API tools faq
paste
jonstond2

Ancient Chinese Religion (Chinese Studies)

jonstond2
Jun 11th, 2018
323
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 50.38 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. Religion is a form of activity and mental attitude that helps humans deal with real or imagined extrahuman forces that influence human life. In ancient China from the Neolithic to the beginning of the Han Empire, such activities and attitudes left their traces in various forms: archaeological remains, artifacts, and texts. There is, however, no single “ancient Chinese religion,” but a number of different forms of religious activities and beliefs. Prehistoric ritual altars, cult statues, and burials point to ritual activities and expressions of belief in life after death. Into the historical period, heavenly bodies, natural phenomena, mountains and rivers, and deceased ancestors all are considered as having the power to influence human life. Rituals were developed to propitiate these powers, and relationships between human beings and the powers were articulated through various texts. When states were formed, rulers and elites dominated the worship of heavenly bodies, the earth, mountains, and rivers. At the local or private level, people engaged in various activities that deal with numerous spirits and ghosts, including their ancestors. Their concerns were geared toward issues of daily life, with the objective of gaining personal or family welfare. These activities, whether divination, exorcism, offering, prayer, or witchcraft, all operate under the assumption that it was possible for humans not only to communicate but also to influence the will of those extrahuman forces, be they called gods, ghosts, or demons. It is also important to notice that one should not automatically assume that there was a correspondence between religious beliefs and morality. Ancient political thinkers indeed developed certain ideas of correlation between human behavior and divine sanction; thus, the mandate of heaven became known as a sort of divine sanction toward those rulers who acted in accordance to universal justice. This idea would become a most enduring explanation for the vicissitudes of dynastic changes. Yet, besides this political theology, there was little in the various belief systems that connected personal morality with religious activities. What mattered was how to perform correct rituals, not to nurture personal virtue. Confucianism may be singled out as representing a belief system built on moral rectitude; yet, being an elite philosophy, Confucianism could hardly represent the large and complicated social reality of the Eastern Zhou period (770–221 BC). Thus, a distinct character of ancient Chinese religions was the general lack of the idea that the divine powers or spirits were the guardians of human moral behavior.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6. As a fast-growing and changing field of study due to recent archaeological discoveries, our understanding of ancient Chinese religions has come a long way since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the authors of Western works such as de Groot 1972 (originally published in 1897), Doré 1911–1938, and Granet 1975 (originally published in French in 1922) based their observations only on traditional texts and comparison with limited field studies. Now we have several useful introductory works that provide us with a fairly comprehensive picture of what the issues are and where future research possibilities lie. A useful review of the state of the field is Overmyer, et al. 1995. Lagerwey and Kalinowski 2009 is the most recent collection of essays that deal with various aspects of ancient Chinese religious beliefs, such as state cult, divination, ritual, burial practice, mantic practice, ancestor worship, shamanism, etc. These essays are supported by a copious up-to-date bibliography. Poo 1998 is a monographic account of the development of religion from the Neolithic period to the Han dynasty. The special feature of this work is its consistent attention to uncovering popular religion. Nadeau 2012, a handbook for the study of Chinese religions in general, is useful because many topics are related to the ancient periods. Shaughnessy 2007 gives a philologically oriented introduction to the religious phenomena of ancient China.
  7.  
  8. de Groot, Jan Jakob Maria. The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1972.
  9.  
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11.  
  12. Although outdated, this work can still be useful. The author quotes copiously from the traditional Chinese texts, with translations, and compares these texts with modern (late 19th century) Chinese religious customs. The book covers subjects such as funeral customs, burial, ancestor worship, and belief in ghosts, demons, specters, magic, and exorcism. Originally published in 1897.
  13.  
  14. Find this resource:
  15.  
  16. Doré, Henri. Recherches sur les superstitions en Chine. Variétés sinologiques. Shanghai: Imprimerie de la Mission Catholique, 1911–1938.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. As the title indicates, the author did not think that Chinese religious beliefs are anything other than superstition. The work mixes early sources with later ones, pays attention to talismans and popular deities, but gives separate treatment of Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24. Granet, Marcel. The Religion of the Chinese People. Translated, edited, and introduced by Maurice Freedman. Explorations in Interpretive Sociology. Oxford: Blackwell, 1975.
  25.  
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27.  
  28. Translation of La religion des Chinois (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1922). A very influential work that employs Durkheimian social theory in interpreting ancient Chinese religious life.
  29.  
  30. Find this resource:
  31.  
  32. Lagerwey, John, and Marc Kalinowski, eds. Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  33.  
  34. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35.  
  36. A conference volume aimed at exploring major religious phenomena of early China, by experts in the field. Touches on almost all aspects of early Chinese religion. Copious bibliography on Chinese, Japanese, and Western works proves to be very useful.
  37.  
  38. Find this resource:
  39.  
  40. Nadeau, Randall Laird, ed. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. Wiley-Blackwell Companions to Religion. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
  41.  
  42. DOI: 10.1002/9781444361995Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43.  
  44. A handbook that gives concise, topical treatment of Chinese religion, including its historical development and different religious traditions, as well as some critical terms such as sacred text, ritual, divinity, divination, gender, asceticism, etc.
  45.  
  46. Find this resource:
  47.  
