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Islam in South Asia (Islamic Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The growth of Islam in South Asia has been one of the more important geopolitical developments of the past millennium. It began in the 7th and 8th centuries, when Arab-Muslim traders settled on the subcontinent’s southwestern coast and Arab-Muslim military expeditions probed the Makran coast and the Indus Valley. Now, one third of the world’s Muslims live in South Asia, which has become a major source of Islamic ideas and organizations across the world. Muslim power produced the greatest of the Muslim empires of the premodern world, that of the Mughals, which at its height ruled 100 million people, as compared with the 22 million of the Ottoman Empire and the 6 million of the Safavid Empire. Islam itself showed a capacity to interact fruitfully with South Asia’s many regional cultures. Nevertheless, as the centuries went by, more and more of the indigenous inhabitants of South Asia came to embrace an Islamic religio-cultural milieu, with many converting to Islam. By the 18th century, South Asia had begun to export people and ideas to the rest of the Islamic world. From the early 19th century, South Asian Muslims had the new experience of striving to sustain an Islamic society under colonial non-Muslim rule. In this context, a remarkable revival developed and the ulama, the learned men of Islam, came to have a greater say in affairs than ever before. Some of the movements that emerged from the revival, like the Tablighi Jamaʿat, have come to have a worldwide significance. At the political level, Muslim separatist politics grew and South Asia was partitioned into India and Pakistan in 1947. In these states—and that of Bangladesh, which emerged from Pakistan in 1971—where possible, Islam has endeavored to engage with the modern state, but its fate has always been subject to the political context, both national and international.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Overviews of the development of Islam and the Muslim communities of South Asia are provided in Qureshi 1962, Mujeeb 1967, and Schimmel 1980. Ahmad 1964 addresses major themes that run through the Muslim presence in South Asia. Metcalf 2009 illustrates the many different ways of being Muslim, while De Bary, et al. 1958 illustrates religious change among Muslims in the all-important context of change among the subcontinent’s other faiths.
  8.  
  9. Ahmad, Aziz. Studies in Islamic Culture in the Indian Environment. Oxford: Clarendon, 1964.
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  11. An important collection of essays by an authority on Islamic culture. Reprinted in 1999.
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  13. De Bary, William Theodore, Stephen Hay, and I. H. Qureshi, eds. Sources of Indian Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.
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  15. A classic collection of documents that is well introduced and has stood the test of time.
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  17. Metcalf, Barbara D., ed. Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
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  19. An outstanding collection of readings that sets out the extraordinary variety of expressions of Islam in South Asia through time and space, and in so doing enables the reader to make contact with Muslim lives as they are lived.
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  21. Mujeeb, Mohammad. The Indian Muslims. London: Allen and Unwin, 1967.
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  23. A magisterial survey of South Asia’s Muslim history from an “Indian Muslim” post-partition point of view.
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  25. Qureshi, Ishtiaq Hussain. The Muslim Community of the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent, 610–1947: A Brief Historical Analysis. The Hague: Mouton, 1962.
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  27. An overview from a Pakistani perspective.
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  29. Schimmel, Annemarie. Islam in the Indian Subcontinent. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1980.
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  31. A good overview that is informed, in particular, by the author’s deep knowledge of literature and Sufism.
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  33. Reference Works
  34.  
  35. These works fall into three categories: encyclopedias (Bearman, et al. 1954–2008; Esposito 1995), atlases (Robinson 1982, Schwartzberg 1992), and online resources (American Institute of Indian Studies, American Institute of Pakistan Studies, and Pritchett’s Islam in South Asia.
  36.  
  37. American Institute of Indian Studies.
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  39. The AIIS website is a gateway to a vast collection of resources relating to India, including substantial coverage of Islam.
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  41. American Institute of Pakistan Studies.
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  43. A major gateway to resources relating to the present and past of Pakistan.
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  45. Bearman, P. J., Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, eds. Encyclopaedia of Islam. New ed. 12 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1954–2008.
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  47. The premier reference work for all matters Islamic; coverage of South Asia is comprehensive.
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  49. Esposito, John L., ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. 4 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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  51. A very useful compendium of articles on the modern Islamic world.
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  53. Pritchett, Frances. “Islam in South Asia: Some Useful Study Materials.”
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  55. A useful collection of study materials, covering all aspects of Islam in South Asia. Pritchett is a professor of modern Indic languages at Columbia University.
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  57. Robinson, Francis. Atlas of the Islamic World since 1500. Oxford: Phaidon, 1982.
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  59. Places the development of Islam in South Asia in the wider context of developments in the Islamic world since 1500.
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  61. Schwartzberg, Joseph E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  63. Places Islamic developments in South Asia in the context of wider developments in the region.
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  65. Journals
  66.  
  67. Journals divide into those that focus on Islamic issues, broadly construed, either in South Asia or across the Muslim world (Islamic Culture), Islamic Studies, and Journal of Islamic Studies) and those that deal with aspects of the Muslim history of South Asia, within the context of coverage of South Asia itself (Indian Economic and Social History Review) or of coverage of Asia more generally (Modern Asian Studies, Journal of Asian Studies, and the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society).
  68.  
  69. Indian Economic and Social History Review. 1963–.
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  71. The leading journal publishing articles on the economic and social history of South Asia; includes excellent research on aspects of Muslim South Asia.
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  73. Islamic Culture. 1927–.
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  75. Publishes a wide spectrum of articles on all aspects of Islamic civilization past and present, including good work on South Asia. Published by the Islamic Culture Board in Hyderabad, India.
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  77. Islamic Studies. 1962–.
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  79. Focuses on religious and South Asian issues, but does range more widely. Published by the Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad, Pakistan.
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  81. Journal of Asian Studies. 1941–.
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  83. Despite its general coverage of Asia, this leading journal publishes important articles on Islam in the region. Published by the Association for Asian Studies in partnership with Cambridge University Press.
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  85. Journal of Islamic Studies. 1990–.
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  87. Publishes articles on all aspects of Islam, past and present, including some excellent pieces on South Asia.
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  89. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1834–.
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  91. Although the remit of this journal, which began publication in the 1830s, is Asia in general, it frequently publishes articles, and on occasion whole numbers, on Islam in South Asia, on occasion placing it in a broader Asian context.
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  93. Modern Asian Studies 1967–.
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  95. Promotes “original, innovative, and rigorous research on the history, sociology, economics, and culture of modern Asia.” Published by Cambridge University Press.
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  97. Novels and Memoirs
  98.  
  99. These works represent an excellent starting point for engagement with aspects of the South Asian Muslim experience. They illuminate major events and aspects in the lives of Muslims. Steel 2005 tells the story of the Indian Mutiny uprising from the annexation of Awadh in 1856 to the siege of Delhi in 1857. Qurratulain Haider was one of the most celebrated figures of literature of the 20th century, and Aag ka Dariya (River of Fire) (Haider 1998) is her masterwork. Raipuri 2006 is a memoir of the author’s life as the wife of the Urdu critic and educationalist Akhtar Husain Raipuri. In the process, she takes us from Aligarh and the extraordinary worlds inhabited by Maharaj Kishen Pershad and Sarojini Naidu in prewar Hyderabad through her migration to Pakistan and work with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). Hosain 1988 is a much-loved book, telling the story of Laila, an orphaned daughter of a distinguished Muslim family, and her struggle for independence, which is set against India’s struggle in the 1930s. Kaifi, a distinguished actress, in her memoir of her marriage to the poet and scriptwriter Kaifi Azmi, depicts both the leftist world of 20th-century India and their involvement in the Indian People’s Theatre Association, the Progressive Writer’s Association, the Prithvi Theatre, and their ongoing association with Kaifi Azmi’s village in eastern Uttar Pradesh (Azmi 2010). Their daughter is the film star and social activist, Shabana Azmi. Singh 2009 re-creates the summer of 1947, when partition divided Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims and forced 15 million people to migrate across newly formed frontiers. Suleri 1989 treads the ground between autobiography and novel, with depictions of the author’s family life set against the backdrop of Pakistan’s tumultuous history. Rushdie’s third novel, Shame 1983, is about Pakistan and the people who ruled there in the 1970s. Taslima Nasrin’s novel, also called Shame (Nasrin 1997) was written as a protest against the oppression of the Hindu minority in Bangladesh in the aftermath of the destruction of Babur’s Mosque at Ayodhya in India in 1992. The book was banned by the Bangladesh government.
  100.  
  101. Azmi, Shaukat. Kaifi & I: A Memoir. Edited and translated by Nasreen Rehman. New Delhi: Zubaan, 2010.
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  103. This memoir is a love story that introduces the reader to the world of the Progressive Writers, in this case of poetry, theater, and film, mainly in Bombay.
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  105. Haider, Qurratulain. River of Fire. Delhi: Kali for Women, 1998.
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  107. Haider (b. 1926–d. 2007) was the daughter of the well-known progressive writer Sajjad Haider Yildirim. This book, widely regarded as a masterpiece of Urdu literature, celebrates the inclusiveness of Indian culture and mourns what was lost through the partition of the subcontinent, conveying the sweep of South Asian history from the 4th century BCE to modern times. First published in 1959.
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  109. Hosain, Attia. Sunlight on a Broken Column. London: Virago, 1988.
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  111. Tells the story of the main character Laila’s struggle for independence in the context of the Indian struggle in the 1930s. Hosain (b. 1913–d. 1998), the daughter of Sheikh Shahid Husain Qidwai, marvelously evokes the conservative Muslim and taluqdari culture of the time. First published in 1961.
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  113. Nasrin, Taslima. Shame: A Novel. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 1997.
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  115. First published in 1993 in Bangladesh, after Bangladeshi Hindus were the victims of assaults by Muslims following the destruction of Babur’s Mosque at Ayodhya in India by Hindu fundamentalists, this book was received with a fatwa. Hastily written, it still commands attention. Nasrin (b. 1962) has found it no longer safe to live in South Asia and resides in exile in the West.
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  117. Raipuri, Hameeda Akhtar Husain. My Fellow Traveller: A Translation of Humsafar. Translated by Amina Azfar. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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  119. At the age of seventy-two, after the death of her husband, Akhtar Husain Raipuri, Hameeda Raipuri penned this memoir of him, beginning what was to be a successful literary career. She evokes the world of an Indian Hindu-Muslim elite in Aligarh and Hyderabad.
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  121. Rushdie, Salman. Shame. New York: Knopf, 1983.
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  123. Using the technique of magical realism, Rushdie writes about Pakistan and the people who ruled it in the 1970s, most notably Zulfikar Ali Bhutto and General Zia ul-Haq. One of Rushdie’s (b. 1947) striking creations is Virgin Ironpants, a version of Benazir Bhutto.
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  125. Singh, Khushwant. Train to Pakistan. Delhi: Penguin, 2009.
