API tools faq
paste
Advertisement
jonstond2

International Drug Trafficking

jonstond2
Jan 23rd, 2017
209
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 97.98 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1. ntroduction
  2.  
  3. The global illegal drug trade is massive in scope with sweeping consequences for the developed and developing world. With an estimated annual value of between $300 billion and $400 billion, international drug trafficking dwarfs the value of many staple legal commodities in the global economy. This massive underground criminal marketplace further destabilizes regions rife with unrest, provides revenue for entrenched organized criminal groups, undermines cornerstone institutions, corrupts law enforcement, infiltrates the financial sector, and further complicates issues of national security. Recent decades have dramatically reconfigured international drug trafficking. While the United States remains the largest consumer of illicit drugs, recent years have witnessed a modest shift away from punitive prohibition policies; several states have relaxed marijuana laws, and there has been a modest deescalation of penalties at the federal level. The last decade has also witnessed significant increases in cocaine use in Europe that has further established this region as a hub in the global market for illicit drugs. In addition, the primary source of the world’s opium has largely relocated from the Golden Triangle in Southeast Asia to Afghanistan and the Golden Crescent; this shift has had profound impacts on large-scale conflicts and the political economy of the region. While cocaine production continues to fluctuate, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, and other traditional coca-cultivating countries in South America continue to produce the lion’s share of the world’s cocaine. Colombia remains a leader in the production of cocaine, although the power of the Colombian drug cartels has decreased in recent decades. Originally subcontracted to smuggle drugs into the United States by Colombian cartels, Mexican drug trafficking organizations have emerged as, potentially, the dominant force in the drug economy of the new millennium. These deep-rooted criminal groups established control over longstanding smuggling routes into the United States. Given the scope and mutually constitutive nature of international drug trafficking with global social, economic, and political dynamics, an empirically based understanding of this issue is imperative. Gathering reliable information about an inherently criminal, inherently clandestine industry is challenging. This article seeks to tackle this task by compiling a global, interdisciplinary, and methodologically diverse series of resources. Policy reports from various organizations provide macro-level quantitative data. Historical accounts reveal the social, political, and economic embeddedness of the drug trade. Ethnographies and case studies of drug-dealing groups and peasant farmers provide vivid qualitative data on the lived experience of the underground economy. More specifically, these resources focus on a series of subtopics, including the political economy of illegal drugs, transnational organized crime, money laundering, corruption, violence, and alternative policy. In combination, the following resources attempt to rely on empirical evidence and science in an area that has sometimes been dominated by bombastic claims and fear-driven politics.
  4.  
  5. Reference Works
  6.  
  7. International drug trafficking is a broad and multifaceted issue. Accordingly, many of the resources in this section provide encompassing overviews of drug manufacturing, drug distribution, and drug use. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2009 provides a tremendously inclusive and empirically driven history of drug use and drug control worldwide. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2014 presents a near-comprehensive examination of contemporary illegal drug use worldwide. These two reports are excellent starting points for understanding this topic. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs 2014 provides a more technical examination of illegal drug trafficking in eighty-nine individual countries. International Narcotics Control Board 2013 adds an examination of the global market for the legal scientific or medicinal use of drugs. National Drug Intelligence Center 2011 describes how organized criminal groups within the United States cooperate with transnational organized criminal groups to traffic drugs into the lucrative US market. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2011 is a detailed examination of the global market in cocaine. Each of the reports in this section is empirically rich, searchable, clearly written, and visually interesting; they are excellent, user-friendly resources for the study of international drug trafficking.
  8.  
  9. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. 2014. International narcotics control strategy report. 2 Vols. Washington, DC: US Department of State.
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. In combination, this two-part, 537-page report is more inclusive but also more technical compared to more succinct reports from the United Nations and US Department of Justice. The highlight of this report is a very usable, alphabetized executive summary of illegal drug issues in eighty-nine individual countries. For most countries, information is presented regarding drug manufacturing, distribution, antidrug policies, law enforcement efforts, and relevant laws and treaties.
  12. Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs. 2014. International narcotics control strategy report. 2 Vols. Washington, DC: US Department of State.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. International Narcotics Control Board. 2013. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board. New York: United Nations.
  15. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  16. The International Narcotics Control Board oversees the legal availability of drugs for legitimate use in science and medicine. Under this umbrella, it also analyzes the illegal global trafficking of drugs. The highlights of this annual report include an informative section on drug and corruption and a very user-friendly regional breakdown of the production and distribution of illegal drugs worldwide. This report is rich and reflects a longitudinal understanding of these complex issues, as evident by this marking the forty-fifth annual report from the International Narcotics Control Board.
  17. International Narcotics Control Board. 2013. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board. New York: United Nations.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. National Drug Intelligence Center. 2011. National drug threat assessment. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.
  20. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  21. This evidence-driven report details drug use and availability in the United States and accompanying individual and societal consequences. The international production and distribution of drugs are presented, highlighting the linkages between international drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and prison and street gangs within the United States. Additional notable sections include smuggling methods into the United States; movement of individual illegal drugs within the United States; prescription drug diversion; and money laundering in the United States, Mexico, and worldwide.
  22. National Drug Intelligence Center. 2011. National drug threat assessment. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. A century of international drug control. Vienna: United Nations.
  25. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  26. A cornerstone resource; potentially the definitive history of worldwide drug use and control efforts over the past century. Beginning with the Chinese opium pandemic in the early 1900s, “the international drug control system is one of the oldest consensus-based multilateral systems in existence” (p. 13). Highlights include rich and usable data; timelines; historical evidence on drug use, production, imports, exports; and legal responses from the international lawmaking community.
  27. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. A century of international drug control. Vienna: United Nations.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2011. The transatlantic cocaine market. Vienna: United Nations.
  30. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. This is a user-friendly and detailed report on the international cocaine market. Cocaine production, distribution routes, usage data, and financial data are presented using accessible language and visually interesting charts and maps. Report highlights how the market, with a peak value in the 1990s driven by high use rates in the United States, has become more dispersed internationally and less valuable over time.
  32. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2011. The transatlantic cocaine market. Vienna: United Nations.
  33. Find this resource:
  34. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2014. World drug report 2014. Vienna: United Nations.
  35. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  36. This report is produced annually by the UNODC. This is an outstanding, user-friendly resource for research and teaching on global drug use and drug markets (and searchable if downloaded as a PDF file). The colorful maps and charts are empirically rich and visually interesting. The report is a detailed analysis of contemporary international markets for heroin, cocaine, and amphetamines and a near-comprehensive examination of illegal drug use, and attendant public health consequences worldwide. The complete series is available online.
  37. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2014. World drug report 2014. Vienna: United Nations.
  38. Find this resource:
  39. Textbooks, Books, and Journals
  40.  
  41. The following resources are interdisciplinary and include introductory textbooks, anthologies, books targeting a wide audience, and academically oriented journal articles. Lyman and Potter 2011, a frequently cited textbook, provides an excellent introduction to international drug trafficking. Moisés Naím uses his experience as editor of Foreign Policy magazine to craft a stylish examination of the broad underground economy and its prevalence in global economics (Naím 2005). Both Reuter and Greenfield 2001 and Van Ours and Pudney 2006 examine the validity and reliability of existing quantitative data on the international drug trade; both articles attempt to quantify the various levels and components of the global market for illegal drugs and reaffirm the challenge of studying inherently secretive criminal markets. Inciardi and McElrath 2014 (cited under United States) presents a rich and tremendously broad anthology of drug use, drug markets, and the related social, political, and economic contexts in the United States. Lastly, Decker and Townsend Chapman 2008 provides an insider’s perspective into the drug trafficking world via interviews with currently incarcerated high-level players in the drug economy.