  48. Overmyer, Daniel L., David N. Keightley, Edward L. Shaughnessy, Constance A. Cook, and Donald Harper. “Special Section: Chinese Religions—the State of the Field, Part I: Early Religious Traditions; The Neolithic Period through the Han Dynasty (ca. 4000 B.C.E. to 220 C.E.).” Journal of Asian Studies 54.1 (1995): 124–160.
  49.  
  50. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51.  
  52. Written by a number of experts in the field, on the religious beliefs of early China, from an introduction by Overmyer (pp. 124–128) to papers on the “Neolithic and Shang Periods” (by Keightley, pp. 128–145) the “Western Chou Period” (by Shaughnessy, pp. 145–148), the “Spring and Autumn Period” (by Cook, pp. 148–152) and the “Warring States, Ch’in, and Han Periods” (by Harper, pp. 152–160). Includes discussions of deities, mythology, and common religion, with useful bibliographies attached to each section. Articles available online for purchase or by subscription.
  53.  
  54. Find this resource:
  55.  
  56. Poo, Mu-chou. In Search of Personal Welfare: A View of Ancient Chinese Religion. SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998.
  57.  
  58. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59.  
  60. This work discusses the development of religion from the Neolithic period to the end of the Han dynasty. Its special emphasis is on the development of popular religion since the Spring and Autumn period, by using newly excavated texts such as the “Daybook.”
  61.  
  62. Find this resource:
  63.  
  64. Shaughnessy, Edward L. “The Religion of Ancient China.” In A Handbook of Ancient Religions. Edited by John R. Hinnells, 490–536. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  65.  
  66. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511488429Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67.  
  68. A short, highly personal, but in-depth introduction to the religious phenomena of ancient China. Particular emphases are on explaining the Five Processes (Five Phases or Wuxing), correlative thought, ancestor cult, and divination by tortoise shells.
  69.  
  70. Find this resource:
  71.  
  72. Guides to Sources and Bibliography
  73. Basic sources for the study of ancient Chinese religions can be divided into textual and archaeological. Textual sources consist of (1) traditional texts, including the Confucian classics and pre-Qin philosophers, all discussed and summarized in Loewe 1993, and (2) newly excavated texts, summarized in Shaughnessy 1997. For translation of texts into English, see Sommer 1995. Archaeological discoveries related to the study of religion are numerous and scattered; Chang 1986 could be used as a guide to the use of archaeological sources in studying pre-Qin religion. For a bibliographical guide, Thompson 1985 is an indispensable tool. For Chinese and Japanese readers, Chūgoku shisō shūkyōshi kenkyūkai 1976 is a starting point. A more extensive bibliography that includes Chinese, Japanese, and Korean works can be found in Tōyōgaku bunken ruimoku (Bibliography of Oriental Studies on the Web), which is now freely accessible on the Internet. A special and useful bibliography on mythology is Riftin 2007.
  74.  
  75. Chang, Kwang-chih. The Archaeology of Ancient China. 4th ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1986.
  76.  
  77. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  78.  
  79. Because many of the archaeological findings are in the context of religious activities, this book is so far the only authoritative single work on the archaeology of ancient Chinese religion. Originally published in 1963.
  80.  
  81. Find this resource:
  82.  
  83. Chūgoku shisō shūkyōshi kenkyūkai 中國思想宗敎史硏究會, ed. Chūgoku shisō shūkyō bunka kankei ronbun mokuroku (中國思想．宗敎．文化關係論文目錄). Tokyo: Kokusho kankōkai, 1976.
  84.  
  85. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  86.  
  87. A useful bibliography for Japanese and Chinese works on Chinese religions.
  88.  
  89. Find this resource:
  90.  
  91. Loewe, Michael, ed. Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Early China Special Monograph 2. Berkeley, CA: Society for the Study of Early China, 1993.
  92.  
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94.  
  95. A basic reference for using early Chinese texts passed down through history. Including all pre-Qin classical texts, Confucian canons, and philosophical works.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99. Riftin, Boris Lʻvovich. A Bibliography of Foreign-Language Studies of the Mythology of All the Nations of China (1839–1990): Including Those beyond China’s Borders. Beijing: Beijing Library Publishing House, 2007.
  100.  
  101. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  102.  
  103. A useful bibliography for the study of Chinese mythology by non-Chinese scholars. Works in fifteen languages are included: Russian, Bulgarian, Polish, Turkish, etc. Provides a useful introduction to the scholarship on Chinese mythology.
  104.  
  105. Find this resource:
  106.  
  107. Shaughnessy, Edward L., ed. New Sources of Early Chinese History: An Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts. Early China Special Monograph 3. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1997.
  108.  
  109. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  110.  
  111. A collection of essays about various kinds of archaeologically excavated inscriptions and manuscripts of the pre-Qin and Han periods (e.g., oracle bone inscriptions, bronze inscriptions, administrative and legal documents, and occult and natural philosophy texts on wood and bamboo, etc.).
  112.  
  113. Find this resource:
  114.  
  115. Sommer, Deborah, ed. Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  116.  
  117. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  118.  
  119. A convenient textbook for class reading. Contains material for the pre-Qin period.
  120.  
  121. Find this resource:
  122.  
  123. Thompson, Laurence G. Chinese Religion in Western Languages: A Comprehensive and Classified Bibliography of Publications in English, French, and German. Vol. 1, Through 1980. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985.
  124.  
  125. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  126.  