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  127. Khushwant Singh (b. 1915) a Sikh from the Punjab and one of India’s outstanding literary figures, experienced the partition massacres, at one stage coming across a group of his coreligionists who had just massacred Muslims. He drew on these experiences to write this successful book, which was first published in 1956.
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  129. Steel, Flora Annie. On the Face of the Waters. Boston: Adamant Media, 2005.
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  131. Steel (b. 1847–d. 1929) was the wife of an Indian civil servant in the Punjab. First published in 1896, this is her best-known work. Although writing from an imperial perspective, she drew on the knowledge of an Indo-Muslim world she knew well to re-create a not unsympathetic picture of the world between Lucknow and Delhi in 1856–1857.
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  133. Suleri, Sara. Meatless Days. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
  134. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226050843.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. Born in pre-partition Pakistan, Suleri provides a wonderfully sensitive picture of family times in the past set against the broader canvas of Pakistani history.
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  137. Films
  138.  
  139. India is one of the world’s great centers of filmmaking, and the Mumbai film industry—or Bollywood, as it has come to be known—is India’s equivalent of Hollywood. From the beginning of the industry, Muslim poets, writers, musicians, actors, actresses, and directors have played a major part. In consequence, the Mumbai cinema has been strongly influenced by Islamic culture. It has also frequently used India’s Muslim past as a backdrop for explorations of major themes. Recent scholarship has divided these films into four genres: Muslim Historical, Muslim Courtesan, Classic Muslim Social, and New Wave Muslim Social. Although film directors can play fast and loose with history, many of these films are excellent ways of beginning to engage with Mughal history; the remarkable culture of Lucknow; the Indian Mutiny uprising of 1857; Muslim poetry and music; and matters of love, honor, shame, patriarchalism, duty, and so on. Jodhaa Akbar (Gowarikha 2008) and Mughal-e-Azam (Asif 1960) are both set in the court of the great Mughal emperor Akbar. The first examines the marriage of Akbar and his Rajput wife, Jodhaa, while the second examines the passionate relationship between Jodhaa’s son, Salim, and a slave girl, Anarkali. Umrao Jan (Ali 1981), the classic courtesan film, portrays the Nawabi culture of Lucknow. Shatranj Ke Khilari (Ray 1977), the only film not to come out of Mumbai, and Mirza Ghalib (Modi 1954) both portray the courtly cultures of Lucknow and Delhi on the eve of the Indian Mutiny uprising. Mere Mehboob (Rawail 1963), a classic Muslim Social film, has the hero and heroine meet at Aligarh Muslim University, a symbol of Muslim modernity, and then travel back to Lucknow, where they have to deal with patriarchal codes of honor and duty. Garam Hawa (Sathyu 1973), a New Wave Muslim Social film, examines the impact of partition on a middle class Muslim family. Bhaskar and Allen 2009 is an excellent introduction in book form to the Islamicate cultures of the Mumbai cinema.
  140.  
  141. Ali, Muzaffar, dir. Umrao Jaan. Integrated Films, 1981.
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  143. An adaptation of the Urdu novel Umrao Jan Ada by Mirza Muhammad Hadi Ruswa, which tells the true story of a Muslim courtesan of Lucknow. The film offers a powerful evocation of Nawabi culture in portraying a woman who is the equal of all who come her way, yet is also condemned to obloquy by her profession.
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  145. Asif, K., dir. Mughal-e-Azam. Mumbai, India: Sterling Investment Corp., 1960.
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  147. Based on a 1920 play by Syed Imtiaz Ali Taj, the film draws on the many myths surrounding the powerful relationship between the Mughal emperor Akbar and his son Salim (Jahangir). This epic took fifteen years to make and, at its best, is equal to the grandeur of its subject matter.
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  149. Bhaskar, Ira, and Richard Allen. Islamicate Cultures of Bombay Cinema. New Delhi: Tulika, 2009.
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  151. Provides a first-class introduction to films addressing Islamic history and the Islamic present in South Asia, and thus serves as a good guide to the Mumbai films in this section.
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  153. Gowarikha, Ashutosh, dir. Jodhaa Akbar. Mumbai, India: UTV Motion Pictures, 2008.
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  155. Explores the marriage, portrayed as a love affair, between Emperor Akbar and his Rajput wife, Jodhaa. Seen against the context of contemporary Hindu fundamentalism, which often involves the demonization of Muslims, the love affair between a Muslim ruler and his Hindu wife projects a powerful message.
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  157. Modi, Sohrab, dir. Mirza Ghalib. Minerva Movietone, 1954.
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  159. Based on a story by the great Urdu short-story writer, Sadaat Hasan Manto. Modi emphasizes, however, that it should not be seen as a reliable account of the greatest Urdu poet of the 19th century. The film evokes the Mughal court in its last days.
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  161. Rawail, Harnam Singh, dir. Mere Mehboob. Rahul Theatre and Digital Entertainment, 1963.
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  163. The most popular film in its year of release, this film explores the challenges to gender boundaries and old hierarchies of class presented by modern environments. In doing, so it switches between Aligarh Muslim University and Lucknow.
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  165. Ray, Satyajit Shatranj Ke Khilari. Indrapuri Studios, 1977.
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  167. Based on a short story by the great writer in both Urdu and Hindi, Munshi Premchand, this film explores the profoundly different worlds and values of the British and the denizens of Nawabi Lucknow in the year before the Indian Mutiny uprising. The film (translated as The Chess Players) has neither heroes nor villains.
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  169. Sathyu, M. S. Garm Hawa. Unit 3mm, 1973.
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  171. Based on a short story and script by a leading Urdu novelist, Ismat Chughtai, this film explores the tribulations of a middle-class Muslim family of Agra as it confronts suspicion, economic boycott, and communal hostility in the wake of partition.
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  173. The Premodern Period: 7th to 18th Centuries
  174.  
  175. This period saw initial Muslim contact with South Asia in the 7th century, which became a conquest in the Indus Valley in the 8th century. From the 13th century on, the great Muslim empires in South Asia grew in power. At times, such as in the 14th and 17th centuries, these empires came to rule almost all the subcontinent. Alongside the many sultanates that flourished at times of lesser imperial power, they offered the patronage that supported Islamic learning and great achievement in the arts. They also created the framework and context in which large numbers of Indians converted to Islam.
  176.  
  177. Early Muslim Contact and Conquest
  178.  
  179. Arab trading contacts were established with South Asia before the rise of Islam, so it is not surprising that Muslim contacts developed early on. Muslims appeared as raiders in Sind in the mid-630s, and by the late 7th century they may have been operating as traders on the Malabar coast. In 711, after seventy years of raiding, a major Arab force under Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sind, which Arabs subsequently ruled until 1026, with the governors being appointed by both the Umayyad and Abbasid courts. The actual area ruled was greater than modern Sind, stretching from the Punjab to the Indus delta and including Baluchistan and the Makran coast. MacLean 1989 considers the nature and concerns of Arabs, the non-Muslim Sindis, and Sindi Muslims over three hundred years. Friedmann 1984 analyzes the Chachnama, the most extensive account of the Arab invasion, noting Arab approaches toward the caste society they found and weighing the reliability of the evidence put forward. Al-Biruni 1887–1888, the great Khwarazmian polymath (b. 973–d. 1048) based at the court of Mahmud of Ghazni, visited northwestern India in the second and third decade of the 11th century and left a major description of its cultural, scientific, social, and religious history. Said and Zahid 1981 presents a biography of this man of extraordinary gifts.
  180.  
  181. Al-Biruni. Kitab fi’l-Hind: Alberuni’s India. 2 vols. Edited and Translated by Edward Sachau. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench and Trubner, 1887–1888.
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  183. Al-Biruni’s remarkable description of early 11th-century India, which led to him being called the founder of Indology and the first anthropologist. Text is available online.
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  185. Friedmann, Yohanan. “The Origins and Significance of the Chach Nama.” In Islam in Asia. Vol. 1, South Asia. Edited by Yohanan Friedmann, 23–37. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1984.
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  187. Friedmann carefully weighs the evidence presented in the most extensive account of the Arab invasion of Sind in the early 8th century.
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  189. MacLean, Derryl N. Religion and Society in Arab Sind. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1989.
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  191. A thorough study of Arab Sind that considers, in particular, the non-Muslim religions and sects at the time of the Arab conquest, the various mechanisms encouraging or impeding collaboration and conversion, the Islamic preoccupations of Sindi Muslims at home and abroad, and the rise of an Ismaili state at Multan toward the end of the Arab period.
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  193. Said, Hakim M., and Ansar Z. Zahid. Al-Bīrūnī: His Times, Life, and Works. Karachi, Pakistan: Hamdard Foundation, 1981.
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  195. A biography of Al-Biruni that places his engagement with India in the overall context of his life and his intellectual concerns.
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  197. The Establishment and Maintenance of Muslim Power
  198.  
  199. Asher and Talbot 2006 provides an up-to-date, accessible, and thoughtful overview of the whole period. Robinson 2007 emphasizes the way in which Muslim power in South Asia is part of a Persianate political cultural world that reaches into Iran and Central Asia. Both Jackson 1999 and Kumar 2007 are outstanding recent studies of the emergence of the Delhi Sultanate, the first all-India Muslim empire. Richards 1993 remains the indispensable study of the second all-India Muslim empire. Habib 1999 is the classic study of the Mughal revenue system, the basis of the wealth and success of the empire. Alam and Subrahmanyam 1998 brings together in a powerful volume some of the key elements of scholarship that inform the overview in Richards 1993.
  200.  
  201. Alam, Muzaffar, and Sanjay Subrahmanyam, eds. The Mughal State, 1526–1750. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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  203. Two leading historians bring together eighteen important articles on the Mughal state and introduce them with an outstanding historiographical overview.
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  205. Asher, Catherine B., and Cynthia Talbot. India before Europe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  206. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511808586Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Among the many strengths of this book is the way in which it brings the regional manifestations of Islamic power into focus alongside treatments of commerce and economic change.
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  209. Elliot, Henry M. The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians: The Muhammadan Period. 8 vols. Edited by John Dowson. London: Trubner, 1867–1877.
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  211. A famed collection of extracts from Muslim historians, telling the story of Muslim power from the beginning to the 18th century. It should always be read with Peter Hardy’s Historians of Medieval India (Delhi, 1997) to hand, and readers should be aware that the editors made their selection with the aim of bolstering British rule.
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  213. Habib, Irfan. The Agrarian System of Mughal India. 2d ed. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  215. An indispensable book for understanding the Mughal revenue administration and imperial institutions in general. First published in 1963.
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  217. Jackson, Peter. The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  219. A comprehensive overview of rise of the Delhi Sultanate c. 1200 to its demise c. 1400, with a particular focus on political and military affairs.
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  221. Kumar, Sunil. The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2007.
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  223. A major new study of the first one hundred years of the Delhi Sultanate, which indicates, among other things, the military and political acumen of its rulers and the role played by Muslim émigrés fleeing the Mongol conquerors.
