Cardinal Reginald Pole

Introduction
Reginald Pole was born in March 1500, the fourth child of Sir Richard Pole and Margaret Pole, niece of King Edward IV and later countess of Salisbury. In 1511, Pole matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford, graduating as Bachelor of Arts in 1515. In April 1521, he was sent by Henry VIII to study at the University of Padua. He remained in Italy, mainly based at Padua, for about five years, before returning to England. During that time, he followed a typical Renaissance curriculum, also becoming increasingly interested in theology. Back in England, he showed every sign of becoming a servant and courtier of the King, who was his relative and still his patron. In 1529, Pole was chosen by Henry to take part in a mission to Paris, with the aim of obtaining the approval of the influential Theology Faculty of the University of Paris for the King’s proposed divorce of his first wife, Queen Katherine of Aragon. But by the time that Katherine died, on 7 January 1536, Pole had turned against King Henry. At the end of 1536, he was made a cardinal by Pope Paul III. After this, Pole used papal legations in a vain attempt to persuade Catholic powers, France and the Habsburgs, to attack England and restore Catholic unity. As a result, he was declared a traitor by the English Parliament, and his brother Henry, Baron Montagu, along with other friends and relatives, was executed for supposedly conspiring with him against the king. From then until Henry VIII’s death, in January 1547, Pole was pursued by English assassins, but survived to govern parts of the Papal States, preside as a legate over the opening sessions of the Council of Trent (1545–1547), and narrowly fail to be elected pope in succession to Paul III, in the conclave of December 1549 to February 1550. When Mary I gained the English throne, in July 1553, he was once again appointed, by Pope Julius III, as legate to England. He then advised Mary on the restoration of Catholicism in her kingdoms and in November 1554 returned to his homeland. His honor had by then been restored and on 30 November he reconciled England, Wales, and Ireland to the Roman Catholic Church. From then until his death on 17 November 1558, about twelve hours after the Queen had died, he devoted himself to the reestablishment of Catholic faith and practice, and presided over the burning of dozens of Protestant “heretics.” Yet in the 1540s, he had been closely involved with Catholic reformers in Italy, who were influenced by Protestant Reformers. His last years were overshadowed by suspicion of “Lutheran” heresy, and particularly by the hostility of Pope Paul IV (reigned 1555–1559). He died peacefully in Lambeth Palace, London, but his legacy has been contested ever since by Catholics and those who disagree with them. He played a prominent role in 16th-century Europe, in both religion and politics, and undoubtedly struggled in the cause of Church unity, on Catholic terms.
General Overviews
Because of his national role in England, between his break with Henry VIII and the end of Mary I’s reign, Pole inevitably receives attention in general works that cover his lifetime, especially from a religious point of view, though his thought and activity also had political effects. Fenlon 1972 raised specific issues concerning Pole that continue to interest scholars, though they were not taken up until Haigh 1993, which includes a brief but useful survey of Pole’s policy for the English Church. Just before that (1992), the first edition of Duffy 2005 appeared, containing a useful chapter on Mary’s religious policies (1553–1558), which has been followed up by later authors. Short and useful accounts of Pole’s work in England are to be found in MacCulloch 2000, Heal 2003, and Marshall 2003. Pole’s career, before and after his return to England in 1554, receives extensive coverage inEdwards 2011, while his approach to Protestants is included in Gregory 1999, which surveys the whole field of religious persecution during Pole’s lifetime.
Duffy, Eamon. The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England, 1400–1580. 2d ed. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2005.
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This important work, which in recent years has reshaped the knowledge and understanding of Catholic faith and practice in late medieval and 16th-century England, contains a pioneering chapter on the reign of Mary, which is still essential reading.
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Edwards, John. Mary I: England’s Catholic Queen. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2011.
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Queen Mary I, a relative of Pole, knew him from her early years and so he naturally has a prominent place in this biography of England’s first effective sovereign queen. This book includes an account of Pole’s relationship with the Tudor monarchs and especially of his cooperation with Mary in matters of religion, both before and after his arrival in England as papal legate.
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Fenlon, Dermot. Heresy and Obedience in Tridentine Italy: Cardinal Pole and the Counter Reformation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
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A perceptive analysis of the dilemma posed to Catholics by the theological disputes that arose from the Protestant Reformation. Fenlon shows how some Catholic reformers, including Pole, sympathized with certain of the theological ideas of the Reformers, such as Luther, but also shows how Pole eventually chose obedience to Rome and reluctantly accepted the teaching of the Council of Trent on Christian justification and salvation.
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Gregory, Brad S. Salvation at Stake: Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
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This pioneering account of religious persecution, including martyrdom for one’s faith, in 16th-century Europe, in which individuals of three traditions—Catholic, magisterial Protestant, and radical “Anabaptist”—are treated equally, contains some useful comments on Pole’s role as an enforcer of Catholic orthodoxy, as papal legate (1553–1558) and Archbishop of Canterbury (1556–1558).
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Haigh, Christopher. English Reformations: Religion, Politics and Society under the Tudors. Oxford: Clarendon, 1993.
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Haigh was a pioneer of the growing tendency among some historians, from the 1980s onwards, to offer what is commonly known as a “revisionist” interpretation of the development of English Christianity in the Tudor period. This general overview provides a clear and valuable introduction to Pole’s activity and achievement in the reign of Mary I, from the point of view of one who stresses the continuing influence of Catholicism in England, in the face of governmentally sponsored Protestant Reform.