  42.  
  43. Decker, Scott, and Margaret Townsend Chapman. 2008. Drug smugglers on drug smuggling: Lessons from the inside. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
  44. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  45. Based on interviews with thirty-four high-level players in the drug economy who are prisoners in the United States, this insider’s perspective is relatively unique. Foci include the daily operations of their drug business, including trafficking methods and strategies to understand and thus avoid law enforcement. Major sections include how subjects became major drug smugglers, structural organization of drug trafficking organizations, violence, and the geography of the drug trade.
  46. Decker, Scott, and Margaret Townsend Chapman. 2008. Drug smugglers on drug smuggling: Lessons from the inside. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
  47. Find this resource:
  48. Lyman, Michael, and Gary Potter. 2011. Drugs in society: Causes, concepts, and control. 6th ed. Cincinnati: Anderson.
  49. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  50. Introductory textbook ideal for undergraduates broadly interested in drug use and policy. While focused on the United States, significant sections are dedicated to the international drug trade, domestic and international drug trafficking organizations, money laundering, and corruption. This is an informative, broad, and inclusive text.
  51. Lyman, Michael, and Gary Potter. 2011. Drugs in society: Causes, concepts, and control. 6th ed. Cincinnati: Anderson.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Naím, Moisés. 2005. Illicit: How smugglers, traffickers, and copycats are hijacking the global economy. New York: Doubleday.
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55. The former editor of Foreign Policy magazine provides a stylish and encompassing analysis of the worldwide illicit economy in an increasingly globalized world. He argues that the lines of demarcation between the legal and illegal economies are less distinct than many perceive. Major topics include illegal drugs, weapons, nuclear materials, drugs, slavery, organs, waste, and money laundering. Treats international drug trafficking as a major component of a larger, more complex worldwide underground economy.
  56. Naím, Moisés. 2005. Illicit: How smugglers, traffickers, and copycats are hijacking the global economy. New York: Doubleday.
  57. Find this resource:
  58. Reuter, Peter, and Victoria Greenfield. 2001. Measuring global drug markets: How good are the numbers and why should we care about them? World Economics 2.4: 159–173.
  59. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  60. This article discusses the methodological strengths and weaknesses of existing empirical data on the global market for illegal drugs. The authors critically analyze data on international drug use, manufacturing, and distribution. Potentially, the most important nuance provided is disaggregating the various levels of the wholesale and retail markets of the international drug trade.
  61. Reuter, Peter, and Victoria Greenfield. 2001. Measuring global drug markets: How good are the numbers and why should we care about them? World Economics 2.4: 159–173.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Van Ours, Jan, and Stephen Pudney. 2006. On the economics of illicit drugs. In Special Issue: The Economics of Illicit Drugs. Edited by Jan Van Ours and Stephen Pudney. De Economist 154.4: 483–490.
  64. DOI: 10.1007/s10645-006-9026-xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  65. This article reaffirms the challenges of obtaining a macro-level understanding of the criminal drug marketplace—especially on the large-scale supply side. Cross-cultural summaries of drug use and drug markets are presented. The authors then highlight the potential contributions of economic analyses to public policy. This article is valuable for both its economics and its cross-cultural analytical frameworks.
  66. Van Ours, Jan, and Stephen Pudney. 2006. On the economics of illicit drugs. In Special Issue: The Economics of Illicit Drugs. Edited by Jan Van Ours and Stephen Pudney. De Economist 154.4: 483–490.
  67. Find this resource:
  68. Political Economy of Illegal Drugs
  69.  
  70. International drug trafficking is a $300 billion to $400 billion annual enterprise that has profound impacts on the world’s political and economic dynamics: the global political economy. In a series of rich case studies, the resources in this section detail how the drug trade shapes the daily lives of many players in the world economy, from peasant farmers in Afghanistan to presidential candidates in Colombia. Two of the resources in this section largely focus on economic exploitation and marginalization. Steinberg, et al. 2004 provides a riveting series of case studies of the often-marginalized indigenous farmers that produce the world’s drug crops. Kramer, et al. 2010 details the struggles of the farming communities of the Golden Triangle in the wake of the dramatic reduction of the opium industry in the region. More focused case studies of the political economy are also provided on Afghanistan in Goodhand 2008, Colombia in Thoumi 1992, Denmark in Laursen and Jepsen 2002, and The Netherlands in Bos 2006.
  71.  
  72. Bos, Annemarie. 2006. The history of licit cocaine in the Netherlands. De Economist 154.4: 581–586.
  73. DOI: 10.1007/s10645-006-9031-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  74. This article is an overview of the legal cocaine industry in The Netherlands in the early 20th century. The authors outline the national and international processes that placed varying legal restrictions on cocaine and its corresponding impact on the political economy of The Netherlands and beyond.
  75. Bos, Annemarie. 2006. The history of licit cocaine in the Netherlands. De Economist 154.4: 581–586.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Goodhand, Jonathan. 2008. Corrupting or consolidating the peace? The drugs economy and post-conflict peacebuilding in Afghanistan. International Peacekeeping, 15.3: 405–423.
  78. DOI: 10.1080/13533310802058984Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. Goodhand provides an empirically rich and detailed account of the political economy of Afghanistan. This history is traced over three eras differentiated by wars, conflicts, and leadership changes within the nation. The article connects the fine points of the economics of the opium industry with larger issues of corruption, power dynamics, and the frailty of cornerstone institutions.
  80. Goodhand, Jonathan. 2008. Corrupting or consolidating the peace? The drugs economy and post-conflict peacebuilding in Afghanistan. International Peacekeeping, 15.3: 405–423.
  81. Find this resource:
  82. Kramer, Tom, Martin Jelsma, and Tom Blickman. 2010. Withdrawal symptoms in the Golden Triangle: A drug market in disarray. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 87–108.
  83. DOI: 10.1007/s12117-009-9084-ySave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  84. The worldwide production of opium has largely shifted away from the Golden Triangle, leaving an economic void for many former opium farmers who have been “robbed of a life of dignity” (p. 87). This article focuses on the economic “coping strategies” or the alternatives adopted by farmers and families to continue to subsist in the absence of the more viable production of drug crops.
  85. Kramer, Tom, Martin Jelsma, and Tom Blickman. 2010. Withdrawal symptoms in the Golden Triangle: A drug market in disarray. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 87–108.
  86. Find this resource:
  87. Laursen, Lau, and Jorgen Jepsen. 2002. Danish drug policy—An ambivalent balance between repression and welfare. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 20–36.
  88. DOI: 10.1177/0002716202582001002Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  89. This article analyzes the sociohistory of Denmark’s relatively tolerant, harm-reduction approach to drug policy and its connections with a welfare-based system of governance. Danish drug policy is characterized as comparatively progressive with an emphasis on public health and harm reduction. Debates over the proper role of law enforcement and conflicts between institutions are described under the umbrella of the welfare state.
  90. Laursen, Lau, and Jorgen Jepsen. 2002. Danish drug policy—An ambivalent balance between repression and welfare. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 20–36.