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  225. Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire. The New Cambridge History of India 1:5. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  226. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511584060Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. This is an outstanding synthesis of scholarship devoted to the Mughal Empire.
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  229. Robinson, Francis. The Mughal Emperors and the Islamic Dynasties of India, Iran, and Central Asia, 1206–1925. London: Thames and Hudson, 2007.
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  231. A heavily illustrated overview of the exercise of power over six centuries, demonstrating how the rulers shared a world of Persianate culture.
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  233. Individual Rulers and Their Courts
  234.  
  235. One of the pleasures of studying the Mughal period is the amount of first-class literature in translation available, which enables the student to make contact with the courtly world and the humanity of the leading figures involves. The Baburnama (Babur 1996), the Jahangirnama (Jahangir 1978), and the letters of Awrangzeb (Awrangzeb 1972) enable us to hear the distinctive voices of three great emperors. The Akbarnama (Fazl 1993) and Shah Jahan Nama (Khan 1990) offer the official view of important events in the reigns of Akbar and Shah Jahan. Begam 2001 provides a woman’s and insider’s view of Humayun’s court, and Manucci 1906 gives a gossipy European physician’s view of the courts of Shah Jahan and Awrangzeb. Dale 2004, a biography of Babur, paints a picture of the all-important Timurid background to Mughal power in India.
  236.  
  237. Awrangzeb. Rukaʾat-i-Alamgiri or Letters of Aurangzebe. Translated by Jamshid H. Bilimoria. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1972.
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  239. In these letters one hears the distinctive voice of the Mughal emperor, whether it be on the principles of good government, his love of fruit, or his advice to his children.
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  241. Babur. The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor. Translated and edited by Wheeler M. Thackston. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
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  243. One of the great autobiographies of world history. Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, tells the story of his search, as a Timurid prince, for a kingdom he could rule securely, all the while delighting the reader with his wit and humanity.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Begam, Gul-badan. The History of Humayun. Translated, with introduction and notes, by Annette S. Beveridge. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2001.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Gul-badan was a daughter of Babur and the sister of Emperor Humayun. Written on the instructions of Emperor Akbar, she depicts women’s activity within the court alongside Humayun’s exile in Sind and Safavid Iran.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Dale, Stephen F. The Garden of the Eight Paradises: Bābur and the Culture of Empire in Central Asia, Afghanistan, and India, 1483–1530. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. An outstanding modern biography of a Mughal emperor, which advances our understanding of the man by studying his poetry alongside his autobiography.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Fazl, Abul. The Akbar Nāma of Abu-l-Fazl. Reprint ed. Translated by Henry Beveridge. Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1993.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. This substantial book by Akbar’s friend and vizier tells the history of the emperor’s reign, and it includes illustrations of key events painted in Akbar’s studios. The beginning of the book sets out the imperial ideology involving the descent from the Mongol goddess Alanqoa through Genghis Khan.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Jahangir. Tūzuk-i Jahāngīrī or Memoirs of Jāhngīr. 3d ed. Translated by Alexander Rogers. Edited by Henry Beveridge. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978.
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  259. Emperor Jahangir’s autobiography, which depicts the emperor’s curiosity and breadth of interests, including his love of nature and his love for his queen, Nur Jahan.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Khan, Inayat. The Shah Jahan Nama of ʾInayat Khan. Translated by A. R. Fuller. Edited and completed by Wayne E. Begley and Z. A. Desai. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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  263. The first full translation of the official court chronicle of Shah Jahan’s reign. The illustrated version of the original, one of the finest illustrated manuscripts produced by the Mughal studios, is held in the royal library at Windsor Castle in England.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Manucci, Niccolao. Storia do Mogor, or, Mogul India, 1653–1708. 4 vols. London: Hohn Murray, 1906.
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  267. Manucci was an Italian physician who spent most of his life in India. He claims only to report on things that he had seen or experienced, but not all his assertions are corroborated by other evidence. Still, his history contains valuable and entertaining insights.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Islam and Power
  270.  
  271. The historiography of this subject has tended to be influenced by political factors. Colonial, Pakistani, and Hindu revivalist historiographies have tended to present a picture of a noninclusive Muslim approach to the exercise of power in South Asia. Indian nationalists, and those worried by the rise of Hindu revivalism in Indian politics since the 1980s (and by the negative symbolism of the destruction of Babur’s mosque in Ayodhya in 1992, in particular), have been concerned to demonstrate the inclusive nature of premodern Muslim approaches to power. Nizami 1978 and Nizami 1989 emphasize the pragmatism of premodern Muslim rulers. Friedmann 1971 examines Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, a Sufi who reacted against Mughal pragmatism, though without the impact that some later historians have attributed to him. Gilmartin and Lawrence 2000, Alam 2004, and Eaton 2003 all reveal the ways in which premodern Muslim rulers developed strategies of cultural accommodation in India, which was essential in a predominantly non-Muslim society. Moin shows how Mughal emperors from the time of Akbar came to draw on Sufi symbols rather than support for the Sharia as the basis of kingship and authority. Chaghatai 2005 examines Shah Wali Allah, the great Muslim scholar of the 18th century, who began the process of considering how an Islamic society might be sustained in India without power; the author of Hermansen 2003 makes his masterwork available in English.
  272.  
  273. Alam, Muzaffar. The Languages of Political Islam: India, 1200–1800. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2004.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Looks at the way the Islamic literature on governance, in the Persian tradition, and Sufism underpinned inclusive approaches to government.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Chaghatai, M. Ikrām, ed. Shah Waliullah, 1703–1762: His Religious and Political Thought. Lahore, Pakistan: Sang-e-Meel, 2005.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A comprehensive work that brings together some thirty-eight articles on Wali Allah’s life and thought.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Eaton, Richard M. India’s Islamic Traditions, 711–1750. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A wide-ranging set of essays that illustrate Muslim accommodations to the Indian environment.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Friedmann, Yohanan. Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi: An Outline of His Thought and a Study of His Image in the Eyes of Posterity. Montreal: McGill University, 1971.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Friedmann demonstrates that the contemporary image of Sirhindi as a man who aimed to restore orthodoxy in Muslim India, and had a considerable impact in doing so, is not justified.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Gilmartin, David, and Bruce B. Lawrence. Beyond Turk and Hindu: Rethinking Religious Identities in Islamicate South Asia. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Challenges the presumption that Muslims and Hindus were irreconcilably different groups in premodern India, demonstrating how Indic and Islamicate worldviews overlap and often converge.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Hermansen, Marcia K., trans. The Conclusive Argument from God: Shāh Walī Allāh of Delhī’s Hujjat Allāh al-Bāligha. Islamabad, Pakistan: Islamic Research Institute, 2003.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. In this his masterwork, Shah Wali Allah sets out to integrate what had become a fragmented Islamic tradition as a way of strengthening the Muslim presence in South Asia. It should be read with close attention to the translator’s introduction.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Moin, A. Azfar. The Millennial Sovereign: Sacred Kingship & Sainthood in Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. In this book, which has brought about a paradigm shift in our understanding of not just Mughal but also Safavid kingship, Moin sets out the range of resources that the Mughals deployed to support their authority—millennarian, astrological, Sufi—and also shows how they were expressed in art, architecture, and kingly practices.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Nizami, Khalid Ahmad. Some Aspects of Religion and Politics in India during the Thirteenth Century. Reprint of 2d ed. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i Delli, 1978.
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  303. Nizami emphasizes the pragmatism of the rulers of the Delhi sultanate in matters of religion.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. Akbar and Religion. Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabiyat-i-Delli, 1989.
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  307. A wide-ranging analysis of the ideas of the Mughal emperor, who constantly traveled in his search for religious understanding.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Islam in the Regions
  310.  
  311. Part of the genius of Islam during this period was its capacity to accommodate itself to a wide range of regional contexts. Nowhere is this better demonstrated that in the twenty-eight essays devoted to Islam in South Asia’s regions in Dallapiccola and Lallemant 1993. Roy 1983 explores in depth how Islam came to be expressed through Bengali culture. Bayly 1989 examines the processes of mixing and borrowing from the religious traditions of southern India, which created new manifestations of both Islam and Christianity in that region. Cole 1988 demonstrates the emergence of Shiʿa power in northern India from the 18th century on, as well as the establishment of major Shiʿa institutions in Awadh. The conversion of large numbers of South Asians to Islam from the 13th century onward is a development of the first importance. Eaton 1978, Eaton 1984, and Eaton 1993 examine this process in three regional contexts: the Deccan, the Punjab, and Bengal, respectively.
  312.  
  313. Bayly, Susan. Saints, Goddesses, and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian Society, 1700–1900. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Shows how Islam, as well as Christianity, spread along the military and agricultural frontiers of southern India, and how certain beliefs and practices derived local force from an ambiguous relationship with the worship of Hindu goddesses.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Cole, J. R. I. Roots of North Indian Shiʿism in Iran and Iraq: Religion and State in Awadh, 1722–1859. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. The classic study of how Lucknow came to be the focus of Indian Shiʿism in the 18th and 19th centuries.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Dallapiccola, Anna Libera, and Stephanie Zingel-Avé Lallemant, eds. Islam and Indian Regions. 2 vols. Stuttgart, Germany: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Expresses the richness of the regional expressions of Islam in Sufism, poetry, politics, architecture, and other areas.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Eaton, Richard M. Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. While exploring the social roles of Sufis in the medieval Deccan, Eaton demonstrates how local Hindus were drawn into an Islamic milieu and became Muslim.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Eaton, Richard M. “The Political and Religious Authority of the Shrine of Baba Farid.” In Moral Conduct and Authority: The Place of Adab in South Asian Islam. Edited by Barbara D. Metcalf, 333–356. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Eaton demonstrates how, over six hundred years, members of the Siyal tribe attending the Chishti shrine of Baba Farid at Pakpattan in the Punjab came to convert to Islam.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. By exploring the expansion of the agrarian frontier in Bengal, in particular under Mughal rule, Eaton shows how the population of East Bengal became Muslims.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Roy, Asim. The Islamic Syncretistic Tradition in Bengal. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983.
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  339. Argues that the distinctive forms of Islam that developed in Bengal from the 13th century onward were not a corruption of the Islamic “great tradition” but the fashioning of an intellectual superstructure for a living culture that was in itself a “great tradition.”
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Sufis
  342.  