  127. This is an indispensable tool for the study of Chinese religions in general. The titles are classified into different subjects and thus are easy to use. It was followed by three more volumes, published in 1993 (Vol. 2, 1981 through 1990), 1998 (Vol. 3, 1991–1995), and 2002 (Vol. 4, 1996–2000).
  128.  
  129. Find this resource:
  130.  
  131. Tōyōgaku bunken ruimoku (東洋学文献類目).
  132.  
  133. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  134.  
  135. English translation: Bibliography of Oriental Studies on the Web. An extensive online bibliography of Japanese, Korean, and Chinese works on Chinese studies in general, with sections on Chinese religions and ancient Chinese religions. The freely searchable database coverage starts from 1981, and both Kanji and traditional Chinese characters can be used in search queries.
  136.  
  137. Find this resource:
  138.  
  139. Myths
  140. Unlike ancient Mesopotamia and Greece, myths in ancient China are preserved only in fragmented form, in various ancient texts such as Book of Poetry (Shijing), Book of History (Shujing), Song of the South (Chuci), or Classic of Mountains and Seas (Shanhaijing). While Greek myths are fairly extensive accounts about the deeds of heroes and deities, Chinese myths often lack a long and coherent story line. The Greek myths often deal with relationships between the deities and thus are intimately related to Greek religion, whereas the Chinese myths are often origin stories that explain some natural or cultural phenomenon. Except for a few mythical beings, such as the Queen Mother of the West, who was later incorporated into the Daoist religion, these ancient myths were not part of the belief systems from the Shang-Zhou period onward. The subject of Chinese mythology has been studied by modern scholars since the 20th century, including Chinese scholars such as Wen Yiduo (Wen 1956), French scholars such as Henri Maspero (Maspero 1924), Swedish scholar Bernhard Karlgren (Karlgren 1946), and Japanese scholars such as Shirakawa Shizuka (Shirakawa 2003, originally published in 1975). These authors have laid the foundation of textual study of Chinese mythology. More-recent scholarship employs more-interdisciplinary methods that bring in anthropological, social, and psychological perspectives, such as in Allan 1991 and Lewis 2009. Handbooks such as Birrell 1993 are also available, as are collections of primary sources such as Yuan 1985.
  141.  
  142. Allan, Sarah. The Shape of the Turtle: Myth, Art, and Cosmos in Early China. SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1991.
  143.  
  144. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  145.  
  146. An in-depth study of the early myths of the ten suns and other myths related to the foundation of the Xia and Shang dynasties.
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150. Birrell, Anne. Chinese Mythology: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
  151.  
  152. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  153.  
  154. A good introduction to Chinese mythology. The author gives a theoretical consideration for the study of myth, discusses different approaches, suggests new directions to study, and provides an exhaustive entry-by-entry account of mythological themes and stories.
  155.  
  156. Find this resource:
  157.  
  158. Karlgren, Bernhard. “Legends and Cults in Ancient China.” Bulletin of the Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities 18 (1946): 199–365.
  159.  
  160. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  161.  
  162. A meticulous study of ancient Chinese sources of mythology; as a philologist, the author emphasizes the importance of dating the sources carefully before engaging in any serious study.
  163.  
  164. Find this resource:
  165.  
  166. Lewis, Mark Edward. “The Mythology of Early China.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 543–594. Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 4, China. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  167.  
  168. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  169.  
  170. Gives an overview of the study of myth in modern China, and a useful discussion of the definition of “myth,” introducing the debate and controversy of the definition of myth in Western scholarship. Particular interesting is an operational definition of myth: who told them, on what occasion, and why?
  171.  
  172. Find this resource:
  173.  
  174. Maspero, Henri. Légendes mythologiques dans le Chou king. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1924.
  175.  
  176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  177.  
  178. A pioneering study of ancient Chinese myths, by one of the most erudite French Sinologists. Copious citing of various sources.
  179.  
  180. Find this resource:
  181.  
  182. Shirakawa Shizuka 白川靜. Chūgoku no shinwa (中囯の神話). Chūkō bunko B20-6. Tokyo: Chūō Kōron shinsha, 2003.
  183.  
  184. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  185.  
  186. Originally published in 1975. An introduction to ancient Chinese myths, discussing methodology, creation myths, myths of the different regions, myths related to ancient rulers, etc., by an authority on early China.
  187.  
  188. Find this resource:
  189.  
  190. Wen Yiduo 聞一多. Shenhua yu shi (神話與詩). Wen Yiduo quanji xuankan 1. Beijing: Guji chubanshe, 1956.
  191.  
  192. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  193.  
  194. A collection of essays; among these, the first few deal with early myths such as Fuxi and Nuwa, and the origin of the Shang. These are important pioneering studies that more-recent scholarship still depends on. Republished as recently as 2010 (Changsha, China: Hunan renmin chubanshe).
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198. Yuan Ke 袁珂, and Zhou Ming 周明, eds. Zhongguo shenhua ziliao cuibian (中國神話資料萃編). Chengdu, China: Sichuan shehui kexue yuan chubanshe, 1985.
  199.  
  200. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  201.  
  202. For readers of Chinese, this is a comprehensive collection of Chinese myths culled from a wide range of sources. Indispensable for researchers.
  203.  
  204. Find this resource:
  205.  