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Heal, Felicity. Reformation in Britain and Ireland. Oxford: Clarendon, 2003.
DOI: 10.1093/0198269242.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This largely thematic survey of religion in Britain in the Reformation period is particularly useful for its account of Pole’s work in the Irish Church.
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MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Later Reformation, 1547–1603. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
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Although it concentrates mostly on Reformed religion between the death of Henry VIII and the accession of James VI and I, this small volume contains a few stimulating pages on Mary’s reign, including a balanced assessment of Pole’s achievement and its limitations.
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Marshall, Peter. Reformation England, 1480–1642. London: Arnold, 2003.
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This chronological survey concentrates on the religious aspects of the period and contains a thoughtful and stimulating chapter on the Catholic restoration under Mary, here described as her “reformation.” It covers political and social aspects as well as giving a balanced assessment of the violence involved in the implementation of the Queen’s policies, which included the burning for heresy of about 300 people.
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Biographies
Pole has not been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church and therefore his earlier Catholic biographers were not constrained by the pressures of that process, but in the years immediately after his death his biography was indeed written as that of a saint. When the cardinal archbishop died, and Mary’s successor, Elizabeth, at once showed signs of reestablishing a Protestant Church of England, some of his household at Lambeth quickly began retrieving his papers and securing his reputation, both in England and at Rome. Two in particular, the Italian Ludovico Beccadelli (Beccadelli 1797–1804) and the Hungarian Andras Dudic (Dudic 1563), decided to publish Pole’s works, something he had opposed during his lifetime, and also produced biographies of him that were intended to convince the world of his saintliness. The materials that they collected were used inManuzio 1562, as a preface to his edition of some of Pole’s works, including De concilio (Pole 1962, cited under Personal Writings: Tracts). Subsequent Catholic biographies have generally taken a respectful, or even hagiographic, approach, but Pole’s successor as Archbishop of Canterbury, Matthew Parker, with collaborators (Parker, et al. 1572), took a very different approach, attacking him for his rejection of Henry VIII in favor of the Pope. After that, two biographical traditions endured until the beginning of the 21st century. For Catholics, Beccadelli and Dudic continued to be the main inspiration, while Parker’s approach provided the guide for many English Protestants who wrote about Pole. The biography of all the Archbishops of Canterbury, Hook 1860–1876, took a similarly anti-Catholic line that was dismissive of Pole’s character and writings. Zimmermann 1893 was in some sense a pioneering attempt to adopt a positivist approach to Pole but failed to avoid the reverence that had been shown in the 16th century, while Hallé 1910 also tended in this direction, although the author’s research added to the available sources for the study of Pole. The author ofSchenk 1950 set out, despite the difficulty or impossibility of consulting archives directly during World War II, to produce a more rigorous account of Pole’s life, but his relatively short treatment did not fully develop this approach. Mayer 2000 has revitalized studies of Pole, particularly in his Italian context, while Edwards 2014, building on existing work, gives equal stress to the Cardinal’s English context.
Beccadelli, Ludovico. “Vita del cardinale Reginaldo Polo [1562].” In Monumenti di varia letteratura. 2 vols. Vol. 1. Part 2. Edited by B. Morandi, 277–333. Bologna, Italy: Istituto per le scienze, 1797–1804.
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Written with the explicit intention of demonstrating Pole’s sanctity, this biography, which was not published in print during the author’s lifetime, benefits from the author’s closeness to his subject and hence his access to source material.
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Dudic, Andras. Vita Reginaldi Poli. Venice: Domenico e Giovanni Battista Guerrei, 1563.
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Derived from Beccadelli and achieving immediate publication, as well as wider distribution since it was written in Latin, this biography adopts a respectful and positive approach to Pole, though its author afterwards became a Calvinist and turned against his former master.
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Edwards, John. Archbishop Pole. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2014.
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An account of Pole’s life that stresses his English aristocratic context as well as his life on the Continent, focusing particularly on his time as legate in England and Archbishop of Canterbury.
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Hallé, Marie [as Martin Haile]. Life of Reginald Pole. London: Pitman, 1910.
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A scholarly study, using previously undiscovered sources, but still very much in the style of earlier Catholic biographers.
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Hook, Walter Farquhar. Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. 12 vols. Vol. 3. London: Richard Bentley, 1860–1876.
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Adopting an anti-Catholic approach that reflected 19th-century conditions as much as those of Pole’s own day, this lengthy biography attempts to adopt a religious and “psychological” approach to its subject. The result is that Pole appears not to be “saintly,” but a traitor to his king and country. See pp. 1–446.
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Manuzio, Paolo, ed. Preface to De concilio; Eiusdem de baptismo Constantini Magni Imperatoris; Reformatio Angliae ex decretis eiusdem. Venice: Ziletus, 1562.
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A short biography, the first of Pole, that derives from the 1562 work of Beccadelli (see Beccadelli 1797–1804) along with Dudic 1563. Produced as part of what was intended to be a full edition of Pole’s works that was never produced, it was aimed at the rehabilitation of Pole in the eyes of the Council of Trent, then in its final period, and adopts a uniformly positive approach. (See alsoPersonal Writings.)
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Mayer, Thomas F. Reginald Pole: Prince and Prophet. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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As much a collection of chapter-length studies as a biography, it displays an immense amount of learning, particularly about Pole’s life in Italy. The book presents him as a somewhat indecisive character who worked throughout his life to fashion his self-image in a manner typical of his time.
