically devalued” precisely because the Spanish language is viewed outside of US citizenship. He views media policy as akin to language policy.
  194. Find this resource:
  195. Amaya, Hector, and Allison Perlman. “Owning a Voice: Broadcasting Policy, Media Ownership, and Latina/o Speech Rights.” Communication, Culture, & Critique 6.1 (March 2013): 142‒160.
  196. DOI: 10.1111/cccr.12001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  197. Using the sale of Univision in 2007 to a consortium of private equity firms as a case study, this article explores the way the regulation of Spanish-language broadcasting has infringed on the political rights of Latino citizens while ignoring the importance of linguistic diversity to a multicultural and multiracial society.
  198. Find this resource:
  199. Coffey, Amy Jo, and Amy Kristin Sanders. “Defining a Product Market for Spanish Language Broadcast Media: Lessons from United States v. Univision Communications, Inc. and Hispanic Broadcasting.” Communication Law and Policy 15.1 (2009): 55–89.
  200. DOI: 10.1080/10811680903446232Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  201. The article explores the 2003 Univision and Hispanic Broadcasting media merger and the content and policy implications that went largely unnoticed by the FCC.
  202. Find this resource:
  203. Eshbaugh-Soha, Matthew, and Christine Balarezo. “The President on Spanish-Language Television News.” Social Science Quarterly 95.2 (2014): 448‒467.
  204. DOI: 10.1111/ssqu.12042Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  205. This comparative analysis of the 2012 presidential race between Noticiero Telemundo and NBC Nightly News reveals that although the Spanish network and the English network devote a comparable amount of presidential coverage, Spanish language news appeals to its Latino audience by reporting on themes relevant to their community.
  206. Find this resource:
  207. Mora, Cristina G. “Regulating Immigrant Media and Instituting Ethnic Boundaries––The FCC and Spanish-Language Television: 1960–1990.” Latino Studies 9 (2011): 242‒262.
  208. DOI: 10.1057/lst.2011.20Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  209. This article surveys the 2003 media merger of Univision and Hispanic Broadcasting and how the FCC ignored a policy precedent that includes numerous exceptions for Spanish programming to promote content and ownership diversity.
  210. Find this resource:
  211. Subervi-Velez, Federico A. “Spanish-Language Television Coverage of Health News.” Howard Journal of Communications 10.3 (1999): 207–228.
  212. DOI: 10.1080/106461799246825Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  213. This article presents one of few studies on how health is covered in Spanish-language news. Subervi-Velez finds that coverage of health issues is similar to English-language news, but offers some salience to Latina/o viewers.
  214. Find this resource:
  215. Subervi-Velez, Federico A., ed. The Mass Media and Latino Politics: Studies of U.S. Media Content, Campaign Strategies and Survey Research: 1984–2004. New York and London: Routledge, 2008.
  216. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  217. This edited volume examines various aspects of the Latino and media landscape, including media coverage in English and Spanish-language media, campaigns, and survey research. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 provide an in-depth analysis of the 2004 election campaign coverage offered by Spanish-language television.
  218. Find this resource:
  219. Wilkinson, Kenton T. “Collective Situational Ethnicity and Latino Subgroups’ Struggle for Influence in U.S. Spanish‐Language Television.” Communication Quarterly 50.3–4 (2009): 422‒443.
  220. DOI: 10.1080/01463370209385676Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  221. Departing from the articulation of discourses of pan ethnicity and situational ethnicity, Wilkinson creates a model of collective situational ethnicity to explore media advocacy instances that took place in the US Spanish-language television industry from the 1970s through the 1990s.
  222. Find this resource:
  223. From Telenovelas to Webnovelas
  224. It is not a coincidence that one of the most nourished areas of inquiry within the scholarship of Spanish-language television is the subject of telenovelas. As a genre, it is the most successful form of programming on Spanish networks like Univision and Telemundo. The success of sitcoms culturally translated from popular telenovelas, like Ugly Betty and Jane the Virgin, have positioned the genre into a center stage in the US Latino mediascape. The corpus of scholarship that constitutes this section demonstrates that telenovelas have been broadly explored not only from a transnational standpoint but also from interdisciplinary perspectives. As pointed out by Mato 2002 and Mato 2005, as a transnational industry, telenovelas have made visible the complex cultural flows between Latin America and the US Latino context. Castañeda and Rios 2011 compiles the most recent works about the topic. Some of the themes tackled in this collection put into conversation issues like political economy, cultural translation, gender and sexuality, and regional/global production and consumption. The most recent additions to the scholarship around telenovelas explore the evolution to new platforms and formats, particularly the use of transmedia productions and the emergence of the webnovela (Piñón 2014; Piñón and Cornejo 2014; Lopez-Pumarejo 2012) to address technological transformations of both the industry and the ways of media consumption.