  91. Find this resource:
  92. Steinberg, Michael, Joseph J. Hobbs, and Kent Mathewson. 2004. Dangerous harvest: Drug plants and the transformation of indigenous landscapes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94. This distinctive anthology “take[s] a bottom up approach” (p. 5), focusing on the role of often-marginalized indigenous peoples that grow illegal drug plants. Presents a near-comprehensive series of case studies: Laos, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bolivia, Belize, Texas, Mexico, India, China, Peru, and Oceania. Major themes include on-the-ground consequences of the war on drugs, international policy, environmental concerns, and the threat posed to the sustainability of many nations.
  95. Steinberg, Michael, Joseph J. Hobbs, and Kent Mathewson. 2004. Dangerous harvest: Drug plants and the transformation of indigenous landscapes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Thoumi, Francisco E. 1992. Why the illegal psychoactive drugs industry grew in Colombia. In Special Issue: Drug Trafficking Research Update. Edited by Bruce M. Bagley and William O. Walker III. Journal of Interamerican Studies & World Affairs 34.3: 37–63.
  98. DOI: 10.2307/165924Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. Thoumi critically analyzes the origins and development of the illegal drug industry in Columbia. He explores possible explanations for why it flourished in this country, including the effects of climate, geography, a version of capitalism that is focused on short-term profits, longstanding civil war, and state legitimacy concerns. The political economy of the Columbian drug industry is contrasted with that of other drug-producing countries in the region.
  100. Thoumi, Francisco E. 1992. Why the illegal psychoactive drugs industry grew in Colombia. In Special Issue: Drug Trafficking Research Update. Edited by Bruce M. Bagley and William O. Walker III. Journal of Interamerican Studies & World Affairs 34.3: 37–63.
  101. Find this resource:
  102. Transnational Organized Crime
  103.  
  104. While there is no universally accepted definition of transnational organized crime, it is clear that international drug trafficking is intimately intertwined with criminal groups. These organized criminal groups have varying structures, scopes, and purposes. Within the umbrella topic of “transnational organized crime,” of paramount importance are the connections between the international drug trade, terrorism, and world conflicts. Lunde 2004 and Godson and Olson 1995 provide accessible introductory overviews of global organized crime. Farer 1999 uses rich case studies to examine the structure and operations of organized criminal groups. The three reports from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2009, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2010a, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2010b) provide a fairly encompassing and contemporary analysis of the structure and leadership of transnational organized crime groups, their role in the drug trade, and the threats they pose to domestic and international security. Levitt and Jacobson 2009 details the connections between organized crime and terrorism, as does Rollins and Wyler 2013, with an emphasis on US foreign policy options. Soudign and Kleemans 2009 discusses the role of Chinese organized crime in both human smuggling and drug trafficking. Lastly, Väyrynen 2003 examines organized crime and the dynamics of illegal immigration and drug and human smuggling worldwide. In combination, these resources provide a historical analysis of this topic, case studies of groups and criminal industries, and contemporary analysis of the state of transnational organized crime today and the threats it poses.
  105.  
  106. Farer, Tom J. 1999. Transnational crime in the Americas: An inter-American dialogue book. New York: Routledge.
  107. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  108. This book provides an overview of a host of issues related to transnational organized crime in the Americas and Europe, including illegal drug trafficking, smuggling, and money laundering. Major themes include the structural organization of transnational organized criminal groups and how these groups pose a significant threat to both established and less established democracies. Case studies include Europe, Colombia, the Caribbean, Bolivia, and Mexico.
  109. Farer, Tom J. 1999. Transnational crime in the Americas: An inter-American dialogue book. New York: Routledge.
  110. Find this resource:
  111. Godson, Roy, and William Olson. 1995. International organized crime. Society 32.2: 18–29.
  112. DOI: 10.1007/BF02693289Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  113. This is a clearly written and accessible overview of the structure of international organized crime. Concise case studies include narco-terrorism in Colombia in the 1980s, the Sicilian Mafia in post–World War II Italy, the destabilization of the former Soviet Union, and money laundering by major financial institutions in New York City. Major themes include (1) the vast scope of the informal and illegal global economy and (2) the globalization of organized criminal groups that formerly were national.
  114. Godson, Roy, and William Olson. 1995. International organized crime. Society 32.2: 18–29.
  115. Find this resource:
  116. Levitt, Matthew, and Michael Jacobson, eds. 2009. Countering transnational threats: Terrorism, narco-trafficking, and WMD proliferation. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  117. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  118. The Washington Institute provides analysis of a series of lectures from US government representatives with various military and government expertise in fighting global terrorism. Of terrorist groups that are active in approximately sixty countries, there are entrenched and growing linkages with international drug trafficking. Of particular interest is a lecture by former DEA Chief of Operations Michael Braun, “Drug Trafficking and Middle Eastern Terrorist Groups: A Growing Nexus?”
  119. Levitt, Matthew, and Michael Jacobson, eds. 2009. Countering transnational threats: Terrorism, narco-trafficking, and WMD proliferation. Washington, DC: Washington Institute for Near East Policy.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Lunde, Paul. 2004. Organized crime: An inside guide to the world’s most successful industry. New York: DK Publishing.
  122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. This is a very accessible and near-comprehensive introductory overview of global organized criminal groups. Organized crime is defined, and the various types of organized criminal groups are described, including hierarchical groups, street gangs, and white-collar organized crime groups. This is a good starting point for the study of organized crime and ideal for undergraduates.
  124. Lunde, Paul. 2004. Organized crime: An inside guide to the world’s most successful industry. New York: DK Publishing.
  125. Find this resource:
  126. Rollins, John, and Liana Sun Wyler. 2013. Terrorism and transnational crime: Foreign policy issues for Congress. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
  127. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  128. This report delineates the relationship between organized criminal groups broadly and terrorist organizations more specifically on a global scale. Case studies include: the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and groups associated with Al Qaeda and Hezbollah. The report culminates with a broad discussion of several foreign policy approaches, including diplomatic strategies, military escalation, and intelligence gathering.
  129. Rollins, John, and Liana Sun Wyler. 2013. Terrorism and transnational crime: Foreign policy issues for Congress. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
  130. Find this resource:
  131. Soudign, Melvin, and Edward Kleemans. 2009. Chinese organized crime and situational context: Comparing human smuggling and synthetic drugs trafficking. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.5: 457–474.
  132. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-009-9203-3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133. This article compares and contrasts these two criminal networks. The study found that the drug traffickers were more fluid in terms of both organizational structure and criminality, and more likely to experience violence. Human smugglers were more likely to specialize and had relatively entrenched roles; women held prominent positions in the endeavor. Interestingly, there is no evidence that there were connections between these groups and Triads or Tongs in China and the United States.
  134. Soudign, Melvin, and Edward Kleemans. 2009. Chinese organized crime and situational context: Comparing human smuggling and synthetic drugs trafficking. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.5: 457–474.
  135. Find this resource:
  136. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. Handbook on criminal justice responses to terrorism. Criminal Justice Handbook Series. Vienna: United Nations.
  137. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  138. In this three-part report, the UNODC outlines a cooperative “universal legal regime against terrorism” (p. 10) that is embedded in legal principles, due process, and human rights. The report details established legal tools, protocols, conventions, and resolutions to fight and prosecute terrorism and transnational organized crime. In great detail, the roles of the criminal justice system and legislative, judicial, and correctional system actors are defined within this antiterrorism regime. Readable, organized, and very user-friendly.