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Parker, Matthew, John Joscelyn, and George Acworth. De antiquitate britannicae ecclesiae et privilegiis cantuarensis cum archiepiscopis eiusdem LXX. London: John Day, 1572.
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In this work of anti-Roman polemic, Parker and his coauthors used Dudic 1563 against Pole (see especially pp. 405–424), characterizing him as a traitor to his king and country, whose abilities and positive moral qualities had been distorted by his choice to accept a cardinal’s hat from Pope Paul III.
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Schenk, William [Wilhelm]. Reginald Pole: Cardinal of England. London: Longman, Green, 1950.
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In this posthumous publication, Schenk focuses, in the context of Pole’s life, on the dilemma of playfulness, in the Renaissance style, and Counter-Reformation seriousness of religious purpose. The book is still well worth reading, although it does not deliver all that it promises in its earlier pages.
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Zimmermann, Athanasius S. J. Kardinal Pole, sein Leben und seine Schriften: Ein Beitrag zur Kirchengeschichte des 16. Jahrhunderts. Regensburg, Germany: Friedrich Pustet, 1893.
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Perhaps the first modern biography of Pole, this well-documented study nevertheless slips easily into a reverent and uncritical approach, following the tradition of Beccadelli’s 1562 work (see Beccadelli 1797–1804) and Dudic 1563.
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Reference Works
There are a small number of articles about Pole in works of general reference. Cross and Livingstone 2005 offers a clear basic outline, while Mayer 2004 provides a fuller account.
Cross, F. L., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. “Pole, Reginald.” In The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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This article gives a brief outline of Pole’s life, praising his moral qualities and steadfastness of purpose, as well as providing a select bibliography up to the date of publication. Available online by subscription.
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Mayer, Thomas F. “Pole, Reginald (1500–1558).” In The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Edited by H. G. C. Matthew and Brian Harrison. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Thomas F. Mayer’s article, “Pole, Reginald,” provides a short, comprehensive, and reliable account of the Cardinal’s life and significance. Available online by subscription.
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Essay Collections
In recent years, Pole has come to be the focus of essay collections, either specifically devoted to him or in the context of religious developments in 16th-century England and the rest of Europe. Mayer 2000 is essential reading, being a collection of studies, most previously published elsewhere, which consider various important aspects of Pole’s life in its context. Pole’s contribution to the life of the English Church is discussed in Duffy and Loades 2006 and Doran and Freeman 2011. Tellechea Idígoras 1977 and Edwards and Truman 2005 offer sources and studies of Pole’s significant involvement with Spanish churchmen, both at the Council of Trent and during Mary’s reign in England (see also Catholic Reform in Italy and Restoration of Catholicism in England).
Doran, Susan, and Thomas S. Freeman, eds. Mary Tudor: Old and New Perspectives. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
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This useful collection contains some essays specifically on Mary and Pole’s religious policies.
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Duffy, Eamon, and David Loades, eds. The Church of Mary Tudor. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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Particularly in Part 2, this valuable collection of essays on Mary’s Church provides evidence and analysis of Pole’s activity in England during its reign, including the contentious question of his role in the repression of Protestant belief and practice, in part by inquisitorial burnings.
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Edwards, John, and Ronald Truman, eds. Reforming Catholicism in the England of Mary Tudor: The Achievement of Friar Bartolomè Carranza. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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These studies of one of Pole’s closest collaborators in England (1554–1557), the Spanish Dominican friar, later Archbishop of Toledo, Bartolomé Carranza, illuminate previously unknown or underestimated aspects of Pole’s life.
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Mayer, Thomas F. Cardinal Pole in European Perspective: A Via Media in the Reformation. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 2000.
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This collection of detailed studies, most of them previously published elsewhere, is essential to the study of Pole’s life in England and abroad, as scholar, servant of King Henry VIII, cardinal, papal legate, and Archbishop of Canterbury.
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Tellechea Idígoras, Josè Ignacio. Fray Bartolomè Carranza y el Cardenal Pole: Un navarro en la restauración católica de Inglaterra (1554–1558). Pamplona, Spain: Diputación Foral de Navarra, 1977.
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In Spanish, with source material in Latin, this collection of essays supported by transcribed primary documents, although it is primarily concerned with the life of Friar Bartolomé Carranza, contains precious information on the often-conflicted life of Pole and on his circle at Lambeth Palace.
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Theses
In recent decades, Pole has begun to attract the attention of doctoral students. This work was begun in Pogson 1972, which surveys Pole’s activity as papal legate in England under Mary I. Marmion 1974 focuses on the English Synod of 1555–1556 (see also Personal Writings), while Callahan 1995offers an edition and study of the Synod’s decrees (see also Personal Writings and Translations).
Callahan, T. E. “Reginald, Cardinal Pole’s Reformatio Angliae: A Critical Edition with Introduction and Commentary; A Thesis in History.” Masters thesis, State University College at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 1995.
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A focused discussion of the proceedings of Pole’s English Synod, which was greatly influenced by the first two periods of the Council of Trent (1545–1547, 1551–1552) and would itself guide in significant respects the final phase of that Council (1562–1563).
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Marmion, J. P. “The London Synod of Reginald, Cardinal Pole (1555–1556)”. MA thesis, University of Keele, 1974.
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A useful study of the 1555–1556 Synod (see also Personal Writings and Translations).
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Pogson, Rex H. “Cardinal Pole: Papal Legate in England in Mary Tudor’s Reign.” PhD diss., University of Cambridge, 1972.