  225. Castañeda, Mari, and Diana I. Rios, eds. Soap Operas and Telenovelas in the Digital Age. New York: Peter Lang, 2011.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. This edited collection brings together original scholarship about telenovelas from an international and transdisciplinary perspective. It address timely issues, theories, and debates around both soap operas and telenovelas as global industries, as sites for new audiences, and as hybrid cultural products within the digital landscape. Chapters 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, and 15 are especially relevant.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Lopez-Pumarejo, Tomás. “The Webnovela and Immigrants in the United States.” American Journal of Business 27.1 (2012): 40–57.
  230. DOI: 10.1108/19355181211217634Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Lopez-Pumarejo’s piece is one of the first investigations about webnovelas as a new type of marketing genre that may be pivotal to the future of the US Spanish‐language media. The article offers a case study of the first three webnovelas launched from 2006 to 2011.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Mato, Daniel. “Miami in the Transnationalization of the Television Industry: On Territoriality and Globalization.” Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies 11.2 (2002): 195‒212.
  234. DOI: 10.1177/1527476403255822Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Mato explores how Miami, Florida, has become a key site for telenovela productions. The author uses this phenomenon to explore new processes of globalization.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Mato, Daniel. “The Transnationalization of the Telenovela Industry, Territorial References, and the Production of Markets and Representations of Transnational Identities.” Television and New Media 6.4 (2005): 423‒444.
  238. DOI: 10.1177/1527476403255822Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. This essay considers the transnational dimensions of telenovelas both in their production and content and provides a good introduction to larger issues of globalization presented by telenovelas.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Mayer, Vicki. “Living Telenovelas/Telenovelizing Life.” Journal of Communication 53.3 (September 2003a): 479–495.
  242. DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2003.tb02603.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. This article presents an ethnography of Latina teens who regularly watch telenovelas in San Antonio, Texas. Mayer finds that the girls interpret the Latin American serials through their own hybrid experiences in the United States.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Piñón, Juan. “Reglocalization and the Rise of the Network Cities Media System in Telenovela Production for Hemispheric Consumption.” International Journal of Cultural Studies 17.6 (2014): 655‒671.
  246. DOI: 10.1177/1367877913515867Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Juan Piñón introduces the concept of reglocalization to explain the process through which Latinidad is re-crafted for regional/global consumption through notions of traveling narratives, multinational settings, multicultural castings, and transnational co-production agreements.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Piñón, Juan. “Webnovelas: Branding Interactivity in Hispanic TV. Popular Communication.” International Journal of Media and Culture 12.3 (2014): 123‒138.
  250. DOI: 10.1080/15405702.2014.924521Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. This article explores the way Spanish-language television has addressed the technological transformations of both the industry and the audiences with the creation of webnovelas. These emergent narrative platforms have become a desired site for brand entertainment through sponsorship, while at the same time engaging audiences in interaction through different mobile platforms and turning them into “valuable consumers.”
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Piñón, Juan, and T. Cornejo. “USA: Hispanic TV Has Extended to Social Networks.” In Transmedia Production Strategies in Fictional Television in Ibero American Countries. Ibero-American Observatory on Television Fiction OBITEL Yearbook 2014. Edited by G. Orozco and M. Immacolata, 309‒340. São Paulo, Brazil: Globo Universidade, Editora Sulina, 2014.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. This essay explores US Spanish-language media’s foray into social media with an emphasis on webnovelas. Accessible to undergraduates.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Rios, Diana I. “U.S. Latino Audiences of ‘Telenovelas.’” Journal of Latinos and Education 2.1 (2003): 59–65.
  258. DOI: 10.1207/S1532771XJLE0201_8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. This audience analysis focuses on why Latinos watch and what they get out of watching both American soap operas and Latino telenovelas. The study reveals that Latinos use melodramatic serials to keep in touch with Latino culture as well as learn more about and keep in touch with the dominant European American culture that surrounds them in their daily lives.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Discourses of Latinidad
  262. The research in this section explores how US Spanish-language media constructs Latinidad (or Latina/o identity). In particular, the essays demonstrate how the top Spanish-language networks, Univision and Telemundo, mainly deploy a pan-ethnic approach to programming and marketing that erases linguistic, racial, and national differences among Latina/o viewers. Dovetailing with some of the issues discussed under Language, Dávila 2002 and Levine 2001 demonstrate that in deploying a pan-ethnic strategy that tries to capture as many Latina/o viewers as possible, US Spanish-language television networks homogenize Latinidad by erasing linguistic, regional, and cultural differences. Aguirre and Bustamente 1993 is an early study that makes a similar critique by arguing that the US Spanish-language networks virtually ignore their Chicanoaudiences who are bicultural and bilingual. In particular, Dávila’s research includes focus groups with Latina/o audiences who express frustration and disappointment with the Spanish-language networks for de-emphasizing non-Mexican cultures and perspectives. While the research discussed so far is about the broadcast networks Telemundo and Univision, some of the cable television networks move away from a pan-ethnic approach. For example, Beck 2010 and Piñón 2011 find that the Azteca network departs from this pan-ethnic strategy and instead appeals primarily to viewers of Mexican descent. Moran 2014 focuses on a program largely in English that covers Latina/o issues. The author finds that producers and viewers have complicated interpretations of Latinidad as mediated in television.