  139. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. Handbook on criminal justice responses to terrorism. Criminal Justice Handbook Series. Vienna: United Nations.
  140. Find this resource:
  141. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2010a. Crime and Instability: Case studies of transnational threats. Vienna: United Nations.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Like many of the UNODC reports included here, this is a well-researched, easy-to-use, and visually interesting resource for research and teaching. The value of this particular report is its depth-oriented analysis of cocaine and heroin trafficking. The report details the criminal groups involved in trafficking and presents a geographic analysis of production and distribution routes. Most valuable is a financial breakdown of drug trafficking by both region/distribution route and drug.
  144. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2010a. Crime and Instability: Case studies of transnational threats. Vienna: United Nations.
  145. Find this resource:
  146. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2010b. The globalization of crime: A transnational organized crime threat assessment. Vienna: United Nations.
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148. Outstanding, user-friendly resource complete with visually interesting and informative charts and maps. Foci include cybercrime, maritime piracy, counterfeit products, and illegal trafficking in humans, drugs, wildlife, and weapons. The UN argues that exclusively national crime control strategies are likely inadequate to police dynamic, contemporary international organized crime. Solutions must focus on organized criminal groups but also on the markets for illicit goods.
  149. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2010b. The globalization of crime: A transnational organized crime threat assessment. Vienna: United Nations.
  150. Find this resource:
  151. Väyrynen, Raimo. 2003. Illegal immigration, human trafficking, and organized crime. Helsinki: United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research.
  152. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  153. Examines the global relationship between organized crime, illegal immigration, and human and drug trafficking. Each constitutes a multibillion dollar industry, often with grave human-rights consequences. However, the analysis reaffirms that these are “nested concepts” (p. 4) that are also distinct in many ways. Also emphasizes how macro-level economic dynamics impact both legal and illegal immigration trends.
  154. Väyrynen, Raimo. 2003. Illegal immigration, human trafficking, and organized crime. Helsinki: United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research.
  155. Find this resource:
  156. Money Laundering and Corruption
  157.  
  158. Money laundering and corruption are both essential in the facilitation of transnational organized crime and international drug trafficking. Money laundering has been defined as “the conversion of criminal incomes into assets that cannot be traced back to the underlying crime” (Reuter and Truman 2004, p. 1) and “a process designed to give illegally obtained property the appearance of having been legally obtained” (Bell 2003, p. 107). Reuter and Truman 2004 presents a somewhat dense but very informative analysis of money laundering and potential strategies to control it. Bell 2003 describes money laundering practices by terrorist networks. Levi 2002 adds nuance to the discussion by presenting the eight types of money laundering, while Cao 2004 examines the often-overlooked cultural roles of religion and ethnicity in organized crime and money laundering. According to Goodhand 2008 (cited under Political Economy of Illegal Drugs), “Corruption is commonly defined as the misuse of public office or public responsibility for private, group or sectional gain” (p. 406). International Narcotics Control Board 2010 provides a user-friendly and empirically driven overview of “narco-corruption” as a critical tool for drug trafficking organizations, while the 2013 installment focuses on regional-specific analyses and public-health-related policy recommendations.
  159.  
  160. Bell, R. E. 2003. The confiscation, forfeiture and disruption of terrorist finances. Journal of Money Laundering Control 7.2: 105–125.
  161. DOI: 10.1108/13685200410809823Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  162. Readable and organized examination of the complex dynamics of terrorist funding. Bell defines money laundering and describes four typical methods of terrorist funding. Financing for terrorist groups is somewhat unique because profit is not the ultimate goal, but rather money is necessary to accomplish terrorist acts. A case study of al-Qaeda’s financing supports the need for a global, multifaceted strategy called “a basket of strategies” (p. 113).
  163. Bell, R. E. 2003. The confiscation, forfeiture and disruption of terrorist finances. Journal of Money Laundering Control 7.2: 105–125.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Cao, Lan. 2004. The transnational and sub-national in global crimes. Berkeley Journal of International Law 22:59–97.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. Uses case studies of money laundering and human trafficking to discuss changes in transnational criminal groups. These changes are due to both globalization and “sub-national” dynamics, because “common religious, ethnic, communal, and traditional ties have redefined the nature and dimensions of international criminal networks” (p. 59). An overview of the money-laundering processes is provided, including its three phases: placement, layering, and integration.
  168. Cao, Lan. 2004. The transnational and sub-national in global crimes. Berkeley Journal of International Law 22:59–97.
  169. Find this resource:
  170. International Narcotics Control Board. 2010. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board, 2010. New York: United Nations.
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172. This annual report defines corruption and “narco-corruption,” and describes its various forms. The UN concludes that “intimidation and corruption are the most effective tools used by organized criminal groups to counter the drug control efforts of law enforcement agencies” (p. 1). Nations that are less developed, involved in military-style conflicts, and less stable are more vulnerable to the corrupting influence of powerful and increasingly transnational organized crime groups. Although newer installments of this report exist, the 2010 report offers particularly good insight into corruption as a construct and how it manifests in a variety of ways worldwide.
  173. International Narcotics Control Board. 2010. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board, 2010. New York: United Nations.
  174. Find this resource:
  175. International Narcotics Control Board. 2013. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board, 2013. New York: United Nations.
  176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  177. Delineates how drug use and abuse connects with economic issues, public health, crime, and the state. It presents a detailed examination of these embedded social problems by region across the globe. Emphasizing health choices by young people, this report concludes that global drug-use prevention and treatment efforts, can be effective both in terms of public health and economics.
  178. International Narcotics Control Board. 2013. Report of the International Narcotics Control Board, 2013. New York: United Nations.
  179. Find this resource:
  180. Levi, Michael. 2002. Money laundering and its regulation. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 181–194.
  181. DOI: 10.1177/0002716202582001013Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  182. With an emphasis on the laundering of proceeds from illegal drug trafficking, this article provides an international overview of the methods and attempts to control money laundering. Levi outlines the eight typical methods of laundering dirty money and the various legislative tools and international bodies convened to attempt to police it. Levi calls for more systematic evaluations of the efficacy of existing anti–money laundering strategies.
  183. Levi, Michael. 2002. Money laundering and its regulation. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 181–194.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Reuter, Peter, and Edwin Truman M. 2004. Chasing dirty money: The fight against money laundering. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. This book is a very detailed examination of money laundering and potentially one of the most comprehensive analyses conducted to date. The book synthesizes the existing criminological, legal, and economic evaluations of a problem that is increasingly global in character. The authors define money laundering, describe the typical stages of the laundering process, and attempt to systematically assess the efficacy of what they call the “anti-money laundering” regime.
  188. Reuter, Peter, and Edwin Truman M. 2004. Chasing dirty money: The fight against money laundering. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.
  189. Find this resource:
  190. Violence
  191.  