  343. Before the 19th century, Sufism was the most powerful expression of the Islamic religious impulse in South Asia. Several works discussed under Islam and Power deal with aspects of Sufi piety, expression, and impact. In this section, Rizvi 1978 offers an overview of South Asian mystic traditions. The Chishtiyah have always been the premier Indian Sufi order. Currie 1989 examines the traditions established by Muin al-Din Chishti, the founder of the order, at Ajmer. The Delhi Sultanate was a high point of Sufi activity. Nizami 1991 and Nizami 2007 study two key 14th-century Chishtis of Delhi, while Islam 2002 examines Sufism as a whole in that century. Ernst 1992 explores the riches of the Chishti traditions of the Deccan from the medieval through the Early Modern period; Digby 2001 sets out the role of Naqshbandi Sufis associated with the Mughal army in the 17th-century Deccan. Schimmel 1976 explores the world of two 18th-century Sufis, Khwaja Mir Dard (b. 1721–d. 1785) of Delhi and Shah Abd al-Latif (b. 1689–d. 1752) of Sind.
  344.  
  345. Currie, P. M. The Shrine and Cult of Muʿīn al-dīn Chishtī of Ajmer. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1989.
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  347. Examines both the traditions associated with Muin al-Din Chishti and the role of his shrine from the 14th to the 20th centuries.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Digby, Simon, ed. and trans. Sufis and Soldiers in Awrangzeb’s Deccan: Malfūzāt-i-Naqshbandiyya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Brings to life the world of Sufis based in Awrangabad, a “colonial” town of the Mughal Empire in the Deccan. Digby also translates into English the Malfuzat-i Naqshbandiyya, which contains anecdotes about two leading Sufis.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Ernst, Carl W. Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
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  355. A work of great riches that explores the Chishti world of Khuldabad in the Deccan, under the sultanates, the Mughals, and the Nizams.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Islam, Riazul. Sufism in South Asia: Impact on Fourteenth Century Muslim Society. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A full study of Sufi ideas and practices, with a particular emphasis on social service.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. The Life and Times of Shaikh Nasir-uʾd-din Chiragh-i-Delhi. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabyat-i Delli, 1991.
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  363. A biography of the spiritual successor to Shaikh Nizam al-Din, who was harassed by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Nizami, Khaliq Ahmad. The Life and Times of Shaikh Nizamuʾd-Din Auliya. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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  367. Originally published in 1991. A somewhat traditional study of the greatest of Delhi’s Chishti Sufi saints.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A History of Sufism in India. 2 vols. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1978.
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  371. A magisterial overview of Sufi movements in South Asia; includes discussions of Sufi interactions with Hindu mystical traditions.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Schimmel, Annemarie. Pain and Grace: A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-Century Muslim India. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1976.
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  375. A first-class introduction to Sufism in the twilight years of Muslim power in South Asia.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Women
  378.  
  379. In the premodern era, despite the fact that the chronicles make it clear that women of ruling families were often major players in the politics of their times, women have generally been hidden from view. The first women’s voice to be clearly heard was that of Gul-badan Begum (Begam 1983), who wrote about the life of her brother, Humayun, and did so from a distinctive woman’s point of view. It was this work that encouraged Ruby Lal (Lal 2005) to produce her major study of the role of women in the early Mughal enterprise. Brijbhushan 1990 sets out the life of the only female ruler of the premodern age, Sultan Raziya of the Delhi Sultanate (b. c. 1236–d. 1240). Findly 1993 explores the life of Nur Jahan, the virtual ruler of the Mughal Empire in the declining years of her husband, Jahangir, while Krieger-Krynicki 2005 looks at the life of Zeb al-Nisa, Awrangzeb’s poet daughter.
  380.  
  381. Begam, Gul-badan. The History of Humayun. Reprint ed. Translated by A. S. Beveridge. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1983.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Gul-badan was a daughter of Babur and the sister of the emperor Humayun. Written on the instruction of Emperor Akbar, her work depicts women’s activity within the court, with a good number of excellent anecdotes that shed light on the activities of the court and the wisdom and political role of women.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Brijbhushan, Jamila. Sultan Raziya, Her Life and Times: A Reappraisal. New Delhi: Manohar, 1990.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. A starting point for the study of Raziya.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Findly, Ellison Banks. Nur Jahan: Empress of Mughal India. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. An overview of the life and achievement of a woman of great gifts.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Krieger-Krynicki, Annie. Captive Princess: Zebunissa, Daughter of Emperor Aurangzeb. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2005.
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  395. Tells the life, and reproduces some of the poetry, of this gifted woman.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Lal, Ruby. Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  399. The first study to circumvent Orientalist interpretations of the haram and reveal the vital contribution of women to the Mughal Empire.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Architecture
  402.  
  403. The wealth of South Asia enabled it to support arguably the richest representation of Islamic architecture in the premodern world. It reveals, too, how architectural ideas from Iran and Central Asia came to mingle with India’s many regional traditions, producing work of great variety and imagination over six hundred years. Alfieri 2000 offers a comprehensive overview of premodern architectures. Asher 1992 and Michell and Zebrowski 1999 offer scholarly studies of the architecture of the Mughals and the Deccan sultanates. Koch 2006 takes the scholarly understanding of the Taj complex and the buildings of the Agra riverfront to a new level. Moynihan 1979 explains the role of gardens in Mughal culture. Llewellyn-Jones 2006 provides an elegiac evocation of the architecture of Nawabi Lucknow and is particularly interesting for the ways in which it shows Indians absorbing European influences.
  404.  
  405. Alfieri, Bianca Maria. Islamic Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent. London: Lawrence King, 2000.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Particularly strong in its representation of pre-Mughal and regional styles, with outstanding photographs by Frederico Borromeo.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India. The New Cambridge History of India I:4. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  410. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521267281Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Outstanding overview that deals with minor as well as major buildings.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Koch, Ebba. The Complete Taj Mahal and the Riverfront Gardens of Agra. London: Thames and Hudson, 2006.
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  415. Places the Taj in its context and enables one to appreciate Shah Jahan’s architectural achievement as never before.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Llewellyn-Jones, Rosie. Lucknow: City of Illusion. London: Prestel, 2006.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A path-breaking work, wonderfully illustrated, that reveals the creativity of this northern Indian city in the 18th and early 19th centuries.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Michell, George, and Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of India I:7. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  422. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521563215Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Reveals the striking regional traditions of the Deccan.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as a Garden: In Persia and Mughal India. New York: George Braziller, 1979.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. In particular, Moynihan explains the garden tomb—and the garden as a representation of paradise.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Painting
  430.  
  431. Literary evidence tells us that mural painting took place in the Delhi Sultanate in the 14th century. Evidence exists, too, of provincial patronage of book illustration. But little has survived. Great riches survive from the 16th century on, however. From the middle of the century, both the Mughal court and the courts of the Deccan sultanates begin one hundred years of great creativity, responding to indigenous styles and Persian and European influences. Over this period, painting evolved from being just manuscript illustration to including single items that might be brought together in an album (muraqqa). Michell and Zebrowski 1999 explores the differing traditions of the Deccan sultanates. Stronge 2002, Okada 1992, and Beach 1992 set out the great achievements of Mughal court patronage from different angles. Wright 2008 looks at the wonders of the great Mughal albums of the 17th century. Beach and Koch 1997 analyzes in considerable scholarly depth the last great masterpiece of Mughal book illustration, the Padshahnama of Shah Jahan. Welch and Masteller 2004 reveals what can be learned from drawings as opposed to paintings. Beach 1992 and Schmitz 2002 explore the emergence of provincial styles after the end of Mughal court patronage in the 17th century.
  432.  
  433. Beach, Milo Cleveland. Mughal and Rajput Painting. The New Cambridge History of India I:3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  434. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521400275Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Particularly good in showing the interplay between the Mughal and the Rajput traditions from the 16th to the 19th centuries.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Beach, Milo Cleveland, and Ebba Koch. King of the World: The Padshahnama. With new translations by Wheeler Thackston. London: Azimuth, 1997.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. If studied alongside Koch 2006 (cited under Architecture), this volume reveals the magnificence of the Mughal court at the height of its wealth and power.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Michell, George, and Mark Zebrowski. Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates. The New Cambridge History of India I:7. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  442. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521563215Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Introduces the painting of the Deccan sultanates, relatively small in quantity but often striking in idiom.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Okada, Amina. Indian Miniatures of the Mughal Court. Translated by Deke Dusinberre. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Particularly good in focusing on individual artists and showing the influences at work in the development of their art.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Schmitz, Barbara, ed. After the Great Mughals: Painting in Delhi and the Regional Courts in the 18th and 19th Centuries. Mumbai, India: Marg, 2002.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. In studying post-Mughal developments in the regions, this volume makes an interesting comparison with Llewellyn-Jones 2006, cited under Architecture.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Stronge, Susan. Painting for the Mughal Emperor: The Art of the Book, 1560–1660. London: V&A, 2002.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Draws on the riches of the Victoria and Albert Museum to reveal the Mughal art of the book at its height.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Welch, Stuart Cary, and Kimberly Masteller. From Mind, Heart, and Hand: Persian, Turkish, and Indian Drawings from the Stuart Cary Welch Collection. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Drawings, often so much less formal than paintings, can take one closer to the humanity of the South Asian world.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Wright, Elaine. Muraqqaʿ: Imperial Mughal Albums from the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin. Alexandria, VA: Art Services International, 2008.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A stunning presentation of Mughal connoisseurship.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. The Modern Period: 19th–20th Centuries
  466.  
  467. The modern period brought great changes for Muslims in South Asia, particularly as they came to be subject to British rule. In this context, a ferment of new ideas appeared as Muslims confronted the challenges of maintaining a Muslim society without power and the apparent triumph of Western civilization. Out of this ferment came ideas and institutions that were to have great influence in South Asia, but also far beyond, including the Islamic modernism of Syed Ahmad Khan, his Aligarh movement, and Muhammad Iqbal; the new forms of “willed Islam” represented by Deoband and the Tablighi Jamaʿat; and the political Islam pioneered by Mawlana Mawdudi and his Jamaʿat-i Islami. On the political side, Muslim separatism arose, eventually led by the remarkable Jinnah and culminating in the partition of British India at independence. Ulama, Sufis, and women have all had their distinctive engagements with modernity. In the modern postcolonial states of Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, the fate of Islam—and that of Muslims—has often been subject to the play of both national and international politics.
  468.  
  469. The Islamic Revival
  470.  
  471. The Islamic revival had its roots in Muslim discourse about the loss of power in South Asia. Rizvi 1982 draws the connections between Shah Wali Allah and the Naqshbandiyah of the 18th century and the early responses to British rule in the 19th century. Ahmad 1967 offers a masterly overview of Muslim responses down to the second half of the 20th century. Metcalf 1982 tells the story of Deoband and the Sunni Muslim revival in northern India, Jones 2012 tells that of the Shiʿa revival in the same region. Ahmed 1988 explores the revival in Bengal and Green 2011 that in the great industrial port city of Bombay. Friedmann 1989 examines the emergence of the Ahmadiyah, a particular manifestation of revival that controversially asserted the possibility of prophecy after the death of the Prophet. Masud 2000 explains the emergence and spread of the Tablighi Jamaʿat. Sikand 2002 examines its development in three different contexts. Nasr 1996 examines the life and thought of Syed Abul Aʿla Mawdudi, the creator of political Islam in South Asia. The essays in Robinson 2000, in particular those on print and the self, deal with key aspects of religious change in the period; those in Osella and Osella 2013 address many aspects of Islamic reform.