  263. Aguirre, Adalberto, Jr., and Diana A. Bustamente. “Critical Notes Regarding the Dislocation of Chicanos by the Spanish-Language Industry in the United States.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 16.1 (1993): 121–132.
  264. DOI: 10.1080/01419870.1993.9993775Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265. An earlier essay that critiques US Spanish-language television for not engaging Chicana/o audiences. In particular, the authors take issue with the lack of locally-relevant programming and the use of a regionless Spanish.
  266. Find this resource:
  267. Beck, Chad T. “Azteca America’s Performance of Mexicanness in the Pan-Hispanic Television Market.” International Journal of Cultural Studies 13.3 (2010): 271‒289.
  268. DOI: 10.1177/1367877909359734Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  269. Beck explores how the television network Azteca departs from the pan-ethnic approach historically deployed by the top Spanish-language television networks in the United States. Instead, the author argues that Azteca specifically targets Mexican viewers.
  270. Find this resource:
  271. Dávila, Arlene. “Talking Back: Spanish Media and U.S. Latinidad.” In Latino/a Popular Culture. Edited by Michelle Habell-Pallán and Mary Romero, 25‒37. New York and London: New York University Press, 2002.
  272. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  273. This focus-group study, one of the earliest audience studies of Spanish-language television, illustrates the disappointment many Latina/o audiences have with US Spanish-language television.
  274. Find this resource:
  275. Levine, Elana. “Constructing a Market, Constructing an Ethnicity: U.S. Hispanic Language Media and the Formation of a Syncretic Latino Identity.” Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 20 (2001): 33‒50.
  276. DOI: 10.3109/01612840903046354Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277. Levine illustrates how Spanish-language networks, particularly Telemundo, foster a syncretic Latina/o identity that flattens differences among Latina/o audiences. Suitable for undergraduates and graduate students.
  278. Find this resource:
  279. Moran, Kristin. “‘If They’re Trying to Say Something About My Culture . . . I’m Confused’: Recognizing and Resisting Authenticity in Latino-Themed Television.” Mass Communication and Society 18.1 (2014): 79‒96.
  280. DOI: 10.1080/15205436.2014.893363Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  281. This article interrogates the effectiveness of niche programming to satisfy viewer taste through a case study focused on the TV show LatiNation. In-depth interviews were conducted with self-identified Latina/o students. The findings indicate that audience members produce varied readings of the text and that the participants actively negotiate identity by using LatiNation as an opportunity to both embrace and critique Latinidad.
  282. Find this resource:
  283. Piñón, Juan. “The Unexplored Challenges of Television Distribution: The Case of Azteca America.” Journal of Television and New Media 12.1 (2011): 66‒99.
  284. DOI: 10.1177/1527476410365706Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285. This case study explores the entrance of Azteca America television network to the US Latino field and the way it challenged the long-standing duopoly held by Univision and Telemundo. The article questions assumptions held by media professionals about the Latino market, the constituency of the Spanish-language television industry, and the Latino audience.
  286. Find this resource:
  287. Industrial Analyses
  288. These essays focus on issues of production, distribution, and circulation with the Spanish-language television industries. These industrial analyses highlight recent trends deployed by the Spanish-language networks, which are influenced by technological, regulatory, economic, and demographic changes. All of the essays make reference to Spanish-language television’s growth in the United States, and most document recent trends and strategies within the industry. Juan Piñón has done extensive work in this area. For example, Piñón 2014a notes that while Spanish-language television has always been inherently transnational, there are new industry practices, such as digitization and coproduction, that have reconfigured the content and distribution of the top networks. Piñón and Rojas 2009 notes the new players that operate within these recent configurations in the Spanish-language television industries. In addition to new industry practices, scholarship in this area also provides a broader context for why Spanish-language television is expanding. Piñón 2011 sheds light on the demographic shifts, notably the fast-growing Latina/o population, that have sparked the expansion of Spanish-language television in the United States. Wilkinson and Contreras-Diaz 2014 provides a unique survey of the management of the US Spanish-language broadcast networks over a fifty-year span. Wilkinson and Aguilar 2008 provides a rare in-depth analysis of the role of technological developments in the expansion of Spanish-language media.