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A thorough but somewhat negative account of Pole’s activity as legate and Archbishop under Mary (1555–1558). See also Essays, Chapters, and Articles.
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Essays, Chapters, and Articles
Apart from essay collections concerned with Cardinal Pole himself and related themes, there are a growing number of shorter studies of various associated subjects. Pogson 1975, a product in part ofPogson 1972 (cited under Theses), reflects the author’s rather negative assessment of Pole’s achievement as legate and Archbishop under Mary. More recently, there has been a new wave of studies, beginning with Mayer 2000 (cited under Essay Collections). Fenlon 2005b and Duffy 2006focus on Pole’s preaching while in England. This has become a controversial subject among historians, with some, from Pogson onwards, accusing him of lack of interest in this way of spreading the gospel. Fenlon 2005a deals with Pole’s involvement with the Roman Inquisition, which blighted his later career, while Overell 2009 focuses on his servant Michael Throckmorton, who acted as a messenger for him on various occasions. Overell 2012 provides insights into Pole’s Christian piety, while Petrina 2013 crystallizes his views on the moral qualities of Machiavelli’s Prince. Mayer 2007deals with St Thomas Becket, which was a cause of conflict between Pole and Henry VIII.
Duffy, Eamon. “Cardinal Pole Preaching: St Andrew’s Day 1557.” In The Church of Mary Tudor. Edited by Eamon Duffy and David Loades, 176–200. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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Analyzes Pole’s last St. Andrew’s Day sermon, delivered to Mary’s Court and the London authorities on the third, and last, commemoration of the reconciliation of Philip and Mary’s kingdom to the See of Rome, on 30 November 1554.
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Fenlon, Dermot. “Pietro Carnesecchi and Cardinal Pole: New Perspectives.” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 56 (2005a): 529–533.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022046905004367Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A perceptive study of Pole’s involvement with Catholic reform and the Roman Inquisition (see alsoCatholic Reform in Italy).
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Fenlon, Dermot. “Pole, Carranza and the Pulpit.” In Reforming Catholicism in the England of Mary Tudor: The Achievement of Friar Bartolomè Carranza. Edited by John Edwards and Ronald Truman, 81–97. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005b.
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A learned and elegant study of Pole’s attitude to preaching (see also Pogson 1975 and Duffy 2006) and his debates with his friend Bartolomé Carranza (see also Edwards and Truman 2005, cited under Essay Collections).
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Mayer Thomas F. “A Test of Wills: Pole, Ignatius Loyola and the Jesuits in England.” In The Reckoned Expense: Edmund Campion and the Early English Jesuits; Essays in Celebration of the First Centenary of Campion Hall. Edited by Thomas M. McCoog, 21–37. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Brewer, 1996.
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An important contribution to another matter of dispute among historians, Pole’s apparent reluctance to bring members of the Society of Jesus into England, during Mary’s reign.
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Mayer, Thomas F. “Becket’s Bones Burnt! Cardinal Pole and the Invention of an Atrocity.” InMartyrs and Martyrdom in England, c. 1400–1700. Edited by Thomas S. Freeman and Thomas F. Mayer, 126–143. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 2007.
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A study of the controversy over the destruction of the shrine of St. Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral, which helped to cause the rift between Pole and King Henry VIII.
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Overell, M. Anne. “Cardinal Pole’s Special Agent: Michael Throckmorton, c. 1503–1558.”History 94 (2009): 365–379.
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A lively study of the life and activity of Michael Throckmorton, who served Pole faithfully for many years, and on occasions acted as his secret envoy to England.
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Overell, M. Anne. “Pole’s Piety? The Devotional Reading of Reginald Pole and His Friends.”Journal of Ecclesiastical History 63 (2012): 458–474.
DOI: 10.1017/S0022046910001168Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
A careful examination of Pole’s devotional life, in his Italian household, which illustrates the combination of traditional and modern piety that characterized the transition from medieval Catholicism to what is commonly called the Tridentine Counter-Reformation.
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Petrina, Alessandra. “Reginald Pole and the Reception of the Principe in Henrician England.” In Machiavellian Encounters in Tudor and Stuart England: Literary and Political Influences from the Reformation to the Restoration. Edited by Alessandro Arienzo and Alessandra Petrina, 13–27. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2013.
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A scholarly and stimulating study of Pole’s stormy relationship with the work of the political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli, and in particular The Prince.
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Pogson, Rex H. “Reginald Pole and the Priorities of Government in Mary Tudor’s Church.”Historical Journal 18 (1975): 3–21.
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A rigorous, if not entirely sympathetic, analysis of Pole’s religious and administrative work as legate and Archbishop, between 1553 and 1558 (see also Theses, especially Pogson 1972).
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State Papers
As Pole was a significant international figure, being a legate on three occasions, both to England and as a supposed peacemaker between France and the Habsburgs, the various calendars of English State Papers are an important source of information on his activities, as well as the reactions to them of the successive Tudor governments. The latter are covered in Brewer 1862–1932,Knighton 1998, Lemon 1856, and Maxwell 1924–1929. The Spanish, imperial, and Venetian documents transcribed and summarized in British Government 1864–1898 and Brown 1864–1898, provide many insights into Pole’s career and its importance. Hughes and Larkin 1964–1969 contains royal proclamations relevant to Pole’s activities in England in 1554–1558, while Turnbull 1861 details sources related to England’s international relations in this period.
British Government. Calendar of Letters, Despatches and State Papers relating to the Negotiations between England and Spain. 20 vols. London: Longman, 1864–1898.