  472.  
  473. Ahmad, ʿAziz. Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan, 1857–1964. London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Still the leading survey of Islamic modernism.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Ahmed, Rafiuddin. The Bengal Muslims, 1871–1906: A Quest for Identity. 2d ed. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. The major study of the emergence of a Muslim identity in the context of religious revival.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Friedmann, Yohanan. Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Shows how this controversial, but now worldwide, group emerged during the revival.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Green, Nile. Bombay Islam: The Religious Economy of the West Indian Ocean, 1840–1915. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  486. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511975165Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Green shows how colonial modernity in Bombay embraces what he terms “enchanted” Islam no less than reformed Islam, and how the various expressions of these tendencies reach out in trade networks across the Indian Ocean.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Jones, Justin. Shiʿa Islam in Colonial India: Religion, Community and Sectarianism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
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  491. Jones demonstrates Twelver Shiʿa institutional development based in Lucknow, their spawning of madrasas in way similar to Deoband, and their growing leadership of Twelver Shiʿas throughout India.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Masud, Muhammad Khalid, ed. Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jamāʿat as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal. Boston: Brill, 2000.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. An important collection of essays examining the Tablighi Jamaʿat, both in South Asia and internationally.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Metcalf, Barbara Daly. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. The leading study of the revival in northern India.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza. Mawdudi and the Making of Islamic Revivalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Key study of the emergence of this influential thinker.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Osella, Filippo, and Caroline Osella, eds. Islamic Reform in South Asia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. A rich collection of essays setting out the many expressions of Islamic reform in South Asia.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. Shah ʿAbd al-ʿAziz: Puritanism, Sectarian Polemics, and Jihad. Canberra, Australia: Maʿrifat, 1982.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. A major study of the world of the sons and grandsons of Shah Wali Allah and their role in 19th-century activism.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Robinson, Francis. Islam and Muslim History in South Asia. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Essays focusing on key aspects of the Muslim revival.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Sikand, Yoginder. The Origins and Development of the Tablighi Jama’at, 1920–2000. Hyderabad, India: Orient Longman, 2002.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. A path-breaking study of the growth of the Tablighi Jama’at in India, Bangladesh, and Britain.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. The Aligarh Movement
  522.  
  523. An important aspect of the Muslim revival was the Aligarh movement, the vanguard of Islamic modernism focused on Aligarh College. Hasan 2005 studies five intellectuals of mid-19th-century Delhi, four of whom were intimately involved in the movement. Troll 1978 examines the intellectual background of Syed Ahmad Khan, the founder of the movement, and the prodigious efforts he made to reinterpret Islam; Lelyveld 1977 examines the great college (by 1920 a university) that he created. Khan 2001 studies the All-India Educational Conference, which was designed to spread the Aligarh message across India. The analysis provided in Khan 2000 of the causes of the Indian revolt of 1857 is devastating. Hali 1979 is a biography of the Syed that explains how the revolt was crucial to the bridge-building exercises between the Muslims and the British that consumed the rest of his life. Shackle and Majeed 1997 translates Hali’s Musaddas on the “Flow and Ebb of Islam,” which was the anthem of the Aligarh movement and of some of the Muslim political movements that followed it. Iqbal 1942 edits the autobiography of one of the most prominent products of Aligarh.
  524.  
  525. Hali, Altaf Husain. Hayat-i-Javed: A Biographical Account of Sir Sayyid. Translated by K. H. Qadiri and David J. Matthews. Delhi: Idarah-i-Adabyat-i-Delli, 1979.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. A major biography of Syed Ahmad Khan by Hali, a poet and intellectual who knew him well and admired him greatly.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Hasan, Mushirul. A Moral Reckoning: Muslim Intellectuals in Nineteenth-Century Delhi. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Examines the responses to British rule of Syed Ahmad Khan, Altaf Hussain Hali, Zakaullah, Nazir Ahmad, and Ghalib, all men of perception, intelligence, and humanity.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Iqbal, Afzal, ed. My Life a Fragment: An Autobiographical Sketch of Maulana Mohamed Ali. Lahore, Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1942.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Written while Muhammad Ali was interned during World War I, it gives a sense of how Aligarh shaped the aspirations of its pupils.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Khan, Syed Ahmad. The Causes of the Indian Revolt. New ed. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. The very brave pamphlet that Syed Ahmad Khan wrote to explain to the government of India why the Indian Mutiny uprising of 1857 had taken place; it reveals both the intelligence of the man and the courage that marked his actions throughout his life.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Khan, Abdul Rashid. The All India Muslim Educational Conference: Its Contribution to the Cultural Development of Indian Muslims, 1886–1947. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Overview of the progress of Aligarh’s modern educational project.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Lelyveld, David S. Aligarh’s First Generation: Muslim Solidarity in British India. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1977.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. A classic work on the foundation of MAO College in Aligarh; particularly good on the Muslim elite culture out of which the college was formed.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Shackle, Christopher, and Javed Majeed, eds. and trans. Hali’s Musaddas: The Flow and Ebb of Islam. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. An excellent introduction to this important work that brings context and understanding.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Troll, Christian W. Sayyid Ahmad Khan: A Reinterpretation of Muslim Theology. Delhi: Vikas, 1978.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Shows how much Syed Ahmad Khan owed to the tradition of Shah Wali Allah and to contemporary Christian biblical criticism.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Muslim Politics
  558.  
  559. A feature of Muslim politics under the British was that Muslims in different sociopolitical situations took different routes, and often different routes at different times, such as Muslim separatist, Indian nationalist, Pan-Islamist, landed self-interest, and so on. Hardy 1972 offers a balanced overview of the development of Muslim politics. Pandey 1990 investigates the role of British constructions of Indian society in helping to fashion communal approaches on the part of both Hindus and Muslims. Robinson 1974 analyzes the emergence of separatist politics in the key area of the United Provinces; Das 1991 does the same for Bengal in the specific context of riots; and Talbot 1988 shows that the alliances between the British and the Punjab landed classes made separatist politics unfruitful there until the very end (but see also Sufis.) Minault 1982 explores the extraordinary moment when Muslim politics came to have a pan-Islamic focus with little apparent connection to self-interest. Hasan 1979 shows how the best efforts of Muslim nationalist politicians were stymied by the work of Hindu communalists. Page 1982 demonstrates how the federal constitution of British India constrained Muslim separatist politics after the Government of India Act of 1919 but was likely to enable them after the Government of India Act of 1935.
  560.  
  561. Das, Suranjan. Communal Riots in Bengal, 1905–1947. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Shows how rioting moved from being a class-based to a communal phenomenon.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Hardy, Peter. The Muslims of British India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1972.
  566. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563287Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Although a little dated, this remains the classic overview of Muslim politics under the British.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Hasan, Mushirul. Nationalism and Communal Politics in India, 1916–1928. Delhi: Manohar, 1979.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Examines the fate of Hindu-Muslim unity from the Lucknow Pact of 1916 to the Nehru Report of 1928.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Minault, Gail. The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Shows how a Muslim politics of self-interest is temporarily blown off course by religious fervor.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Page, David. Prelude to Partition: The Indian Muslims and the Imperial System of Control, 1920–1932. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1982.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Essential reading as a background to understanding the impact of the federal system on Muslim politics from 1935 to 1947.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Pandey, Gyanendra. The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. An important contribution to understanding the emergence of communalism in India.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Robinson, Francis. Separatism among Indian Muslims: The Politics of the United Provinces’ Muslims, 1860–1923. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Examines the emergence of Muslim political separatism from the descendants of the old Mughal service classes in the heartland of India’s politics.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Talbot, Ian. Punjab and the Raj, 1848–1947. Delhi: Manohar, 1988.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Explains why Muslims in the Punjab rejected separatist politics until the end.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Iqbal and Jinnah
  594.  
  595. Two men dominated Muslim politics in the two decades before independence, Muhammad Iqbal (d. 1938) and Muhammad Ali Jinnah (d. 1948). The poet-philosopher Iqbal produced an inspiring modernist vision of progress in Islamic history, and in his 1930 address to the All-India Muslim League he put forth the idea of establishing a Muslim state in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent. Jinnah was a gifted statesman who moved from being an Indian nationalist in the early years of the century to being a leader of Muslim separatism by the 1930s. He was the pilot of the Muslim League through to the creation of Pakistan in 1947. The best introduction to Iqbal is Mir 2006, while Schimmel 1963 and Malik 1971 offer good discussions of his ideas. Sevea 2012 shows how his thinking about the future of Indian Muslims reached beyond the nation-state. The lectures constituting Iqbal 1986, first published as The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam in 1930, are the major statement of his philosophical position; his Javid-Nama (Iqbal 1966), a narrative poem first published in 1932, is his greatest work. Wolpert 1984 offers an overview of Jinnah’s life, and Jalal 1985 provides a convincing analysis of his policies from the 1930s to 1947. Zaidi 1994 contains Jinnah’s correspondence, which gives useful insights into the qualities of this remarkable leader.
  596.  
  597. Iqbal, Muhammad. Javid-Nama. Translated from the Persian by Arthur J. Arberry. London: Allen and Unwin, 1966.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Nodding his head in the direction of Dante’s Divine Comedy, the poet, in imitation of the Prophet’s ascension, soars through the heavens meeting great figures of Islamic history.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Iqbal, Muhammad. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Edited and annotated by M. Saeed Sheikh. Lahore, Pakistan: Institute of Islamic Culture, 1986.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. A major statement of Iqbal’s attempt to rethink the system of Islam without completely breaking from the past. Originally delivered as four lectures.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  606. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511558856Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Argues that partition into two separate states was not the outcome Jinnah sought. Instead, Jalal asserts, he had in mind a Pakistan within a federal India. A controversial thesis.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Malik, Hafeez, ed. Iqbal, Poet-Philosopher of Pakistan. New York: Columbia University Press, 1971.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. A useful collection of essays.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Mir, Mustansir. Iqbal. Lahore, Pakistan: Iqbal Academy Pakistan, 2006.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. A first-class introduction to Iqbal.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Schimmel, Annemarie. Gabriel’s Wing: A Study into the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1963.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. A highly regarded study.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Sevea, Iqbal Singh. The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbval: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  622. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511920172Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Presents Iqbal as a major thinker of modernity in the colonial setting. He explores his profound opposition to colonialism and his vision for the future of India’s Muslims, indeed all Muslims, which reached beyond the nation-state.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Wolpert, Stanley. Jinnah of Pakistan. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. A useful overview of Jinnah’s life. Wolpert accepts the official Pakistani view that Jinnah intended to create a separate and entirely sovereign state.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Zaidi, Z. H., ed. Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah Papers. Vol. 1, Prelude to Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: National Archives of Pakistan, 1994.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Among many things, these papers reveal that Jinnah was buying Air India shares and discussing the purchase of property in Bombay just a few months before partition. This is the first of a 16-volume collection.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Partition and Independence
  634.  