  192. The relationship between illegal drugs and violence as described in the criminological literature has benefited from increasing specificity in recent decades. Historically, the literature on this subject has been criticized for being vague, less than systematic, based on colloquial understandings and unsupported assumptions. In combination, the following resources sequentially add specificity and nuance to this topic through rich theoretical frameworks and vivid empirical case studies. Goldstein 1985 presents a tripartite model that describes the relationship between drugs and violence and is a cornerstone piece in the contemporary literature. Jacques and Wright 2008 connects Goldstein’s model with peaceful social control mechanisms employed by domestic drug dealers in the United States. In an edition of the Crime, Law and Social Change, a journal largely dedicated to this topic, three additional pieces add to this debate. Snyder and Duran-Martinez 2009 highlights the role of the state. Reuter 2009 and Friman 2009 build directly from Goldstein’s model and add additional nuance to the “systemic” tier of his framework. Heinle, et al. 2014 provide an empirically rich account of drug-related violence in contemporary Mexico; this is an excellent case study to explore the preceding theoretical models and is possibly the definitive commentary on drug violence in Mexico in the new millennium.
  193.  
  194. Friman, H. Richard. 2009. Drug markets and the selective use of violence. Crime Law and Social Change 52.3: 285–295.
  195. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-009-9202-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  196. The crux of this article is the role of competition in facilitating violence, not the individual drug being trafficked. Violence is driven by competition either (1) among drug trafficking groups or (2) between drug traffickers and the state over access to distribution routes. Case studies of the methamphetamine market in the United States and Japan and the cocaine market in the United States, Colombia, and Mexico are presented to support this major claim.
  197. Friman, H. Richard. 2009. Drug markets and the selective use of violence. Crime Law and Social Change 52.3: 285–295.
  198. Find this resource:
  199. Goldstein, Paul J. 1985. The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues 15:493–506.
  200. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  201. Goldstein provides the drugs and violence literature with a very useful and frequently cited model to describe the relationship between illegal drugs and violence. The framework provides scholars and policy analysts a common tool and language to examine this complex relationship. Goldstein created a three-tiered model including psychopharmacological, economic-compulsive, and systemic models for drug-related violence.
  202. Goldstein, Paul J. 1985. The drugs/violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues 15:493–506.
  203. Find this resource:
  204. Heinle, Kimberly, Octavio Ferreira, and David Shirk. 2014. Drug violence in Mexico: Data and analysis through 2013. San Diego, CA: Justice in Mexico Project, Univ. of San Diego.
  205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206. Potentially the definitive commentary on drug violence in Mexico in the new millennium. Demonstrates the costs and benefits of law enforcement intervention into entrenched DTOs. Since President Calderon declared a war on drugs in 2006, arrests of traffickers and drug seizures have increased dramatically. However, destabilization of these criminal groups has led to unprecedented levels of violence that threatens Mexico’s economic and political sustainability. The subsequent president, Nieto, has largely continued the war on drugs in practice but has attempted to promote economic issues as central to a host of challenges facing the country, including DTOs.
  207. Heinle, Kimberly, Octavio Ferreira, and David Shirk. 2014. Drug violence in Mexico: Data and analysis through 2013. San Diego, CA: Justice in Mexico Project, Univ. of San Diego.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Jacques, Scott, and Richard Wright. 2008. The relevance of peace to studies of drug market violence. Criminology 46.1: 221–254.
  210. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00102.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Augments Goldstein’s tripartite model for drug-related violence by contrasting the “systemic violence” category with notions of peace, because a critical mass of drug markets are nonviolent and “even the most violent drug markets are peaceful most of the time” (p. 223). Based on fifty interviews with drug dealers in Georgia and Missouri, the authors explore violent and nonviolent social-control mechanisms with an emphasis on “resource-exchange social control.”
  212. Jacques, Scott, and Richard Wright. 2008. The relevance of peace to studies of drug market violence. Criminology 46.1: 221–254.
  213. Find this resource:
  214. Reuter, Peter. 2009. Systemic violence in drug markets. In Special Issue: Illicit Markets and Violence. Edited by Peter Andreas and Joel Wallman. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.3: 275–284.
  215. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-009-9197-xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  216. Reuter analyzes drug-market violence in three contexts: violence within drug-dealing groups, violence between groups, and violence between these groups and the government/law enforcement. Drawing heavily from existing literature, a meaningful comparison is made between violence in Mexican drug cartels in the late 21st century and violence in crack cocaine markets in the United States in the late 1980s.
  217. Reuter, Peter. 2009. Systemic violence in drug markets. In Special Issue: Illicit Markets and Violence. Edited by Peter Andreas and Joel Wallman. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.3: 275–284.
  218. Find this resource:
  219. Snyder, Richard, and Angelica Duran-Martinez. 2009. Does illegality breed violence? Drug trafficking and state-sponsored protection rackets. Crime Law and Social Change 52.3: 253–273.
  220. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-009-9195-zSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  221. Via case studies of Burma and Mexico, this article argues that underground markets for illegal goods and services are not inherently violent. Rather, the existence and functioning of “state-sponsored protection rackets” (p. 253) largely determine that market’s volatility. The major contributions of this article are the various theoretical framework presented that illustrate how state protection rackets can function.
  222. Snyder, Richard, and Angelica Duran-Martinez. 2009. Does illegality breed violence? Drug trafficking and state-sponsored protection rackets. Crime Law and Social Change 52.3: 253–273.
  223. Find this resource:
  224. Case Studies
  225.  
  226. International drug trafficking is ever-evolving and complex. In an attempt to demonstrate this global complexity, the following section presents case studies of frequently studied countries and regions that are central to global drug economy. While not exhaustive, the following case studies should provide (1) insight into how regions and nation-states produce, distribute, and consume illegal drugs; (2) the often mutually embedded nature of the licit and illicit economies; and (3) the often vulnerable role of the state in enforcing and sometimes facilitating drug trafficking.
  227.  
  228. Afghanistan
  229.  
  230. The resources in this section provide different analytical lenses into the ultra-complex structural challenges facing Afghanistan, including its centrality in the global drug trade and worldwide opium market. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2009 is likely the best starting point for contemporary research in this area; it is a macro-level overview of the social, political, and economic centrality of opium in Afghanistan. In combination, Afghanistan’s Drug Industry: Structure, Functioning, Dynamics and Implications for Counter-Narcotics, Rubin 2007, and Goodhand 2008 provide varying methodological and analytical insights into the wars, corruption, and violence and the mutually constitutive role of the drug trade in Afghan society. Finally, Siavash, et al. 2014 examines drug-use trends and control efforts in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey with a harm-reduction emphasis.
  231.  
  232. Buddenberg, Doris, and William A. Byrd, eds. n.d. Afghanistan’s drug industry: Structure, functioning, dynamics and implications for counter-narcotics policy. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the World Bank.
  233. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  234. This anthology provides methodologically diverse analysis on the economic and societal centrality of opium in Afghanistan. Policy reports, on-the-ground fieldwork, and interviews provide clear insight into the intended and unintended outcomes of attempts to curtail the illicit drug industry. Major themes include corruption, instability, the Taliban, warlords, and other organized criminal groups.
  235. Buddenberg, Doris, and William A. Byrd, eds. n.d. Afghanistan’s drug industry: Structure, functioning, dynamics and implications for counter-narcotics policy. Vienna: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the World Bank.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Goodhand, Jonathan. 2008. Corrupting or consolidating the peace? The drugs economy and post-conflict peacebuilding in Afghanistan. International Peacekeeping, 15.3: 405–423.
  238. DOI: 10.1080/13533310802058984Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Goodhand provides an empirically rich and detailed account of the opium economy, major institutions in the country, and violence. He analyzes the different contexts in which the drug economy combines with institutional corruption and local/regional power holders to sometimes product stability and sometimes produce violence. Of paramount importance is geography and the political and drug-control initiatives that vary significantly across different regions of the country.