  206. State and Religion
  207. As the Zuozhuan states, the most-important affairs of the state are ritual and war. War is the means by which to rule out opposition and enemies and to keep the people under control, while ritual is the means to obtain legitimacy of rulership. The formation of the state is inseparable from the establishment of state religion; that is, a set of ritual paraphernalia that is the exclusive privilege of the rulers. Chen 1988 is a comprehensive treatment of oracle bone inscriptions related to Shang religion. Akatsuka 1990 is a comprehensive discussion, though in the form of a collection of essays, of the Shang state and its religion; Chang 1983 gives an archaeological perspective of the relationship between the rise of political power and activities of art production and ritual performance. Keightley 1978 is a seminal work that discusses the relationship between Shang religion and the state. Yu 2005 gives a succinct discussion of the relationship between ancestor worship and the formation of state religion. As Eno 2009 shows, the Shang rulers performed rituals to all the known deities and ancestors of the time, thus ensuring that their rule was sanctioned by the deities. As Bilsky 1975 indicates, from the Zhou period onward, more-elaborate and organized rituals and government offices were formed, and the god of heaven, or Tian, was elevated to a supreme position. The invention of the idea of the Mandate of Heaven allowed the state to claim legitimacy of rule. It was also during the Shang and Zhou periods that the Earth became an integral part of state religion; see Kominami 2009. Various seasonal rituals or religious festivals were also formalized into a state-regulated system by this time.
  208.  
  209. Akatsuka Kiyoshi 赤塚忠. Chūgoku kodai no shūkyō to bunka: In Ōchō no saishi (中国古代の宗教と文化: 殷王朝の祭祀). Tokyo: Kenbunsha, 1990.
  210.  
  211. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  212.  
  213. A collection of essays about many aspects of the Shang state and its religious activities. Originally published in 1977 (Tokyo: Kadokawa shoten).
  214.  
  215. Find this resource:
  216.  
  217. Bilsky, Lester James. The State Religion of Ancient China. 2 vols. Asian Folklore and Social Life Monographs 70–71. Taipei: Chinese Association for Folklore, 1975.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. A study of the state cults, from Western Zhou to Han. Gives an overview of the transition from the Zhou royal cult to the autonomous feudal states, when the lords could make sacrifice to the heavens, and the eventual loss of religiosity in the theory and practice of government.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225. Chang, Kwang-chih. Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.
  226.  
  227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  228.  
  229. A short but inspiring collection of essays discussing the relationship between early Chinese art and ritual activities and the establishment of political authority; thus, important to the understanding of the relationship between early state and religion.
  230.  
  231. Find this resource:
  232.  
  233. Chen Mengjia 陳夢家. Yinxu puci zongshu (殷墟卜辭綜述). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1988.
  234.  
  235. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  236.  
  237. This is a foundational work for the study of Shang civilization, on the basis of oracle bone inscriptions. Including a section on Shang state religion, still useful.
  238.  
  239. Find this resource:
  240.  
  241. Eno, Robert. “Shang State Religion and the Pantheon of the Oracle Texts.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 41–102. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  242.  
  243. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  244.  
  245. Provides an up-to-date survey of Shang state religion, on the basis of oracle bone inscriptions, but cautions that when interpreting Shang evidence one should not inject cultural features typical of later times into the picture.
  246.  
  247. Find this resource:
  248.  
  249. Keightley, David N. “The Religious Commitment: Shang Theology and the Genesis of Chinese Political Culture.” In Special Issue: Current Perspectives in the Study of Chinese Religions. History of Religions 17.3–4 (1978): 211–225.
  250.  
  251. DOI: 10.1086/462791Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  252.  
  253. The author holds that Shang religion was inextricably involved in the genesis and legitimation of the Shang state. Of interest is his discussion of the bureaucratic logic of Shang religion, which suggests a relationship between Shang religious belief and the genesis of the bureaucratic state. Available online by subscription.
  254.  
  255. Find this resource:
  256.  
  257. Kominami Ichirô. “Rituals for the Earth.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 201–234. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  258.  
  259. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260.  
  261. Discusses rituals of the “earth”-she, from the court to the local society, and the myth about the clod of earth that grows spontaneously.
  262.  
  263. Find this resource:
  264.  
  265. Yu, Anthony C. State and Religion in China: Historical and Textual Perspectives. Chicago: Open Court, 2005.
  266.  
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. Gives an insightful discussion of some fundamental conceptions in the study of Chinese religion, such as the meaning of ancestor worship and its relationship with the concept of state religion. As the title of the book shows, the Chinese state has from the beginning been intimately involved with religious matters.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273. Confucianism and Religion
  274. Whether Confucianism could be considered as a form of religion has never been resolved. When the Jesuits came to China in the late Ming dynasty, they already encountered the problem of interpreting Confucianism as a form of religion. Modern scholars since the 20th century have produced volumes of studies and have enriched the understanding of the message of Confucius, without reaching consensus. The author of Weber 1951 does not doubt that Confucianism is a form of religion, although he sees Confucianism mainly from a sociopolitical angle. Tu 1993 confirms that Confucianism could be seen a form of religion on par with all other major religions in the world, while Fingarette 1998 tries to argue that from a philosophical point of view the secular could be elevated into a sacred status. Taylor 1990 agrees that there are certain aspects of Confucianism that could qualify it as a form of religion. But Eno 1990 is of the opinion that Confucianism is primarily a philosophy. It may be said that while Confucius himself lived in a cultural environment that was permeated with religious activities, and he was no doubt part of that culture, what he taught was mostly secular values for creating a harmonious society. The later development of his teaching into the realm with religious dimension (Taylor 1990, Yao 2000) was not his original intention. For those who need to have reliable texts to study, Legge 1983 (originally published as early as 1861–1872), although outdated, is still a convenient choice for beginners, for its inclusion of Chinese originals.