  289. Piñón, Juan. “Broadcasting’s Law of Ownership and Investment in the U.S. and Mexico.” In Perspectivas en Comunicación y Periodismo 1. Edited by A. Barrios and J. Bañuelos, 87‒106. Mexico: Tec de Monterrey Campus Ciudad de México, 2006.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Piñón discusses how foreign broadcasting ownership rules are mitigated by Mexican television industries in the United States Although some of the policies discussed in this essay have recently changed, the overview is useful for understanding media policy historically in Mexico and the United States.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Piñón, Juan. “La TV Hispana en Transición. Las Cadenas Expanden su Batalla por las Audiencias en Internet y Telefonía Celular.” In Convergencias y Transmediación de la Ficción Televisiva. Observatorio Ibero-Americano de la Ficción Televisiva. Anuario OBITEL 2010. Edited by G. Orozco and M. Immacolata, 260‒303. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Globo, 2010.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. This piece examines the strategies US Spanish-language television networks are using to attract viewers via the Internet and mobile phones. It also addresses issues of convergence in Spanish-language television.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Piñón, Juan. “United States: The Growth, Restructure, Digitalization and Diversification of Hispanic Television.” In Quality in Television Fiction and Audiences’ Transmedia Interactions. Ibero-American Observatory on Television Fiction OBITEL Yearbook 2011. Edited by G. Orozco and M. Immacolata. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Globo Universidade, 2011.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. This essay analyzes four characteristics of contemporary US Spanish-language television: growth (as an industry), restructure, digitalization, and diversification. Accessible to undergraduates.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Piñón, Juan. “Corporate Articulations of Transnationalism: The U.S. Hispanic and Latin American Television Industries.” In Contemporary Latin@/Latin American Media. Edited by A. Dávila and Y. Rivero, 21–43. New York: New York University Press, 2014a.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. This essay discusses shifting political-economic configurations that are increasingly blurring the boundaries between US Hispanic and Latin American television industries. Piñón argues that two practices, “manufactured cultural proximity” (through co-productions) and circuits of exhibition (the decision to produce or distribute content), are facilitating transnational Spanish-language television industries.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Piñón, Juan. “A Multilayered Transnational Broadcasting Television Industry: The Case of Latin America.” International Communication Gazette 76.3 (2014b): 211‒236.
  306. DOI: 10.1177/1748048513516906Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. This article explores the transformation of Spanish-language television within the emergence of transnational industrial structures of production, distribution, exhibition, and consumption that result from the interrelated institutional relationships among television corporations between Latin America and the United States.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Piñón, Juan, Luis Manrique, and Tanya Cornejo. “Demographic Shifts in Latino Population and the Strategies of the Hispanic Television Industries.” In Transnationalization of Television Fiction in Ibero-American Countries. Ibero-American Observatory on Television Fiction OBITEL Yearbook 2012. Edited by G. Orozco and M. Immacolata, 383‒412. São Paulo, Brazil: Globo Universidade, 2012.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. This essay provides an overview of the demographic shifts that have led to Spanish-language media’s growth. In particular, increases in Latin American immigration alongside xenophobia are highlighted.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Piñón, Juan, and Viviana Rojas. “New Players and New Scenarios in the U.S. Latino Television Field.” In Television Fiction in Iberoamerica. Narratives, Formats and Advertising. Ibero-American Observatory on Television Fiction OBITEL Yearbook 2009. Edited by G. Orozco and M. Immacolata, 303‒342. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Globo, 2009.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. This essay documents changes in the US Spanish-language television industry. The changes discussed include: convergence, coproduction, and digitization among others.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Wilkinson, Kenton, and Anthony Aguilar. “Technology and Market Development: How U.S. Spanish-Language Television Has Employed New Technologies to Define and Reach Its Audience.” Journal of Spanish Language Media 1 (2008): 36‒67.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. This essay explores how US Spanish-language television industries engaged various forms of new technology from the 1960s to the present. This is one of the few pieces to focus on technological issues.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Wilkinson, Kenton T., and Daniela Contreras-Diaz. “U.S. Spanish-Language Television Management During the Industry’s First 50 Years.” Palabra Clave 17.4 (2014): 1168‒1193.
  322. DOI: 10.5294/pacla.2014.17.4.8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. This article provides a historical overview of the Spanish-language television networks’ management spanning from the 1970s to the 1990s. This is one of the most systematic examinations of the networks.
  324. Find this resource:
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