  240. Goodhand, Jonathan. 2008. Corrupting or consolidating the peace? The drugs economy and post-conflict peacebuilding in Afghanistan. International Peacekeeping, 15.3: 405–423.
  241. Find this resource:
  242. Rubin, Barnett R. 2007. Saving Afghanistan. Foreign Affairs Magazine 86.1: 57–78.
  243. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  244. This informative and engaging article outlines the significant and intertwined challenges facing Afghanistan including social, political, economic, terrorism, war, corruption, drug, and crime. Since 2001, Operation Enduring Freedom has complicated the development of a viable legal economy, contributing to a massive illicit drug economy. Afghanistan controls the lion’s share of the world’s opium crop that seemingly impacts all facets of life in Afghanistan.
  245. Rubin, Barnett R. 2007. Saving Afghanistan. Foreign Affairs Magazine 86.1: 57–78.
  246. Find this resource:
  247. Siavash, Jafari, Richard Mathias, Joe Rondald, Souzan Baharlou, and Ashkan Nasr. 2014. Effect of law enforcement on drug abuse: A comparison of substance use in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey. Journal of Substance Use.
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249. Presents a meta analysis of drug-use patterns and drug-control efforts in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey respectively. Based on the relatively scant reliable data available, this article assesses strategies to address the public health and larger social ills intertwined with drug use and abuse in this region.
  250. Siavash, Jafari, Richard Mathias, Joe Rondald, Souzan Baharlou, and Ashkan Nasr. 2014. Effect of law enforcement on drug abuse: A comparison of substance use in Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey. Journal of Substance Use.
  251. Find this resource:
  252. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. Addiction, crime and insurgency: The transnational threat of Afghan opium. Vienna: United Nations.
  253. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  254. Throughout the 1990s, Afghanistan and Pakistan became the hub of world opium production. This is potentially the definitive contemporary report on global opium production and trafficking and its connections with insurgency, terrorism, and organized crime. Like other UNODC repots in this annotated bibliography, this is a readable, user-friendly, and visually interesting resource.
  255. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2009. Addiction, crime and insurgency: The transnational threat of Afghan opium. Vienna: United Nations.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Asia
  258.  
  259. Asia is a region with a rich history of both drug use and drug trafficking. Lu, et al. 2008 provides a very encompassing history of drug use and trafficking in China with an emphasis on the political economy of both licit and illicit drugs. More broadly, Gao 2013 presents a socio-historical overview of drug abuse and drug trafficking in Asia and its contemporary role as a prominent producer of various types of illicit drugs. Kramer, et al. 2010 explores how those most marginalized in the drug trade—typically, the peasant farmers who grow drug crops—are impacted by the realignment of drug manufacturing and distribution. Both Zhang and Chin 2008 and Soudign and Kleemans 2009 examine the role of Chinese organized crime in the drug trade; the former provides an excellent overview of this topic and the latter presents a case study of Chinese organized crime in The Netherlands. Friman 2009 examines the use and distribution of methamphetamines in Japan and its connections with the Yakuza, a longstanding organized criminal group.
  260.  
  261. Friman, H. Richard. 2009. Drug markets and the selective use of violence. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.3: 285–295.
  262. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-009-9202-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. In exploring the macro-level factors that contribute to drug-related violence, this article provides a rich case study of the history of the methamphetamine market in Japan. Methamphetamine use has been prominent in Japan beginning in the 1940s, and the production and distribution of the drug is a staple for the Yakuza and other entrenched criminal groups.
  264. Friman, H. Richard. 2009. Drug markets and the selective use of violence. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.3: 285–295.
  265. Find this resource:
  266. Gao, Huan. 2013. Drug abuse and drug trafficking in Asia. In Handbook of Asian criminology. Edited by J. Liu, B. Hebenton, and J. Susyan, 115–127. New York: Springer.
  267. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-5218-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268. Presents a socio-historical account of long-standing drug-trafficking and drug-use dynamics in Asia. The region has historically been a hub of opiate production and use. However, the author also asserts that Asia is the world’s largest current producer of amphetamine-type stimulants and marijuana.
  269. Gao, Huan. 2013. Drug abuse and drug trafficking in Asia. In Handbook of Asian criminology. Edited by J. Liu, B. Hebenton, and J. Susyan, 115–127. New York: Springer.
  270. Find this resource:
  271. Kramer, Tom, Martin Jelsma, and Tom Blickman. 2010. Withdrawal symptoms in the Golden Triangle: A drugs market in disarray. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 87–108.
  272. DOI: 10.1007/s12117-009-9084-ySave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  273. The economic and cultural role of opium is reviewed, along with the rising use and production of methamphetamines. Highlights are the extraordinarily vivid interviews with people in the community struggling in the post-drug economy.
  274. Kramer, Tom, Martin Jelsma, and Tom Blickman. 2010. Withdrawal symptoms in the Golden Triangle: A drugs market in disarray. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 87–108.
  275. Find this resource:
  276. Lu, Lin, Yuxia Fang, and Xi Wang. 2008. Drug abuse in China: Past, present and future. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 28.4: 479–490.
  277. DOI: 10.1007/s10571-007-9225-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  278. This is a detailed and wide-ranging history of drug use; drug trafficking; and related social, political, and economic dynamics in China. Major foci include public health issues (HIV/AIDS in particular) and drug-related crime. Actions and policies from the government have shown initial success, and the authors are noticeably optimistic that these interventions will continue to improve the drug issues in China.
  279. Lu, Lin, Yuxia Fang, and Xi Wang. 2008. Drug abuse in China: Past, present and future. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology 28.4: 479–490.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Soudign, Melvin R. J., and Edward R. Kleemans. 2009. Chinese organized crime and situational context: Comparing human smuggling and synthetic drugs trafficking. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.5: 457–474.
  282. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-009-9203-3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. A case study of organized crime and human and drug trafficking in China that also presents a thorough review of the organized crime literature. Authors argue that social networks, not ethnicity, are of paramount importance in the social organization of Chinese organized criminal groups. Derived from law enforcement data from The Netherlands, a key node in the distribution routes for human and drug smuggling from China.
  284. Soudign, Melvin R. J., and Edward R. Kleemans. 2009. Chinese organized crime and situational context: Comparing human smuggling and synthetic drugs trafficking. Crime, Law and Social Change 52.5: 457–474.
  285. Find this resource:
  286. Zhang, Sheldon X., and Ko-Lin Chin. 2008. Snakeheads, mules, and protective umbrellas: A review of current research on Chinese organized crime. Crime, Law and Social Change 50.3: 177–195.
  287. DOI: 10.1007/s10611-008-9136-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  288. This is a meta-analysis that created a fairly encompassing literature review of Chinese organized crime. Two major themes emerge in the literature: disproportionate representation of both human smuggling and drug trafficking, and a dearth of primary source data. Additional major sections include money laundering and suggestions for future research in the area. A great overview and starting point for research on this topic.
  289. Zhang, Sheldon X., and Ko-Lin Chin. 2008. Snakeheads, mules, and protective umbrellas: A review of current research on Chinese organized crime. Crime, Law and Social Change 50.3: 177–195.
  290. Find this resource:
  291. Colombia
  292.  