  275.  
  276. Eno, Robert. The Confucian Creation of Heaven: Philosophy and the Defense of Ritual Mastery. SUNY Series in Chinese Philosophy and Culture. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.
  277.  
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279.  
  280. Discusses the origin of Confucianism (or Ruism) and how Ruism re-created or reconfirmed the concept of Heaven as a moral and ethical force, and how it evolved in the philosophy of Mencius and Xunzi.
  281.  
  282. Find this resource:
  283.  
  284. Fingarette, Herbert. Confucius: The Secular as Sacred. Religious Traditions of the World. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1998.
  285.  
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287.  
  288. A short but insightful study of Confucius as a philosopher. According to Fingarette’s interpretation, human beings, although not sacred themselves, could try to live up to the highest moral goodness, as defined by the need of a harmonious society. In that way, when a person serves society he or she becomes holy. Originally published in 1972 (New York: Harper & Row).
  289.  
  290. Find this resource:
  291.  
  292. Legge, James. The Chinese Classics. 5 vols. Taipei: Southern Materials Center, 1983.
  293.  
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. A dated but convenient translation of the major texts of Confucianism. Good for beginning students because the original Chinese texts are included. Originally published as early as 1861–1872 (London: H. Frowde).
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300. Taylor, Rodney Leon. The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism. SUNY Series in Religion. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.
  301.  
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303.  
  304. The author talks about the religious dimensions of Confucianism, in subjects such as the scripture, the saint, meditation, theodicy, etc. Although dealing mostly with neo-Confucianism, the author’s main message is clear: if we can understand the sage as the saint, then Confucianism could be regarded as a religion.
  305.  
  306. Find this resource:
  307.  
  308. Tu Wei-ming. “Confucianism.” In Our Religions. Edited by Arvind Sharma, 139–228. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993.
  309.  
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311.  
  312. A succinct introduction to Confucianism in all its aspects. Regarding the issue of Confucianism as a form of religion, Tu mentions the “sacred in the secular” and “transcendence in Immanence” as ways to understand Confucian spirituality.
  313.  
  314. Find this resource:
  315.  
  316. Weber, Max. The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism. Translated and edited by Hans H. Gerth. Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1951.
  317.  
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319.  
  320. An important book that influenced modern Western studies on China in many ways. Much of Weber’s theories need to be revised, yet the book is still indispensable for the understanding of modern scholarship on Chinese religion. Reprinted as recently as 1968.
  321.  
  322. Find this resource:
  323.  
  324. Yao, Xinzhong. An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  325.  
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327.  
  328. A well-rounded introduction to Confucianism. Discusses the religious dimension of Confucianism; particularly useful is Yao’s review of the debates concerning whether or not Confucianism is a religion.
  329.  
  330. Find this resource:
  331.  
  332. Early Daoism
  333. The root of Daoism lies in the mystic past. When we have the first texts—that is, Zhuangzi and Laozi—we can already see that, as a form of natural philosophy, Daoism tried to find an explanation of the ultimate principle of the raison d’être for the world and the myriad beings in it. For a recent overview, see Littlejohn 2009. For a classic study, see Girardot 1983, which discusses one of the fundamental conceptions of Daoism: the Hun-tun, or Chaos, the origin of the world. When that ultimate principle is found, it could turn into a supreme being that is the creator of the world. Or it could also inspire a search into the principle of natural order, or science. Sivin 1978 is a seminal work that introduces readers into the controversy of “philosophical Daoism” versus “religious Daoism” and the relationship between Daoism and scientific mind. Liu 1993 points out the difference between the two: philosophical Daoism transcends life and death, while religious Daoism opted for immortality. Thus, Daoist philosophy became less important to Daoist religion as the latter developed historically. While so far there is only one text of Zhuangzi handed down through history (Watson 2002, originally published in 1968), we have now several different copies of Laozi from the late Warring States period onward, which considerably revised our idea of the philosophy of Laozi and the nature of Daoist philosophy. Translations of the new Laozi texts into English are Henricks 2000 and Cook 2012. Lastly, Seidel 1989 provides a useful bibliography of Daoist studies.
  334.  
  335. Cook, Scott. The Bamboo Texts of the Guodian: A Study and Complete Translation. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 2012.
  336.  
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338.  
  339. This translation of the bamboo texts of Guodian contains a version of Laozi, the earliest version so far discovered, important for the study of Daoist thought in the late Warring States period.
  340.  
  341. Find this resource:
  342.  
  343. Girardot, N. J. Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Theme of Chaos (Hun-tun). Hermeneutics, Studies in the History of Religions. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. A study of the conception of “chaos” in early Daoism, exploring the symbolic meaning of chaos as a possibility to understand time, myth, and truth. It is aimed at discovering the mythical structure in Daoist thought and practice, which is the basis for understanding the religious dimension of Daoism.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351. Henricks, Robert G. Lao Tzu’s Tao Te Ching: A Translation of the Startling New Documents Found at Guodian. Translations from the Asian Classics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
  352.  