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Particularly valuable for an understanding of relations between the English monarchs, the Emperor Charles V, King Philip II of Spain, and Cardinal Pole.
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Brewer, J. S., James Gairdner, R. H. Brodie, et al., eds. Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign of Henry VIII. 21 vols. London: Her and His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1862–1932.
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An important source of information about the context of Pole’s relations with King Henry VIII, which were such an important part of his life.
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Brown, Rawdon, ed. Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts relating to English Affairs in the Archives and Collections of Venice. Edited by Rawdon Brown. Vols. 1–6. London: Longman, 1864–1898.
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Since Pole was so active and involved in Italy, this calendar of the Venetian archives is a rich source of information on his life, as well as European politics in general.
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Hughes, Paul L., and James Francis Larkin, eds. Tudor Royal Proclamations. 2 vols. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1964–1969.
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Contains Mary’s proclamation of 18 August 1553, on religion, which preceded Pole’s return to England.
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Knighton, Charles Stephen. ed. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series of the Reign of Mary I, 1553–1558, revised. London: Public Record Office, 1998.
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A useful source for the context of Pole’s relations with Mary and her government.
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Lemon, Robert, ed. Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, 1547–1580. London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longman and Roberts, 1856.
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The older edition of the domestic papers of the reigns of Edward VI and Mary, as well as the earlier part of Elizabeth’s reign, provides a background to Pole’s return to England in 1554 and his activity there.
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Maxwell, H. C., ed. Calendar of the Patent Rolls Preserved in the Public Record Office: Philip and Mary. London: His Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1924–1929.
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Some of the acts of Philip and Mary’s government, while Pole was legate and then also Archbishop of Canterbury, are included in this volume.
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Turnbull, William B., ed. Calendar of State Papers, Foreign Series, of the Reign of Mary, 1553–1558. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts, 1861.
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This calendar is another source for the vital international relations of Mary’s government during Pole’s final period in England.
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Administrative Documents
The main source for Pole’s administrative work as Archbishop of Canterbury is his Register (Pole’s Register), but also the decrees of the Synod of the English Church (1555–1556) are included in Bray 1998, while Frere and Kennedy 1900 contains material on the visitations that took place during his time as legate and Archbishop, between 1553 and 1558.
Bray, Gerald, ed. The Anglican Canons. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Church of England Record Society, 1998.
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Contains the canons of Pole’s synod of the English Church, 1555–1556 (pp. 69–137).
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Frere, Walter Howard, and W. M. Kennedy, eds. Visitation Articles and Injunctions of Periods of the Reformation. 3 vols. London: Longman, 1900.
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Contains the visitation articled for the Catholic reformation of the English Church, and other institutions, as issued by the English Synod of 1555–1556.
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Merkle, Sebastian, Stephan Eses, Gottfried Buschbell, et al., eds. Concilium Tridentinum. Vols. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8–12. Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany: Herder, 1901–1967.
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Includes the canons and decrees of the first period of the Council (1545–1547), over part of which Pole presided as one of three papal legates, as well as the equivalent documents of the second period (1551–1552), which Pole did not attend, though his subsequent work in England was influenced by all of them.
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Pole’s Register. Bibliothèque Municipale de Douai. MS 922.
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Pole’s archiepiscopal register, covering his occupation of the See of Canterbury from 22 March 1556 to 17 November 1558. An essential source for the wide range of work that was done by him, and in his name, in the administration of the Canterbury province of the English Church, and including the Church in Wales. Concilium Tridentinum contains the provisional canons and decrees that guided Pole during this final period in England (1554–1558). Copy in Lambeth Palace Library (Research Guide, 2.4.1).
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Contemporary Chronicles and Commentaries
Chronicles of the reign of Mary and Philip, Garnett 1892, Loades 2002, Nichols 1850, and Nichols 1851, offer limited coverage of his activities, since they concentrate on the period before his return to England, in November 1554. Foxe 1563 provides a considerable amount of source material, some of it otherwise lost, on the often-violent implementation of Pole’s policy against Protestantism, as well as texts of some of his speeches and addresses.
Foxe, John. Actes and Monuments of These Latter and Perilous Dayes (commonly known asFoxe’s Book of Martyrs). London: John Day, 1563.
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Foxe’s committed pro-Protestant account is an indispensable source of information and comment on the religious policies of Queen Mary and Pole. Other editions in 1570, 1576, 1583. Available onlinevia The Unabridged Acts and Monuments Online.
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Garnett, Richard, ed. and trans. The Accession of Queen Mary, Being the Contemporary Narrative of Antonio de Guaras, a Spanish Merchant Resident in London. London: Lawrence and Bullen, 1892.
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Guaras, a long-time member of London’s mercantile community, provides a vivid description of Mary’s early months as Queen, and thus gives a context for her correspondence with Pole, who was still on the Continent, about the restoration of Catholicism in her kingdom.
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Loades, David, ed. The Chronicles of the Tudor Queens. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 2002.
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Loades provides, with modern spelling, twenty-two extracts from a variety of sources covering the brief regime of Queen Jane, as well as Mary’s reign. It includes Mary’s first proclamation on religion (18 August 1553) as well as early statutes that set the guidelines for the religious policy that she and Pole would enforce.
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Nichols, J. G., ed. The Chronicle of Queen Jane and of the First Two Years of Queen Mary. Camden First (Old) Series, 47. London: Camden Society, 1850.