  293. The resources in this comparatively brief section should provide readers with a snapshot of issues central to drug trafficking in Columbia. During the 1980s, Colombian cartels were likely the dominant force in the global illicit drug industry; a dominance that has subsequently been surpassed as Mexican cartels have expanded their scope and influence. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2014 provides macro-level data on the extent, distribution, and value of the coca crop in Columbia in 2009. Thoumi 2002 carefully examines the political economy of the drug trade in Colombia at all levels within the socioeconomic hierarchy. Kenney 2007 challenges media and government portrayals of the structure of Colombian organized criminal groups built from vivid and insightful interview data. Zaitch 2002 builds a policy analysis on ethnographic fieldwork and interviews with 191 diverse actors policing, working, or otherwise affiliated with the drug economy. Readers should glean an understanding of the production, distribution, and social and economic ramifications of the illegal drug trade in Colombia.
  294.  
  295. Kenney, Michael. 2007. The architecture of drug trafficking: Network forms of organisation in the Colombian cocaine trade. Global Crime 8.3: 233–259.
  296. DOI: 10.1080/17440570701507794Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297. This article challenges the notion that Colombian cartels are large, fixed, and strictly hierarchical groups that dictate cocaine distribution and prices worldwide. Rather, Kenney describes their structure as more dynamic and adaptable. Major topics include wheel, chain, and flat network structures; trafficking strategies; risk minimization; and how one becomes a trafficker. The major contribution is incredibly vivid interview data with knowledgeable “hard to reach informants” (p. 233).
  298. Kenney, Michael. 2007. The architecture of drug trafficking: Network forms of organisation in the Colombian cocaine trade. Global Crime 8.3: 233–259.
  299. Find this resource:
  300. Thoumi, Francisco. 2002. Illegal drugs in Colombia: From illegal economic boom to social crisis. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 102–116.
  301. DOI: 10.1177/0002716202582001008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  302. Thoumi explores the scope and impacts of the Colombian illicit drug industry and argues that it has permeated all aspects of social, economic, and political life. He summarizes the history of drug production from peasant farmers to powerful cartels. Cartels once enjoyed strong public support, but as evidence of violence and connections with paramilitary groups became known, support decreased. A more contemporary update to this piece is Thoumi 1992 (cited under Political Economy of Illegal Drugs).
  303. Thoumi, Francisco. 2002. Illegal drugs in Colombia: From illegal economic boom to social crisis. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 102–116.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2014. Colombia: Coca cultivation survey 2013. Vienna: United Nations.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. In recent years, coca production in Columbia has decreased. Through crop eradication, crop substitution, and other state inventions, drug cartels have faced increased risks and decreased rewards from the drug industry. These supply reduction strategies have been most productive in certain regions and subregions of the country. This report is searchable, user-friendly, and visually interesting. Highlights include twenty-six maps, satellite images, data on cocaine-related price dynamics, changes over time, geography, density, and comparisons with other countries in the region.
  308. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2014. Colombia: Coca cultivation survey 2013. Vienna: United Nations.
  309. Find this resource:
  310. Zaitch, Damián. 2002. Trafficking cocaine: Colombian drug entrepreneurs in the Netherlands. Studies of Organized Crime 1. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
  311. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  312. Focuses on the lived experience of traqueto or “self-made, ambitious Colombian migrant-traffickers” (p. 1) who reside in The Netherlands. Employing ethnographic methodology including both participant observation and interviews, Zaitch presents a rich account of 191 actors in the international drug economy. Striking breadth of subjects include religious and community leaders, nongovermental organization representatives, prostitutes, drug mules, political leaders, law enforcement, experts in the field, and the traquetos themselves.
  313. Zaitch, Damián. 2002. Trafficking cocaine: Colombian drug entrepreneurs in the Netherlands. Studies of Organized Crime 1. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Europe
  316.  
  317. In recent years, cocaine use has increased in Europe, making it one of the most robust drug markets in the world and a critical case study within the study of international drug trafficking. While far from encompassing, the following four resources provide an introduction to drug use, drug culture, and drug trafficking in some areas of Europe. Kilmer and Hoorens 2010 is a powerful and encompassing report on a series of drug-related issues facing the European Union. Similarly, European Commission 2010 presents an executive summary of the 2009–2012 EU Drugs Action Plan and evaluates the EU’s progress to date. Bos 2006 provides a socio-historical account of the transition of cocaine from legal to illegal in The Netherlands. Hales and Hobbs 2010 describes seven drug markets within one London borough community. Antonopoulos, et al. 2010 provides a diverse methodological analysis of Ecstasy markets in Greece with an emphasis on the structural organization of Ecstasy distribution. Ruggiero 2010 uses the case study of South Asian communities in the United Kingdom to explore issues of perception, exclusion, drugs, and drug crime.
  318.  
  319. Antonopoulos, Georgios, Georgios Papanicolaou, and Mark Simpson. 2010. Entertainment starts with an E: The ecstasy market in Greece. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 31–45.
  320. DOI: 10.1007/s12117-009-9088-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  321. This is a description of the trafficking and increasing use of Ecstasy in Greece. Based on interviews with law enforcement, employees in relevant industries (dance clubs), and secondary-source reports, this article contributes to an understudied area. A major contribution is a typology of the Ecstasy distribution hierarchy; “importers, middlemen . . . middle-level traders . . . courier . . . [and] retail sellers” (pp. 36–37).
  322. Antonopoulos, Georgios, Georgios Papanicolaou, and Mark Simpson. 2010. Entertainment starts with an E: The ecstasy market in Greece. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 31–45.
  323. Find this resource:
  324. Bos, Annemarie. 2006. The history of licit cocaine in the Netherlands. De Economist 154.4: 581–586.
  325. DOI: 10.1007/s10645-006-9031-0Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  326. Overview of the legal cocaine industry in The Netherlands in the early 20th century. Specific historical synopses include the Dutch and early opium trading, the history of coca production and distribution, and the discovery of and early medical uses of cocaine. Excellent case study of the process by which currently illegal drugs became illegal.
  327. Bos, Annemarie. 2006. The history of licit cocaine in the Netherlands. De Economist 154.4: 581–586.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. European Commission. 2010. Report from the Commission: 2010 progress review of the EU Drugs Action Plan (2009–2012). Brussels: European Commission.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Policy evaluation of the ongoing EU Drug Action Plan. The report begins with an overview of drug use trends. Achievements to date include increased cooperation and information sharing among nations in and beyond the EU and HIV harm-reduction measures. Ongoing challenges include drug-use fatalities, effectively policing illegal pharmaceutical markets, and an overemphasis on supply-reduction strategies and underemphasis on demand reduction.
  332. European Commission. 2010. Report from the Commission: 2010 progress review of the EU Drugs Action Plan (2009–2012). Brussels: European Commission.
  333. Find this resource:
  334. Hales, Gavin, and Richard Hobbs. 2010. Drug markets in the community: A London borough case study. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 13–30.
  335. DOI: 10.1007/s12117-009-9086-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  336. Based largely on data from law-enforcement actors and official crime statistics, the authors describe a robust market for illegal drugs in a three-town borough. The crux of the article details the social organization of what they identify as seven largely independent drug markets within this community. Interestingly, the dealers and users in these drug markets are typically members of the community in which it is embedded, not outsiders.
  337. Hales, Gavin, and Richard Hobbs. 2010. Drug markets in the community: A London borough case study. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 13–30.
  338. Find this resource:
  339. Kilmer, Beau, and Stijn Hoorens, eds. Understanding illicit drug markets, supply-reduction efforts, and drug-related crime in the European Union. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2010.