  635. The literature on the partition of British India and the emergence of the separate and independent states of India and Pakistan is vast. This is to be expected of an event that left at least 12 million people uprooted from their homes, hundreds of thousands killed, and the formation of two nation-states profoundly hostile to each other, and with profound ramifications for the region down to the present. Hasan 1993 brings together essays, speeches, and other works in a comprehensive introduction to the event. Talbot 1988 explains how the Muslim League was able to gain positions of political dominance in the northeast and northwest of India between 1937 and 1947. Chatterji 1994 explains how the partition of Bengal was very much the wish of Bengali Hindus, who wished to avoid being ruled by Muslims. Devji 2013 and Dhulipala 2015 consider how Pakistan was imagined. Khan 2007 provides a powerful narrative of partition and its great human cost. Hasan 1995 looks at its reflection in literature, while Butalia 1998, using oral techniques, records how it remains a searing memory for many involved. Zamindar 2007 considers what new states and new citizenship imposed from above might have meant for the individuals involved. Pandey 2001 considers the responsibilities of historians in interpreting an event that contains many different narratives and has played a key role in Indian and Pakistani self-perceptions.
  636.  
  637. Butalia, Urvashi. The Other Side of Silence: Voices from the Partition of India. Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1998.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Among the first books to bring to life the voices of ordinary people who lived through partition.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Chatterji, Joya. Bengal Divided: Hindu Communalism and Partition, 1932–1947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  642. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563256Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. An important reminder that some Hindus wanted partition no less than some Muslims.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Devji, Faisal. Muslim Zion: Pakistan as a Political Idea. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  646. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674074163Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Devji compares the idea of Pakistan with that of Israel, but also with those of colonial settler states, as a political form that rejects hereditary linkages between ethnicity and soil in favor of a membership based on belonging.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Dhulipala, Venkat. Creating a New Medina: State Power, Islam, and the Quest for Pakistan in Late Colonial India. Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
  650. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107280380Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Against those who argue that Pakistan was “insufficently imagined,” Dhulipala gives chapter and verse as to how it was imagined, and demonstrates the role of some ulama in the process.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Hasan, Mushirul, ed. India’s Partition: Process, Strategy, and Mobilization. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. In addition to the essays, Hasan provides a most useful introduction.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Hasan, Mushirul, ed. India Partitioned: The Other Face of Freedom. 2 vols. Delhi: Roli, 1995.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. A deeply personal, as the editor admits, but also powerful selection of literary responses to partition.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007.
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. A widely admired narrative of partition by a writer of literary gifts and strong historical imagination.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Pandey, Gyanendra. Remembering Partition: Violence, Nationalism, and History in India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  666. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511613173Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. An important book on the legacies of partition.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Talbot, Ian. Provincial Politics and the Pakistan Movement: The Growth of the Muslim League in North-West and North-East India, 1937–1947. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Relates the dynamics of provincial politics in these regions to the Muslim League’s campaign for Pakistan and its substantially improved position in the elections of 1945–1946.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Zamindar, Vazira Fazila-Yacoobali. The Long Partition and the Making of Modern South Asia: Refugees, Boundaries, Histories. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Zamindar brings together oral histories of North Indian Muslim families divided between Delhi and Karachi, reveals the experiences of ordinary people at the hands of bureaucracies on either side, and sets out the bewilderment of North Indian Muslims at their marginalization in the politics of both India and Pakistan.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. The Ulama
  678.  
  679. The ulama, the learned men of Islam, have traditionally played the key role in making Islamic knowledge relevant in their time and in passing it on to succeeding generations. In the modern period they have been seen as a deeply conservative social force, not least by those of a secular disposition. However, they have also been creative in their responses to the challenges of the time, and thus they have arguably come to play a larger part in the life of Muslim societies than previously. Aspects of the South Asian ulama are discussed in Robinson 2001 and Sanyal 1999, and the sources listed under The Islamic Revival. Metcalf 2008 and Zaman 2008 examine the lives of the two most important 20th-century ulama from the Deoband school. Douglas 1988 explores the life of Abul Kalam Azad, trained in the classical tradition but able to offer his great gifts to journalism, scholarship, and politics. Hardy 1971 examines the various ways in which the ulama brought their perspective to bear on constitutional change between 1912 and 1947. Qureshi 1974 offers an overview of the ulama in politics. Zaman 2002 sets out the variety of ulama points of view in South Asia over the past two centuries and shows that while some may have turned inward to focus on personal development, others have remained socially engaged, which helps to explain the larger part they have come to play in community life.
  680.  
  681. Douglas, Ian Henderson. Abul Kalam Azad: An Intellectual and Religious Biography. Edited by Gail Minault and Christian W. Troll. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. The first book to produce a rounded picture of this traditionally learned man, who was admired by many who knew him, and who remained at the heart of Indian nationalism and then of the politics of independent India until his death.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Hardy, Peter. Partners in Freedom and True Muslims: The Political Thought of Some Muslim Scholars in British India, 1912–1947. Lund, Sweden: Studentlitteratur, 1971.
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Analyzes the thinking of the ulama as independence approached.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Metcalf, Barbara D. Husain Ahmad Madani: The Jihad for Islam and India’s Freedom. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. An intimate biography of a scholar and political activist who came to lead Deoband; in particular, he campaigned against Jinnah’s Two-Nation theory and for Indian independence.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Qureshi, Ishtiaq Husain. The Ulema in Politics. 2d ed. Karachi, Pakistan: Maʾarif, 1974.
  694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. An overview of ulama engagement in politics in the colonial period.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Robinson, Francis. The ʿUlama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Addresses the lives and achievement of ulama from this distinctive school as scholars, Sufis, teachers, and politicians from 1700 to 1950.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Sanyal, Usha. Devotional Islam and Politics in British India: Ahmad Riza Khan Barelwi and His Movement, 1870–1920. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. A study of a movement that was profoundly opposed to the Islamic reform represented by Deoband.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
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  707. Despite the title, the prime focus of this important book is the ulama of South Asia. A central concern is religious authority, with particular attention given to the discourse of the ulama of Deoband.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Ashraf ʿAli Thanawi: Islam in Modern South Asia. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
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  711. A study of the leading Deobandi figure, along with Madani, of the 20th century. A major jurist, Sufi, and author of many books, including Bishishti Zewar, he urged his followers to support Jinnah’s Two-Nation theory.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Sufis
  714.  
  715. It was long thought, quite wrongly, that the emergence of Islamic reform and the growth of Western post-Enlightenment knowledge in Muslim South Asia had led to a decline of Sufism. In fact, Sufism has shown rather more resilience than might have been suspected. Several scholars have demonstrated how Sufi traditions dating from the sultanate period have responded to the challenges of the colonial and postcolonial eras. Green 2006 evokes the cultural vitality of the Sufi world of the 17th-century Decca and shows how important elements of that vitality have been sustained into the present. Buehler 1998 explores the development of the Naqshbandi-Mujaddidi tradition in India and shows how revivalist Naqshbandis came to abandon spiritual practices that their predecessors had followed for centuries; Ernst and Lawrence 2002 sets out the continuing vigor of Chishti traditions from the 14th century into contemporary South Asia. Liebeskind 1998 examines three Sufi shrines in Awadh over the past two centuries and demonstrates what has enabled some to survive more effectively than others. The relationships among Sufis, landed power, colonial systems of political control, and the susceptibility of such systems to the Muslim League’s appeal to religion in the mid-1940s are features of both Ansari 1992 and Gilmartin 1988. Rozehnal 2007 provides an outstanding study of Chishti-Sabiri spiritual practice in the modern urban centers of Pakistan, demonstrating the vitality of a living tradition. Abbas 2002 illustrates the currency and force of the female voice in South Asian Sufi practice. Bigelow 2010 illustrates the role of a Sufi tradition in maintaining peace among Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs in a northern Indian town after Independence.
  716.  
  717. Abbas, Shemeem Burney. The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual: Devotional Practices in Pakistan and India. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
  718. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  719. A pioneering work that explores women’s participation in the devotional activities at Sufi shrines. Abbas also demonstrates the way in which male performers adopt the female voice, illustrating the centrality of women to Sufi practice.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. Ansari, Sarah F. D. Sufi Saints and State Power: The Pirs of Sind, 1843–1947. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  722. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511563201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. Sets out the role of the great landed Sufi saints of Sind and their relationship to colonial power.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Bigelow, Anna. Sharing the Sacred: Practicing Pluralism in North India. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. In an environment in which communal conflict is endemic, Bigelow illustrates the role of a Sufi tradition in sustaining peace among Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs in the Muslim majority town of Malerkotla in India’s Punjab province.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Buehler, Arthur F. Sufi Heirs of the Prophet: The Indian Naqshbandiyya and the Rise of the Mediating Sufi Shaykh. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
  730. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  731. Written by a scholar who has imbued himself with the contemporary Naqshbandi Sufi world of Pakistan.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Ernst, Carl W., and Bruce B. Lawrence. Sufi Martyrs of Love: The Chishti Order in South Asia and Beyond. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
  734. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-09581-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735. An outstanding overview of the Chishtiyah from the 14th century to the present, among other topics devoting particular attention to their practice of samaʾ, of listening to music to achieve spiritual ecstasy.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Gilmartin, David. Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan. Berkeley: California University Press, 1988.
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. Demonstrates the role of Sufis in Britain’s control of rural Punjab, as well as the strategic position they occupied as the Muslim League began to propagate a new communal ethic from the urban world.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Green, Nile. Indian Sufism since the Seventeenth Century: Saints, Books and Empires in the Muslim Deccan. New York: Routledge, 2006.
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743. A work brimming with ideas exploring how the Sufi traditions of Mughal Aurangabad were carried into the colonial period and contemporary India.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Liebeskind, Claudia. Piety on Its Knees: Three Sufi Traditions in South Asia in Modern Times. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. Making particular use of miracle stories, Liebeskind examines Sufi responses to the colonial state, to changing intellectual attitudes among Muslims, and to the key issue of sustaining Sufi constituencies.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Rozehnal, Robert. Islamic Sufism Unbound: Politics and Piety in Twenty-First Century Pakistan. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
  750. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-230-60572-5Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Essential reading about contemporary Sufi practice and how it might be understood.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. The Shiʿa
  754.  