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This anonymous chronicle covers the period of Mary’s arrival on the throne, her marriage to Prince Philip of Spain, and Pole’s journey from Italy to England, in 1553–1554.
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Nichols, J. G., ed. Chronicle of the Greyfriars of London. Camden First (Old) Series, 48. London: Camden Society, 1851.
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Provides background information on Mary’s early months of rule, when she worked to establish her regime.
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Personal Writings
Although Pole wrote profusely, from his student days until his death, he was unwilling to publish his personal writings in print. Pole left a large quantity of manuscript writings, in Latin, Italian, and English, and it is only likely conjecture that refers to some of them as sermons, preached in England in 1554–1558, to the English Synod, to the Court, and on other special occasions. For a detailed analysis of these texts see Mayer 1999. Fortunately, Mayer 1999 offers a rigorous and scholarly account of what can be known of the complicated textual history of Pole’s known writings, and this is an indispensable aid to knowledge and understanding of his life and thought.
Mayer, Thomas F. “A Reluctant Author: Cardinal Pole and His Manuscripts.” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 89.2 (1999): iv–viii, 1–115.
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For convenience, Pole’s longer and more significant works are cited here in Mayer’s order, which does not necessarily correspond to their chronological order. Other minor works, of doubtful attribution, are also cited within.
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TRACTS
The crucial text for understanding Pole’s evolving thought on religion and politics is De unitate (Pole 1539), which was highly controversial, in England and on the Continent. Apologia ad Carolum Quintum (Pole 1744) was Pole’s attempt, in 1539, to explain to the Emperor Charles V why he had turned against Henry VIII of England. In Preface to De unitate (Pole 1752), probably written in 1552, Pole made a similar effort to explain his actions to King Henry’s son, Edward VI. The theme of self-justification is developed in Apologia ad Paulum IV (Pole 1966), in which he tried to explain and justify the breakdown of his relationship with that pope, who had once been his friend. In De sacramento (Pole 1854), Pole’s views on the Eucharist, or Mass, were expressed to his predecessor as Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, while the latter was in prison in 1555. In De concilio(Pole 1962), Pole outlined how the Council of Trent (1545–1563) should be conducted, while in De summo pontifice (Pole 1568) he described the papal office, as he understood it, shortly after he himself had failed to be elected as pope in 1549.
Pole, Reginald. De unitate, or Reginaldi Poli cardinalis Britanniae ad Henricum Octavum Britanniae regem pro ecclesiasticae unitatis defensione libri quattuor. Rome: Antonio Bledo, 1539.
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This important text (written c. 1536), which survives in several versions, ranges widely over questions of religion, history, and politics. It demonstrates Pole’s change of mind when he started, by the end of 1536 when Henry VIII had broken with Rome, to put loyalty to the Roman Church before the service to Henry, which had formerly been his main concern.
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Pole, Reginald. De summo pontifice (“De officio Romani pontificis et de eius electione”). Leuven, Belgium: J. Foulerum, 1568.
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The history of this text (written c. 1550–1553) is also complex and disputed (see Mayer 1999), but this exposition of Pole’s views on the history, nature, and authority of the papal office, which emphasized the simplicity required of popes and the need for them to collaborate with the other bishops, followed his failure, by a very narrow margin, to achieve election in 1549–1550 as the successor of Pope Paul III.
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Pole, Reginald. “Apologia ad Carolum Quintum, 1539.” In Epistolarum Reginaldi Poli S.R.E. Cardinalis et aliorum ad ipsum collectio. Vol. 1. Edited by Angelo Maria Querini, 66–171. Brescia, Italy: Rizzardi, 1744.
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Earlier, Pole had written this “apologia” (not his title) to justify the writing of De unitate to the Emperor Charles V, in the hope of enlisting his aid to remove the schismatical King of England from his throne.
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Pole, Reginald. “Preface to De unitate, Addressed to King Edward VI of England, c. 1552.” InEpistolarum Reginaldi Poli S.R.E. Cardinalis et aliorum ad ipsum collectio. Vol. 4. Edited by Angelo Maria Querini, 306–353. Brescia, Italy: Rizzardi, 1752.
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Pole used De unitate on subsequent occasions, and in this case added a new preface in what proved to be a vain attempt to gain the favor of King Henry’s son and successor.
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Pole, Reginald. “De sacramento, 1555.” In Strype’s Memorials of Archbishop Cranmer. 3 vols. Vol. 3. Edited by John Strype, 614–644. Oxford: James Wright, 1854.
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The history of this text is complicated and not wholly certain (see Mayer 1999, cited under Personal Writings), but it appears to have been addressed to Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, then imprisoned in Oxford before his burning for heresy (21 March 1556). It confronts Cranmer’s views on the Mass, or Eucharist, which diverged from the Catholic teaching of the time, which Pole accepted.
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Pole, Reginald. “De concilio.” In De concilio; Eiusdem de baptismo Constantini Magni Imperatoris; Reformatio Angliae ex decretis eiusdem. Farnborough, UK: Gregg, 1962.
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De concilio sets out Pole’s views on what should be done at Trent, where he presided, with two other papal legates, at the sessions of the Council held between December 1545 and March 1547. His ambitious agenda was largely followed.
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Pole, Reginald. “Apologia ad Paulum IV.” In Special Issue: Pole y Paolo IV: Una celebre apologia inédita del cardinal ingles. Edited by José Ignacio Tellechea Idígoras. Archivum Historiae Pontificiae 4 (1966): 133–154.