  353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  354.  
  355. A complete translation, with commentary, of the Mawangdui Laozi versions A and B. Vital for understanding Daoist thought in the late Warring States and early Han periods. Originally published in 1989 with the subtitle A New Translation Based on the Recently Discovered Ma-wang-tui Texts (New York: Ballantine Books).
  356.  
  357. Find this resource:
  358.  
  359. Littlejohn, Ronnie L. Daoism: An Introduction. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009.
  360.  
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362.  
  363. An introduction to Daoism in general. The author is of the opinion that we should not see philosophical Daoism and religious Daoism as different, but related; they should better be described as one growing from the other. Provides a useful textual analysis of Laozi and Chuangzi.
  364.  
  365. Find this resource:
  366.  
  367. Liu Xiaogan. “Taoism.” In Our Religions. Edited by Arvind Sharma, 229–290. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. A brief introduction to Daoism, mostly premodern period. Reviews early Daoist philosophy and early Daoist religion and important figures.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375. Seidel, Anna. “Chronicle of Taoist Studies in the West 1950–1990[http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/asie_0766-1177_1989_num_5_1_950].” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 5.1 (1989): 223–347.
  376.  
  377. DOI: 10.3406/asie.1989.950Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378.  
  379. This is a very useful bibliography for the study of Daoism in general.
  380.  
  381. Find this resource:
  382.  
  383. Sivin, Nathan. “On the Word ‘Taoist’ as a Source of Perplexity: With Special Reference to the Relations of Science and Religion in Traditional China.” In Special Issue: Current Perspectives in the Study of Chinese Religions. History of Religions 17.3–4 (1978): 303–330.
  384.  
  385. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  386.  
  387. This article confronts the basic question of the study of Daoism and examines the ideas of “Daojia, philosophical Daoism” and “Daojiao, religious Daoism,” and whether it is a legitimate issue to distinguish the two. The discussion about the relationship between Daoism and science / scientific spirit is also instructional. Available online by subscription.
  388.  
  389. Find this resource:
  390.  
  391. Watson, Burton, trans. The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu. UNESCO Collection of Representative Works, Chinese Series: Records of Civilization, Sources and Studies 80. New York and London: Columbia University Press, 2002.
  392.  
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394.  
  395. A reliable translation of the text of Zhuangzi for English readers.
  396.  
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399. Ancestor Worship
  400. Much of the modern discussion of Chinese religion has been dedicated to the idea of ancestor worship. While it is questionable if the term “worship” is appropriate to describe the phenomenon of revering ancestors, since the Chinese did not “worship” their ancestors as they worship a deity, there are still certain common assumptions that the Chinese held regarding their ancestors; most important of all is the idea that the ancestors, though deceased, could somehow influence the life of the living. As such, they belonged to those extrahuman powers that deserved human attention. Keightley 2004 reviews the concept of ancestor worship and proposes to understand that the power of the royal ancestors of the Shang was a creation of the late Shang rulers, through their construction of a complicated ritual cycle. For collections of oracle bone texts concerning Shang ancestor worship, see Chang 1970 and Eno 1996. Kern 2009 provides an introduction to the textual evidence of ancestral worship in the Western Zhou period, while Cook 2009 provides a sequel for the Eastern Zhou. The material side of ancestor worship is also shown in funerary customs. Thote 2009 gives us an updated account of how the ancient Chinese buried their dead, since funeral practice is part of ancestor worship. For a reflection of the significance of ancestor worship in relation to the concept of soul from the pre-Qin to the Han dynasty, see Yü 1987. For a more general consideration of ancestor worship and its function as an underpinning substratum for the continuity of Chinese culture, see Lakos 2010.
  401.  
  402. Chang, Tsung-tung. Der Kult der Shang-Dynastie im Spiegel der Orakelinschriften: Eine Paläographische Studie zur Religion im archaischen China. Veröffentlichungen des Ostasiatischen Seminars der Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt/Main. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Harrassowitz, 1970.
  403.  
  404. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  405.  
  406. A basic collection of oracle bone inscriptions related to the subjects of ancestor worship, nature worship, and the worship of Di, the highest deity. For German readers and experts in the Shang inscriptions.
  407.  
  408. Find this resource:
  409.  
  410. Cook, Constance A. “Ancestor Worship during the Eastern Zhou.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 237–279. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  411.  
  412. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  413.  
  414. The author surveyed the development of ancestor cults of the Eastern Zhou period, using mostly traditional texts and bronze inscriptions. The subject of discussion thus is confined mainly at the ruling-elite level, stressing the disappearance of the Zhou royal ancestors from public ritual worship.
  415.  
  416. Find this resource:
  417.  
  418. Eno, Robert. “Deities and Ancestors in Early Oracle Inscriptions.” In Religions of China in Practice. Edited by Donald S. Lopez Jr., 41–51. Princeton Readings in Religions. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996.
  419.  
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421.  
  422. A collection of oracle bone inscriptions on the power of Di (the Supreme God), other nature deities, and ancestral spirits.
  423.  
  424. Find this resource:
  425.  
  426. Keightley, David N. “The Making of the Ancestors: Late Shang Religion and Its Legacy.” In Religion and Chinese Society. Vol. 1, Ancient and Medieval China. Edited by John Lagerwey, 3–64. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 2004.