  755. A feature of recent decades has been the growth of research published on South Asian Shiʿa communities, roughly 60 million people. We have noted above the works of Cole 1988 (cited under Islam in the Regions) and in Jones 2012 (cited under the Islamic Revival) on the establishment and development of a great Twelver Shiʿa center in Lucknow. This said, an important point in the study of the Twelver Shiʿa is Rizvi’s major two-volume survey (Rizvi 1986). Much work has been done on Shiʿa commemorative practice, for instance, Schubel’s study of Shiʿa devotional rituals in Pakistan (Schubel 1993), Pinault’s study of similar rituals in India (Pinault 2001) and Howarth’s analysis of Shiʿa preaching (Howarth 2005). The role of women in Shiʿa devotional practice is studied in Ruffle 2011 and D’Souza 2012. The role of British imperial power in influencing the development of the Nizari Ismaʿilis is set out in Purohit 2012 and Van Grondelle 2009. Jones and Qasmi 2015 provides an overview of recent research on South Asia’s Shiʿas.
  756.  
  757. D’Souza, Diane. Shia Women: Muslim Faith and Practice. New Delhi: Zubaan, 2012.
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. D’Souza examines the ways in which Shiʿa women construct and experience their religious lives. She brings to life women of the Shiʿa tradition who have shaped its development as well as the dynamic leadership of contemporary women.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Howarth, Toby. The Twelver Shiʿa as a Muslim Minority in India: Pulpit of Tears. London: Routledge, 2005.
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  763. This is an outstanding analysis of Shiʿa sermons mourning the events of Karbala. It examines both the sermon as a form of communication and how impact on the audience is achieved and also the many occasions throughout the year on which sermons will be preached and heard.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Jones, Justin, and Ali Usman Qasmi, eds. The Shiʿa in Modern South Asia: Religion, History and Politics. Delhi: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
  766. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. This volume of essays brings together much of the most recent research on the Shiʿa of South Asia.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Pinault, David. Horse of Karbala: Muslim Devotional Life in India. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 2001.
  770. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-04765-6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  771. Pinault studies Shiʿa rituals in three Indian locations: Hyderabad, Darjeeling, and Ladakh.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Purohit, Teena. The Aga Khan Case: Religion and Identity in Colonial India. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
  774. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674067707Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Teena Purohit demonstrates first how a decision the Bombay High Court in 1866 helped to establish the Aga Khan as the hereditary Imam of the Khoja or Nizari Ismailis and, second, how the Aga Khans came to amend the pluralistic Satpanthi traditions of the Khojas in order to develop a theology that focused on their semi-divine role.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Rizvi, Saiyid Athar Abbas. A Socio-intellectual History of the Isna ʿAshari Shiʿis in India. 2 vols. Canberra, Australia: Maʿrifat, 1986.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. This is a wide-ranging survey of the Twelver Shiʿa of India based on considerable research.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Ruffle, Karen. Gender, Sainthood & Everyday Practice in South Asia Shiʿism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
  782. DOI: 10.5149/9780807877975_ruffleSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. Ruffle demonstrates how in the context of the Shiʿa world of Hyderabad traditions of sainthood and localized cultural values shape gender roles. She focuses, in particular, on rituals that venerate Qasem and Fatimah Kubra. She is concerned to challenge Shiʿa patriarchal narratives.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Schubel, Vernon. Religious Performance in Contemporary Islam: Shiʿi Devotional Rituals in South Asia. Columbia: University of South Carolina University Press, 1993.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. A classic study of Shiʿa devotional rituals.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. van Grondelle, Marc. The Ismailis in the Colonial Era: Modernity, Empire and Islam. London: Hurst, 2009.
  790. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791. This sets out the role of the British Empire in the internationalisation of the Nizari Ismaili community.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Women
  794.  
  795. Change in Muslim societies in modern times has often been written about in the context of the experiences of Muslim women, whether it be in the special duty of sustaining that society, which some ascribed to them in the colonial state, or the requirement—either imposed upon themselves or forced upon them by others—to represent in their clothing, their behavior, and their life paths particular sets of values. Nevertheless, wherever possible, Muslim women have seized the opportunity to place their own stamp on their way through life. Ahmad 2001 shows what an educated and socially active young woman can do to support the fortunes of her family and be a good example to her neighborhood; Metcalf 1990, an edition of Thanawi’s Bihishti Zewar, sets out the central role to be played by women in making the household a haven of reformed Islam. Minault 1998 reveals the role of individuals who promoted education for girls from the 19th to the early 20th centuries; Lambert-Hurley 2007 focuses on the activities of one remarkable woman, Sultan Jahan Begum of Bhopal, in supporting the advancement of women across a broad front. Ali 2000 explores the ways in which women moved into public space prior to 1947, while Ikramullah 1998 tells the personal story of a highly educated women (b. 1915) who witnessed many of the major events of the nationalist struggle. Minault and Papanek 1982 offers a classic collection of essays that explore purdah among Hindus as well as Muslims, and Hasan 1994 explores how the construction of community identity has affected women in India.
  796.  
  797. Ahmad, Nazir. The Bride’s Mirror: A Tale of Life in Delhi a Hundred Years Ago. 3d ed. Edited by G. E. Ward. Afterword by Frances W. Pritchett. New Delhi: Permanent Black, 2001.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. One of several didactic, and prize-winning, novels written by this member of the Aligarh movement, The Bride’s Mirror (Mirāt ul-ʿarūs) sold over 100,000 copies within a few years of its publication in 1869.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Ali, Azra Asghar. The Emergence of Feminism among Indian Muslim Women, 1920–1947. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  803. Monograph that shows the ways in which both the state and individual Muslims, male and female, helped to open up spaces for Muslim women outside the home.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. Hasan, Zoya, ed. Forging Identities: Gender, Communities, and the State. New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1994.
  806. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807. An important collection of essays that considers the relationship between women and communal identity in areas from the politics of space in the colonial period to the law after independence.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Ikramullah, Shaista S. From Purdah to Parliament. Rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811. Full of information about the lifestyle and values of an upper-class Muslim family, Begum Ikramullah’s autobiography tells how she became the first Indian Muslim woman to gain a PhD from the University of London, became engaged in the movement for Pakistan, and entered into her subsequent career in politics and diplomacy.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Lambert-Hurley, Siobhan. Muslim Women, Reform, and Princely Patronage: Nawab Sultan Jahan Begam of Bhopal. London: Routledge, 2007.
  814. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. An in-depth study of the life and achievements of this remarkable Muslim noblewoman.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Metcalf, Barbara Daly, trans. Perfecting Women: Maulana Ashraf ʿAli Thanawi’s Bihishti Zewar; A Partial Translation with Commentary. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
  818. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  819. Said to be the most widely published book in Muslim India after the Qurʾan, this volume instructs women in how to be effective sustainers of the reforming tradition in a Muslim household. Many of its instructions apply equally to men, such as the sections on reflection and fashioning the reforming conscience.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Minault, Gail. Secluded Scholars: Women’s Education and Muslim Social Reform in Colonial India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. A classic study of the early development of women’s education.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Minault, Gail, and Hanna Papanek, eds. Separate Worlds: Studies of Purdah in South Asia. Delhi: Chanakya, 1982.
  826. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  827. An important collection of essays that starts from the position that the seclusion of women must be seen in its social context.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. The Evidence of Literature
  830.  
  831. Poetry has always been highly prized among the Muslims of South Asia, whether as the natural accompaniment of civilized intercourse or the means to move audiences of thousands. Prose, too, has come to be widely value, with a growing demand for the short story and the novel. This rich literature enables the student to engage with Muslim South Asia in a range of ways, and the changing forms and concerns of literature also reflect wider changes in society at large. Pritchett 1994 shows how, in the context of the brutal British suppression of the Indian Mutiny uprising of 1857 and the rapid erosion of Muslim elite culture, some of the forms of the latter—in particular the ghazal, the jeweled and intricate love poem—came to be abandoned in favor of more utilitarian forms of expression. Ahmad 2009 explores how writers under the influence of socialist thought came to imbue their work with social and “progressive” purpose. Russell and Islam 1969 examines the world of Delhi before and after the Indian Mutiny uprising, through the life and letters of the poet Ghalib. Ali 1966 looks at the life of an upper-class Muslim family in Delhi some fifty years later. Russell and Islam’s brilliant article on the poet Akbar Ilahabadi enables us to enjoy a discourse about change and the skill of a great satirist (Russell and Islam 1974). Hossain 1988, the work of a Bengali woman activist first published in 1905, is believed to be the first feminist utopia, in which women take over the public sphere and men are confined to a world of seclusion. Faiz 1971 is a translation of the poet Faiz, one of the most famous and most passionate of the progressive writers. Samad 1997, a novel set in Bihar (India), Bangladesh, and Pakistan, explores the disintegration of a respectable Muslim family as a result of the partition, riots, migration, and land reform.
  832.  
  833. Ahmad, Talat. Literature and Politics in the Age of Nationalism: The Progressive Episode in South Asia, 1932–56. Delhi: Routledge India, 2009.
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835. Follows this dramatic development in Urdu literature through the tribulations of World War II and partition.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Ali, Ahmed. Twilight in Delhi: A Novel. London: Oxford University Press, 1966.
  838. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  839. Ali, a friend of E. M. Forster, evokes the world of a Muslim family, the sounds and smells of Delhi, and the sense of being a conquered people.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Faiz, Faiz Ahmad. Poems by Faiz. Translated by V. G. Kiernan. London: Allen and Unwin, 1971.
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  843. Faiz is regarded by many as the leading Urdu poet in the generation succeeding Iqbal. This selection, made by the poet himself, contains some of his more powerful statements about politics, love, and longing.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Hossain, Rokeya Sakhawat. Sultana’s Dream and Selections from The Secluded Ones. Edited and translated by Roushan Jahan. New York: Feminist Press, 1988.
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847. First published in 1905, Sultana’s Dream was Hossain’s witty response to purdah; The Secluded Ones, which began publication in 1929, contains often shocking vignettes that reveal the reality of life under purdah.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Pritchett, Francis W. Nets of Awareness: Urdu Poetry and Its Critics. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  850. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851. Provides one of the best ways of engaging with the crisis of Muslim civilization in northern India in the 1860s and 1870s.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Russell, Ralph, and Khurshidul Islam. Ghalib, 1767–1869. Vol. 1, Life and Letters. London: Allen and Unwin, 1969.
  854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  855. To be read alongside Nets of Awareness (Pritchett 1994) as a way of understanding the nature of Muslim civilization in northern India in the mid-19th century and the crisis it experienced at British hands.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Russell, Ralph, and Khushidul Islam. “The Satirical Verse of Akbar Ilāhābādī, 1846–1921.” Modern Asian Studies 8 (1974): 1–58.
  858. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X00004741Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859. Presents the wit of a man intensely aware of change and of its irresistibility, and of the need to adapt to it, but also acknowledging that with change, much good is also swept away with the bad.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Samad, Abdus. A Strip of Land Two Yards Long. Translated by Jai Ratan. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1997.
  862. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  863. This prize-winning Urdu novel by Samad, who hails from a zamindar family of Bihar, demonstrates how cultural identity is shaped by the emotions, the intellect, and history.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Independent India
  866.  