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In 1557, when Pole’s relations with Pope Paul IV (reigned 1555–1559) had seriously deteriorated, he appears to have composed this text, which justified his own conduct in England, defended his own religious orthodoxy, which was being questioned by the Roman Inquisition, and criticized this pope’s conduct in office. It appears never to have been read by Pope Paul (see Mayer 1999).
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CORRESPONDENCE
Pole, like many scholars and churchmen of his day, prized the expression of friendship through correspondence, as well as the use of letters to transact business. Only a certain proportion of Pole’s letters, and replies to them, still survive, but they are essential to achieving a good understanding of the man, in his social, religious, and political context. The first systematic attempt to collect Pole’s correspondence was Querini 1744–1757, while Gasquet 1927 focuses on his earlier years in Italy, and Lutz 1981 includes correspondence from his time as papal legate to the French and imperial courts (1553–1556). Mayer 2000–2008 is a unique achievement in calendaring, with extracts of texts and some complete items, all the known correspondence to and from Pole between 1518 and his death in November 1558. This work is indispensable to any serious study of the Cardinal.
Gasquet, Aidan. Cardinal Pole and His Early Friends. London: George Bell, 1927.
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Gasquet provides a useful collection of complete letters between Pole and his friends, which date from the relevant entries in Mayer 2000–2008.
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Lutz, Heinrich, ed. Friedenslegation des Reginald Pole zu Kaiser Karl V und König Heinrich II (1553–1556): Nuntiatur-berichte aus Deutschland nebst ergänzenden Aktenstücke; erste Abteilung. Tübingen, Germany: Niemeyer, 1981.
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A careful edition of the full texts of Pole’s correspondence in the vital period of his negotiations for his return to England. It may be used with Mayer 2000–2008.
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Mayer, Thomas F., ed. The Correspondence of Reginald Pole: A Calendar, 1518–1558. 4 vols. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2000–2008.
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The essential companion to any study of Cardinal Pole, and a monumental achievement, though the abbreviated summaries of documents are sometimes uncomfortable to use.
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Querini, Angelo Maria, ed. Epistolarum Reginaldi Poli S.R.E. Cardinalis et aliorum ad ipsum collectio. 5 vols. Brescia, Italy: Rizzardi, 1744–1757.
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Cardinal Querini offers a useful collection of Pole’s letters, from Italian archives, providing full texts that supplement Mayer 2000–2008.
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Translations
Much of Pole’s writing has to be read in the original Latin or Italian, but exceptions are Dwyer 1965, which provides an English version of De unitate. See also Administrative Documents, especiallyBray 1998.
Dwyer, Joseph D., ed. and trans. Pole’s Defense of the Unity of the Church. Westminster, MD: Newman, 1965.
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A good translation, with notes and a short introduction, of what is perhaps Pole’s most important work.
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Catholic Reform in Italy
Although the official form of Catholic belief and practice was defined, for several centuries, by the Council of Trent (1545–1563), its canons and decrees were produced in an atmosphere of lively and sometimes bitter debate. Some Catholics, including Pole and some of his circle of friends, were more than sympathetic to some of the theological views of Martin Luther and other Reformers. The religious complexities of the period, particularly in Italy, are surveyed in Ginzburg and Prosperi 1974and Gleason 1981. Olin 1992 makes a survey of Italian Reform, before and during Pole’s lifetime, with a useful collection of translated sources. Overell 2008 examines the impact of Italian religious reform on both Catholics and Protestants in England. The literature on Pole and his circle is expanding. Simoncelli 1977 considers Pole’s religious beliefs in the context of the Roman Inquisition (revived in 1542). Firpo 1992 discusses Pole’s friend Cardinal Giovanni Morone, who was tried by the Inquisition, while Gleason 1993 provides an account of another of Pole’s close friends, Cardinal Gasparo Contarini. McNair 1987 discusses Benedetto da Mantova’s Beneficio di Cristo, which influenced Pole and his friends in the 1540s. Mayer 2000: IX (see also Essay Collections) provides invaluable information on Pole and his friends during his time in Padua.
Firpo, Massimo. Inquisizione romana a Contrareforma: Studi sul Cardinale Giovanni Morone e il suo processo d’eresia. Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino, 1992.
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An important and scholarly study of the Inquisition trial of Giovanni Morone, one of Pole’s closest confidants, whose supposed guilt helped to compromise the English Cardinal too.
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Ginzburg, Carlo, and Adriano Prosperi. Eresia e Riforma nell’Italia del Cinquecento. Florence and Chicago: Sansoni and the Newberry Library, 1974.
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An invaluable survey of religious controversy in 16th-century Italy.
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Gleason, Elizabeth G. Reform Thought in Sixteenth-Century Italy. Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1981.
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An essential general survey of the reforming ideas in Italian Catholicism that helped to shape Pole’s own religious thinking.
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Gleason, Elizabeth G. Gasparo Contarini: Venice, Rome and Reform. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993.
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A useful biography of the Venetian layman, and then Cardinal, Gasparo Contarini, who was a close associate of Pole until the former’s death in 1542.
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Mayer, Thomas F. “Marco Mantova and the Paduan Religious Crisis of the Early Sixteenth Century.” In Cardinal Pole in European Perspective: A Via Media in the Reformation. By Thomas F. Mayer, 41–61. Aldershot, UK: Variorum, 2000.
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Provides useful information on the background to Pole’s life in Padua in the 1520s and 1530s, which deeply influenced his later career.