  427.  
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429.  
  430. Proposes a bold view: that the Shang ancestors were created by the late Shang rulers. By using the evidence of the ritual cycle performed for the ancestors, Keightley argues that the Shang royal ancestors became part of the cosmic regulation that could guarantee the good fortune of their descendants.
  431.  
  432. Find this resource:
  433.  
  434. Kern, Martin. “Bronze Inscriptions, the Shijing and the Shangshu: The Evolution of the Ancestral Sacrifice during the Western Zhou.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 143–200. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  435.  
  436. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437.  
  438. Discusses the aesthetics of memory that governed ritual performance and religious expression, on the basis of bronze inscriptions and classical texts. Copious quotes from the sources make this a very useful introduction for further research.
  439.  
  440. Find this resource:
  441.  
  442. Lakos, William. Chinese Ancestor Worship: A Practice and Ritual Oriented Approach to Understanding Chinese Culture. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. A well-thought-out study of the meaning of ancestor worship in China. The author argues that ancestor worship and its correlates together make up a paradigm for the origination of inspiration of Chinese culture. Parts of the book deals with the ancient period.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450. Thote, Alain. “Shang and Zhou Funeral Practices: Interpretation of Material Vestiges.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 103–142. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  451.  
  452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  453.  
  454. This is a useful overview of the funerary customs of ancient China, touching upon issues such as human sacrifice, tomb constructions, ritual paraphernalia, and local variations.
  455.  
  456. Find this resource:
  457.  
  458. Yü, Ying-shih, “‘O Soul, Come Back!’ A Study in the Changing Conceptions of the Soul and Afterlife in Pre-Buddhist China.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 47.2 (1987): 363–395.
  459.  
  460. DOI: 10.2307/2719187Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  461.  
  462. A seminal work that initiated a new interest in the study of early Chinese conceptions of the soul and the netherworld, in view of newly found funerary texts, which is relevant to the phenomenon of ancestral worship. The study covers material from the pre-Qin to the Han dynasty. Available online by subscription.
  463.  
  464. Find this resource:
  465.  
  466. Popular Religion
  467. In contrast to rituals or sacrifices that are institutionalized by the government for the purpose of the welfare of the state or the ruling royal house, the term “popular religion” is taken to mean those religious activities that have to do with the lives of people in general. It refers to the nature of these religious activities, not to the social and political status of those who might perform the acts. Most important among these are various forms of divination (Field 2008), rituals for exorcism (Harper 1985) or rituals performed in daily life (Poo 2009), beliefs in ghosts and spirits (Poo 1998, cited in General Overviews), and magic, omen, and portent (Harper 1999, Kalinowski 2009). An important part of popular beliefs is the connections with agricultural life; this attracted attention early in the 20th century with the publication of Granet 1932, a pioneering study with sociological and anthropological perspectives. A more textually oriented study of popular festivals is Bodde 1975, which deals mainly with the Han period, but many of the festivals are traced to the beliefs of the pre-Qin period. For a more theoretical and anthropological approach of popular religion in China, see Feuchtwang 1992.
  468.  
  469. Bodde, Derk. Festivals in Classical China: New Year and Other Annual Observances during the Han Dynasty, 206 B.C.–A.D. 220. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Gives an overview of festivals in early China; indispensable for an understanding of the religious life of the commoners.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Feuchtwang, Stephan. The Imperial Metaphor: Popular Religion in China. London: Routledge, 1992.
  478.  
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480.  
  481. An anthropological view of popular religion in China. Theoretically inspiring and instructive for the ancient period.
  482.  
  483. Find this resource:
  484.  
  485. Field, Stephen Lee. Ancient Chinese Divination. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2008.
  486.  
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488.  
  489. A reliable general introduction to divination in China, with chapters on the origin and evolution of divination and the Zhouyi.
  490.  
  491. Find this resource:
  492.  
  493. Granet, Marcel. Festivals and Songs of Ancient China. Translated by E. D. Edwards. Broadway Oriental Library. London: Routledge, 1932.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. Translation of Fêtes et chansons anciennes de la Chine (Paris: Librairie Ernest Leroux, 1929). A pioneering study of ancient Chinese popular religion, combined with the author’s sociological and anthropological insights, which could still be inspiring today. Reprinted in 1975 (New York: Gordon).
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501. Harper, Donald. “A Chinese Demonography of the Third Century B.C.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 45.2 (1985): 459–498.
  502.  
  503. DOI: 10.2307/2718970Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  504.  
  505. A pioneering study of the “Daybook” of Shuihudi, by Western scholars, explicating its function as a handbook for exorcism. Available online by subscription.
  506.  
  507. Find this resource:
  508.  
  509. Harper, Donald. “Warring States Natural Philosophy and Occult Thought.” In The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C. Edited by Michael Loewe and Edward L. Shaughnessy, 813–884. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  510.  
  511. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521470308Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  512.  
  513. A survey of the various religious beliefs and activities that could be regarded as “popular religion,” such as milfoil divination, Yin-yang and Five Phases, magic and medicine, astrology, etc.
  514.  
  515. Find this resource:
  516.  
  517. Kalinowski, Marc. “Diviners and Astrologers under the Eastern Zhou: Transmitted Texts and Recent Archaeological Discoveries.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 341–396. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. Summarizes materials concerning divination, portent, omens, astrology and calendar, etc., found in the traditional texts as well as the latest archaeological discoveries.