  867. Independence and partition left India as the state with the third largest number of Muslims, after Pakistan and Indonesia. Life has not always been easy for these Muslims, over 13 percent of the population, particularly as they have not always been completely trusted as loyal citizens. With the breakdown of the Nehruvian consensus in the 1960s, and the subsequent emergence of Hindu revivalism, Muslims have found themselves demonized—for their supposed violence against Hindus in their former years of power, for their imagined connections with foreign powers in the present, and for just being Muslims, the “Other” against which the Hindu political identity defined itself. In the 21st century a new stick has been found to beat the Muslims: their possible connection with global terror networks, which has led, among other things, to a deep suspicion of their system of madrasa education. Hasan 1997 and Hasan 2008, taken together, survey the progress and problems of India’s Muslims since independence. Sikand’s three books all deal with aspects of religion: Sikand 2003 explores religious sites shared by Muslims and others and notes how the rise of fundamentalisms has made sharing less possible; Sikand 2004 explores the diversity of Indian Muslim constructions of Islam; and Sikand 2005 sets out the many different kinds of madrasas in India and the important social roles they perform. (On this issue, see also Riaz 2004 [cited under Bangladesh].) Brass 2003 demonstrates how and why communal riots occur. Hasan and Menon 2004 argues that the focus on religion as the primary determinant of the position of Muslim women has obscured the impact of other factors, such as location, class, and opportunities for social development. Sachar 2007 is the first comprehensive survey of the social, economic, and educational position of India’s Muslims.
  868.  
  869. Brass, Paul R. The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003.
  870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  871. This is a thorough study of rioting—including its geographic, demographic, economic, and political dimensions—by the leading US political scientist focusing on India. Brass pays special attention to the city of Aligarh through time, out of which emerges his concept of the “institutionalized riot system.”
  872. Find this resource:
  873. Hasan, Mushirul. Legacy of a Divided Nation: India’s Muslims since Independence. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  874. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875. This book, written very much in the aftermath of the destruction of Babur’s mosque, surveys the working of India’s polity since 1947 and the relationship of Muslims to it.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Hasan, Mushirul. Moderate or Militant: Imagining India’s Muslims. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  878. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195695311.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. Written in the context of the demonization of Muslims after 9/11, and of much ill-informed rhetoric in India and the West about India’s Muslims, Hasan examines the development of ideas about them from the mid-19th century to the present, with the aim of revealing Indian Islam as one that sits easily in a pluralist milieu.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Hasan, Zoya, and Ritu Menon. Unequal Citizens: A Study of Muslim Women in India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883. Based on the first national survey of 10,000 Muslin and Hindu women in India, this book covers education, work, socioeconomic status, marriage, autonomy, mobility, domestic violence, access to welfare, and political participation. It reveals striking similarities, as well as disparities, within and between communities and between Muslim and Hindu women.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Sachar, Rajindar. High Level Committee Report on Social, Economic, and Educational Status of the Muslim Community of India, November, 2006. Delhi: Akalank Kumar Jain, 2007.
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887. This comprehensive study is a mine of information about all aspects of India’s Muslims.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Sikand, Yoginder. Sacred Spaces: Exploring Traditions of Shared Faith in India. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2003.
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. Sikand has personal knowledge of all the sacred spaces about which he writes, and of the people who inhabit them.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Sikand, Yoginder. Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-faith Relations. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.
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  895. A pioneering collection of essays in which Sikand sets out the variety of Muslim responses to their tradition and their present situation. Among other things, he is particularly interesting on Muslim-Dalit engagement and the development of a liberation theology by Dalits.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Sikand, Yoginder. Bastions of the Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India. New Delhi: Penguin Books India, 2005.
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  899. A study of contemporary madrasas in India by a scholar who has visited the madrasas and interviewed many ulama.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Pakistan
  902.  
  903. Pakistan was founded as a homeland for Muslims, but in the process it was subject to considerable disadvantages. At independence, its two wings were separated by more than one thousand miles of hostile territory; its leading political party, the Muslim League, had only recently acquired shallow roots in the lands it ruled; and its great commodity-producing lands were cut off from the factories that processed their output, which were now in India. As the state developed, ongoing tensions persisted. Some wished the Muslim homeland to become an Islamic state, while others did not, and there were the enduring tensions due to the competition of different ethnic and linguistic groups that had never planned to make a nation together. The separation of Bangladesh in 1971 was just one outcome of these tensions. Later, the region became a frontline state in the Cold War, and then in the so-called War on Terror. Talbot 2015 provides a balanced overview of the development of Pakistani history, while Cohen 2004 reflects on that same history, drawing from it themes informed by well over forty years of engagement with the country. Binder 1961 looks at the early struggle to impose an Islamic constitution on the state. Jalal 1990 demonstrates how, in the context of the Cold War, the military worked with the West to impose martial law in 1958, thus beginning the check on democratic development. Nasr 1995 analyzes the workings of Pakistan’s most highly organized religious party, the Jamaʿat-i Islami, which envisaged itself as the vanguard of an Islamic revolution. Ahmed 1987 examines the various discourses over the idea of an Islamic state as they had developed by the mid-1980s. Siddiqa 2007 demonstrates how far the Pakistani economy had been penetrated by military interests by the early 21st century. Hussain 2007 examines the rise of militant Islam in Pakistan. For a discussion of madrasas, see entries under Bangladesh.
  904.  
  905. Ahmed, Ishtiaq. The Concept of an Islamic State: An Analysis of the Ideological Controversy in Pakistan. London: Frances Pinter, 1987.
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907. A political scientist, drawing on the work of Pakistani theorists, analyzes the various forms an Islamic state might take.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Binder, Leonard. Religion and Politics in Pakistan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961.
  910. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  911. A classic study of the attempts of the religious forces in Pakistan to impose their will on the country’s first constitution, which explains in part why that constitution took nine years to draw up.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Cohen, Stephen Philip. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 2004.
  914. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  915. Mature, and at times brutally frank, musings on Pakistan’s development.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Hussain, Zahid. Frontline Pakistan: The Struggle with Militant Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.
  918. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  919. This leading expert on contemporary Pakistan shows how US pressure on Pakistan to suppress its jihadi culture, which, at the time of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, it worked with Pakistan to develop, has created considerable tensions within the Pakistani state and society.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Jalal, Ayesha. State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan’s Political Economy of Defence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  923. Excellent study of how the military came to play a decisive role in the processes of state formation during the Cold War.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza. The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jamaʿat-i Islami of Pakistan. London: I. B. Tauris, 1995.
  926. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  927. Classic study of the organization, rise, and political impact of Pakistan’s major Islamist party.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Siddiqa, Ayesha. Military Inc.: Inside Pakistan’s Military Economy. London: Pluto, 2007.
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931. Siddiqa sets out the extraordinary reach of the military through Pakistan’s economy, a military-industrial complex par excellence, but also one that embraces hotels, shopping malls, insurance companies, banks, farms, and an airline.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Talbot, Ian. Pakistan: A Modern History. Rev. ed. London: Hurst, 2015.
  934. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  935. Originally published in 1998. A measured overview by a leading historian of Pakistan.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Bangladesh
  938.  
  939. Bangladesh emerged from Pakistan in 1971, but its story goes back at least to the foundation of Pakistan. In the first two decades or more of the state’s existence, the Bengalis of the country’s eastern wing found themselves increasingly exploited and their culture demeaned by the Urdu-speaking elites who dominated the western wing. The Bengali professional classes, under the leadership of the charismatic Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (Sheikh Mujib), led a popular resistance that gained an overwhelming mandate when his Awami Party won 160 out of 162 Bengali seats in the first national elections held by Pakistan in 1970. When the Pakistani leadership chose to annul the results of these elections, the Bengalis launched a countrywide resistance that led to the birth of the independent state of Bangladesh. However, Mujib was overthrown and killed in a military coup in 1975, and for the following sixteen years the country was ruled by a military dictatorship. After the restoration of democracy in 1991, the Bangladesh National Party and the Awami League, both secular parties, found they needed to bid for the support of Islamist parties. In recent years, although Islamist parties have gained relatively small support compared with the two main secular parties, Islamic militancy has become a factor in Bangladeshi politics. Jahan 1972 provides the classic analysis of the Pakistani policies that created the context for effective Bengali nationalism. Maniruzzaman 2009 analyzes the nationalist movement and its failure once in power. Karim 2005 sees the same process through the life of its leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. Jahan 2001 assesses Bangladesh’s achievement some thirty years after its foundation. Banu 1992 analyzes the practice of Islam in the country. Nasrin 2002 tells the story of the author’s girlhood in a strict Muslim family. Riaz 2004 explains how Islamist organizations have grown and become legitimate democratic parties in a largely secular state, while Riaz 2008 sets out the extraordinary growth of madrasas both in Bangladesh and in South Asia generally.
  940.  
  941. Banu, U. A. B. Razia Akter. Islam in Bangladesh. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1992.
  942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  943. Looks at Islamic practice in two specific contexts, one rural and one urban, with the aim of understanding the impact of religious belief on socioeconomic development and political culture.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Jahan, Rounaq. Pakistan: Failure in National Integration. New York: Columbia University Press, 1972.
  946. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  947. Gives chapter and verse regarding West Pakistan’s colonial exploitation of East Pakistan.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Jahan, Rounaq, ed. Bangladesh: Promise and Performance. London: Zed Books, 2001.
  950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  951. Analyzes the political system, economic performance, and social ambiguities arising from the multiple identities of Bengalis.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Karim, Sayyid A. Sheikh Mujib: Triumph and Tragedy. Dhaka, Bangladesh: University Press, 2005.
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. Takes Mujib from his passionate support for the Pakistan movement as a young man through his leadership of Bengali nationalism in Pakistan to his replacement of party politics with a one-party state as national leader, and finally to his assassination.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Maniruzzaman, Talukder. The Bangladesh Revolution and Its Aftermath. Dhaka, Bangladesh: University Press, 2009.
  958. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. Originally published in 1980. Classic study of the internal workings of the movement for Bangladesh and its slide into authoritarianism once the state was gained.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Nasrin, Taslima. Meyebela: My Bengali Girlhood. South Royalton, VT: Steerforth, 2002.
  962. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  963. With her trademark outspokenness, which left her in fear of her life in South Asia but led to her being hailed as a fearless feminist in the West, Nasrin describes her dysfunctional family, in which rape, incest, bullying, lying, and religious fanaticism were the norm.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Riaz, Ali. God Willing: The Politics of Islamism in Bangladesh. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004.
  966. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  967. Shows how the needs of players in domestic politics have interacted with the rise of political Islam and Bangladeshi interaction with the global economy, in particular in the Middle East, to enable the rise of Islamist politics.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Riaz, Ali. Faithful Education: Madrassahs in South Asia. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008.
  970. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  971. Offers the best analysis of the extraordinary increase in madrasas in Bangladesh in its short history.
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