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McNair, Philip. “Benedetto da Mantova, Marcantonio Flaminio, and the Beneficio di Cristo: A Developing Twentieth-Century Debate Reviewed.” Modern Language Review 82 (1987): 614–624.
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A valuable discussion of the authorship and influence of an important text that affected both Catholics and Protestants in the mid-16th century, but was lost until the 19th century, as a result of the work of the Inquisition.
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Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola. New York: Fordham University Press, 1992.
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A valuable documented survey of Reform, including both those who were declared heretical by the Church and those who were not.
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Overell, M. Anne. Italian Reform and English Reformation, c. 1535–1585. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
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A perceptive study of the impact of the ideas of Italian “evangelical” reform on English religious developments in the same period.
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Simoncelli, Paolo. Il caso Reginald Pole: Eresia e santità nelle polemiche religiose del conquecento. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1977.
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A useful analysis of Pole’s religious beliefs in the context of the disputes of the 16th century.
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Simoncelli, Paolo. Evangelismo italiano del cinquecento: Questione religiose e nicodemismo politico. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura, 1979.
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A study of the Italian Catholic reform, sometimes known to historians as “evangelism” or “evangelicalism.” It particularly focuses on the concept known at the time as “nicodemism,” meaning the concealment of one’s true religious beliefs.
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Restoration of Catholicism in England
General consideration of the attempted restoration of Catholicism in England under Mary I, and Pole’s part in it, has developed only recently. Loades 1991 began the process, and the author developed his views fully in Loades 2010. Wizeman 2006 and the posthumously published Wizeman 2011 concentrate primarily on the Catholic theological writing, preaching, and polemic that supported Mary and Pole’s religious policies. Parish 2000 and Parish 2010 focus on the issue of clerical celibacy, which was controversial in Mary’s reign when Catholic discipline was reimposed on many clergy in England and Wales, who had married legally under Edward VI (1547–1553). Freeman 2011offers a concise survey of the repression of Protestantism under Mary. A tract in Spanish by Pole’s friend Bartolomé Carranza, on the experience of attending Mass, is analyzed, translated, and edited in Edwards 2007, while Edwards 2012 discusses Carranza’s plans for a reformed Catholic Church in England, as outlined in his 1558 Catechism. (See also General Overviews, Biographies, andPersonal Writings.)
Duffy, Eamon. Fires of Faith: Catholic England under Mary Tudor. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 2009.
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The argument of this stimulating set of studies, based on lectures, is that the restoration of Catholicism by Pole and Queen Mary was heading for success, had they not both died on 17 November 1558. There is useful discussion of Pole’s preaching and his role in the mechanics of the arrest and trial of suspected Protestants.
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Edwards, John. “Experiencing the Mass Anew in Mary Tudor’s England: Bartolomé Carranza’s ‘Little Treatise.’” Reformation and Renaissance Review 9 (2007): 265–276.
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A discussion of the restoration of Catholic worship under Mary, from the worshipper’s point of view, based on a sermon preached by Bartolomé Carranza in the Chapel Royal at Whitehall in 1555.
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Edwards, John. “Fray Bartolomé Carranza’s Blueprint for a Reformed Catholic Church in England.” In Reforming Reformation. Edited by Thomas F. Mayer, 141–160. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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An analysis of the plans of Pole’s friend Bartolomé Carranza for the reformed Catholic Church that might have developed had Pole and Mary lived. The discussion is based on Carranza’sCommentaries on the Catechisms, which was commissioned by the English Synod of 1555–1556.
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Freeman, Thomas S. “Burning Zeal: Mary Tudor and the Marian Persecution.” In Mary Tudor: Old and New Perspectives. Edited by Susan Doran and Thomas S. Freeman, 171–205. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
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An incisive survey and discussion of the repression of Protestantism under Mary, discussing the degree of responsibility of the Queen and others, including Pole, for what happened.
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Loades, David. “The Piety of the Catholic Restoration in England.” In Politics, Censorship and the English Reformation. Edited by David Loades, 200–212. New York: Pinter, 1991.
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A not wholly sympathetic discussion of the important subject of the nature of Catholic religion under Mary and Pole.
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Loades, David. The Religious Culture of Marian England. London: Pickering and Chatto, 2010.
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Here a distinguished Tudor historian brings together his ideas on the Catholic restoration in Mary’s reign, generally favoring the Reformed point of view.
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Parish, Helen. Clerical Marriage and the English Reformation: Precedent, Policy and Practice. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2000.
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A detailed and useful account of the dispute over clerical celibacy during Mary I’s reign, when Pole enforced the traditional discipline amidst controversy and resistance.
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Parish, Helen. Clerical Celibacy in the West, c. 1100–1700. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010.
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A careful and informative study, providing the background to the controversy over clerical celibacy under Mary I.
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Wizeman, William S. J. The Theology and Spirituality of Mary Tudor’s Church. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2006.
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A meticulous and sympathetic study of English Catholic writers of the Marian period, including much detail and many perceptive comments on the inner life of Pole’s collaborators in the effort to instill into English people a Catholicism that combined old and new trends; Pole’s circle was also fully involved with contemporary developments on the Continent.
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Wizeman, William S. J. “The Religious Policy of Mary I.” In Mary Tudor: Old and New Perspectives. Edited by Susan Doran and Thomas S. Freeman, 153–170. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
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A distillation, published posthumously, of Wizemen’s scholarship and ideas on the nature of Catholic devotion and teaching in Mary’s reign, and its close links with movements in the Catholic Church on the Continent.
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