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525. Poo, Mu-chou. “Ritual and Ritual Texts in Early China.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 281–313. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  526.  
  527. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  528.  
  529. Studies ritual and ritual texts in the context of early Chinese religious life from the Shang to the end of the Warring States periods. Main subjects of attention are Shang and Zhou state ritual, the Nuo-Exorcism, the meng-covenant, seasonal rituals, funeral rites, and rituals in daily life.
  530.  
  531. Find this resource:
  532.  
  533. Shamanism and Witchcraft
  534. As a form of religious activity, shamanism was found in North Asia, and in ancient China the term wu 巫 has been associated with shamanism. Some scholars are of the opinion that shamanism once existed in ancient China as a state-sanctioned ritual. Since the early 20th century, Chinese scholars such as Chen Meng-jia (Chen 1936) have studied the phenomenon of wu in Shang China, which influenced later scholars such as Chang Kwang-chih (Chang 1994). Falkenhausen 1995 discusses the political role of the wu as reflected in the book of Zhouli. From a literary angle, Waley 1973 studies the Chuci, or Songs of the South, and explores the connection between these songs and the local shamanistic tradition. For a textually based account of the changing image and sociopolitical status of wu-shamans from the Shang to the Han, see Lin 2009. While the function or status of the wu-shamans may be clarified, their actual acts are usually not stated in the documents such as Zhouli, as Falkenhausen pointed out. We need to keep in mind, however, that there has always been a certain doubt about the validity of equating wu with shaman. One of the major arguments against the wu=shaman equation was that the most prominent feature of shamanism, the journey of the soul to the divine sphere, was not part of the descriptions of the abilities of the wu. The methods that the wu employed to achieve their goals are understood as wushu 巫術 in Chinese, or witchcraft as an approximate translation. Exorcism may be seen as a kind of witchcraft; that is, a person with special skill performs certain acts to expel evil spirits. Yet, the opposite could also be true, because enough evidence shows that special rituals could be performed for the purpose of hurting certain people. Feng and Shryock 1935 is one of the earliest Western studies on the black magic called gu 蠱, while Chinese scholars such as Hu Xinsheng (Hu 1998) conducted exhaustive surveys of the record of witchcraft, showing that from the Neolithic period onward, witchcraft was part of the life of the people, whether commoners or elites.
  535.  
  536. Chang, Kwang-chih. “Shang Shamans.” In The Power of Culture: Studies in Chinese Cultural History. Edited by Willard J. Peterson, Andrew H. Plaks, and Ying-shih Yü, 10–36. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1994.
  537.  
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539.  
  540. Summarizes the author’s lifelong study of shamanism, discussing the meaning of shamanism and the shaman’s tasks, techniques, and means of communication with the spirit world, such as through trees, mountains, animals, alcohol, music, and dance.
  541.  
  542. Find this resource:
  543.  
  544. Chen Mengjia 陳夢家. “Shangdai de Shenhua yu Wushu” (商代的神話與巫術). Yenjing xuebao 燕京學报 20 (1936): 485–576.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. A pioneering and classic study, in Chinese, on witchcraft and mythology of the Shang. The term “witchcraft” or wushu is seen as an equivalent of shamanism, due to limited understanding of shamanism elsewhere.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552. Falkenhausen, Lothar von. “Reflections on the Political Role of Spirit Mediums in Early China: The wu Officials in the Zhou li.” Early China 20 (1995): 279–300.
  553.  
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555.  
  556. Discusses wu in the Zhouli as an official position and analyzes their duties as part of the bureaucracy. Points out that the wu never performed ritual for the ancestors, unlike the shi (impersonator) during the funeral, who is exclusively devoted to the ritual for the newly deceased ancestor.
  557.  
  558. Find this resource:
  559.  
  560. Feng, H. Y., and J. K. Shryock. “The Black Magic in China Known as ku.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 55.1 (1935): 1–30.
  561.  
  562. DOI: 10.2307/594297Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563.  
  564. This article studies the black magic called ku (or gu) in ancient China, beginning from the pre-Qin material and comparing it with modern southwestern minority customs.
  565.  
  566. Find this resource:
  567.  
  568. Hu Xinsheng 胡新生. Zhongguo gudai wushu (中國古代巫術). Jinan, China: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 1998.
  569.  
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571.  
  572. This is an exhaustive study of witchcraft in ancient China; many of the entries go back to the pre-Qin period.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576. Lin, Fu-shih. “The Image and Status of Shamans in Ancient China.” In Early Chinese Religion, Part One: Shang through Han (1250 BC–220 AD). Edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 397–458. Handbuch der Orientalistik 4. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  577.  
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579.  
  580. The author exhaustively discusses issues related to shamanism: who the shamans were, what role they played in the government or in local society, and what people’s view of them was. The author points out a continual decline of the social status of shamans from the pre-Qin to Qin-Han periods.
  581.  
  582. Find this resource:
  583.  
  584. Waley, Arthur, ed. The Nine Songs: A Study of Shamanism in Ancient China. San Francisco: City Lights, 1973.
  585.  
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587.  
  588. The editor gives an introduction to shamanism in ancient China and translates one of the most important literary works in pre-Qin China, which happens to consist of descriptions of shamanic encounters with various deities.
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Public Pastes
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!