  340. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  341. Lengthy, broad, and very informative report on myriad topics related to drug use and trafficking in the EU. Six chapters and three appendices provide a searchable, user-friendly, empirically driven resource for students in this area. Major substantive areas include theoretical frameworks of drug markets, supply-side strategies, and crimes related to drug use and markets. A powerful reference in itself that also provides a series of data sets, tables, and lists of other important resources.
  342. Kilmer, Beau, and Stijn Hoorens, eds. Understanding illicit drug markets, supply-reduction efforts, and drug-related crime in the European Union. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2010.
  343. Find this resource:
  344. Ruggiero, Vincenzo. 2010. Unintended consequences: Changes in organised drug supply in the UK. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 46–59.
  345. DOI: 10.1007/s12117-009-9085-xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346. This is a broad piece that examines a host of issues associated with drugs and organized crime, focusing on South Asian communities in the United Kingdom. Examines the role of moral panics and moral entrepreneurs in exaggerating the connection between these communities, drugs, and other social problems. A major contribution of the article is the outline of various theories on drug use and dynamics that push/pull individuals into the drug trade.
  347. Ruggiero, Vincenzo. 2010. Unintended consequences: Changes in organised drug supply in the UK. Trends in Organized Crime 13.1: 46–59.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Mexico
  350.  
  351. In the 1980s, Colombian drug cartels utilized drug-smuggling routes in the Caribbean to deliver cocaine and other illicit drugs to the United States via Florida and other southeastern states. By the late 1980s, law enforcement interdiction efforts in the Caribbean led Colombian DTOs to subcontract organized criminal groups in Mexico to smuggle drugs into the United States, primarily via established land-based smuggling routes. Subsequently, the five to seven entrenched criminal groups in Mexico, such as the Sinaloa Federation, the Gulf Cartel, and the Juarez Cartel, have become dominant forces in the international drug trade. In response, upon taking office in December 2006, Mexican President Felipe Calderon mounted a military-centric assault on Mexican DTOs. Mexico now invests $4 billion annually in the drug war that has resulted in unprecedented levels of inter- and intracartel violence and frequent terror to many Mexican communities. Despite tens of thousands of drug-related arrests and an additional $1.4 billion from the United States via the Mérida Initiative, Mexican DTOs remain viable and deeply entrenched. These groups are responsible for smuggling an estimated 90 percent of all cocaine that enters the United States, contributing to the disheartening reality that, in the United States, the Calderon-era war on drugs has had little impact on the purity, cost, or availability of illicit drugs. In combination, the following resources provide a fairly encompassing historical overview of drug trafficking in Mexico since 1980. Reuter and Ronfeldt 1992 and Willoughby 2003 locate the drug cartels in Mexico within the larger social, political, and economic relationship between the United States and Mexico. Astorga 1999 presents a rich and comprehensive analysis of the social, political, and economic contexts of drug trafficking in Mexico. Chabat 2002 and Brophy 2008 analyze the structure and organization of the cartels, the major players involved, and their influence on cornerstone institutions in Mexican society. Williams 2009 contends that Mexico is not in danger of becoming a failed state and that existing analysis are exaggerated, both in terms of tone and their assessment of the crisis. Beittel 2013; Meyer 2010; Heinle, et al. 2014; and Ingram, et al. 2011 each provide commentary on the cultural consequences of drug trafficking, focusing on innocent citizens, drug-related homicide, sustained extreme violence, and the criminal justice system, respectively.
  352.  
  353. Astorga, Luís. 1999. Drug trafficking in Mexico: A first general assessment. Paris: UNESCO.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Outstandingly broad overview connecting drug trafficking to larger socio-historical, economic, and political dynamics in Mexico that is then contrasted with the Colombia case. Very encompassing for a relatively brief thirty-three-page report. Subsections include a case study of Sinaloa, Mexico’s military Operation Condor in the 1970s, and money laundering. The rich historical overview of narco-corridos is a relatively unique contribution of this piece.
  356. Astorga, Luís. 1999. Drug trafficking in Mexico: A first general assessment. Paris: UNESCO.
  357. Find this resource:
  358. Beittel, June. 2013. Mexico’s drug trafficking organizations: Source and scope of the violence. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
  359. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  360. Analyzes the violence embedded in drug-trafficking issues by Mexican DTOs as they have emerged as a global drug-trafficking force in recent decades. The extreme and sustained levels of violence led the author to suggest exploring new approaches. More specifically, the violence “include[s] mass killings, the use of torture and dismemberment, and the phenomena of car bombs—have led some analysts to speculate whether the violence has been transformed into something new, perhaps requiring a different set of policy responses.”
  361. Beittel, June. 2013. Mexico’s drug trafficking organizations: Source and scope of the violence. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.
  362. Find this resource:
  363. Brophy, Stephanie. 2008. Mexico: Cartels, corruption and cocaine: A profile of the Gulf Cartel. Global Crime 9.3: 248–261.
  364. DOI: 10.1080/17440570802254353Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365. Informative, organized, and very readable case study of the Gulf Cartel, one of Mexico’s largest transnational drug trafficking organizations. Outlines the cartel’s history and evolution, leadership, relationship with paramilitary mercenary groups, and corruption of law enforcement and political actors. The crux of the article is the analysis of how globalization and multinational economic initiatives have provided opportunities for the Gulf Cartel and other DTOs.
  366. Brophy, Stephanie. 2008. Mexico: Cartels, corruption and cocaine: A profile of the Gulf Cartel. Global Crime 9.3: 248–261.
  367. Find this resource:
  368. Chabat, Jorge. 2002. Mexico’s war on drugs: No margin for maneuver. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 134–148.
  369. DOI: 10.1177/0002716202582001010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370. This excellent overview summarizes the evolution of drug use, drug trafficking, profit estimates, and counter–drug efforts in Mexico. Major cartels are profiled, including leadership, conflicts, arrests, political affiliations, and changes over time. The major theme is concern that drug-related corruption will undermine the sustainability of major social, economic, and political institutions in Mexico. An excellent, accessible overview of the history of drug trafficking in Mexico.
  371. Chabat, Jorge. 2002. Mexico’s war on drugs: No margin for maneuver. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 582.1: 134–148.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Heinle, Kimberly, Octavio Ferreira, and David Shirk. 2014. Drug violence in Mexico: Data and analysis through 2013. San Diego, CA: Justice in Mexico Project, Univ. of San Diego.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. This definitive report on drug violence in Mexico concludes that “there are few issues of greater concern to ordinary Mexicans than the problems of crime and violence that have been widespread in many parts of the country for over a decade” (p. 46). This report triangulates three data sources to present a rich picture of drug and drug-related violence and attendant victimology. In addition, there is a strong policy emphasis with sections dedicated to the first year of the Nieto administration, the relationship between the United States and Mexico, and reflections on the role of the military and the judicial system in Mexico.
  376. Heinle, Kimberly, Octavio Ferreira, and David Shirk. 2014. Drug violence in Mexico: Data and analysis through 2013. San Diego, CA: Justice in Mexico Project, Univ. of San Diego.
  377. Find this resource:
  378. Ingram, Matthew, Octavio Rodríguez Ferreira, and David Shirk. 2011. Assessing Mexico’s judicial reform: Views of judges, prosecutors, and public defenders. San Diego, CA: Trans-Border Institute, Univ. of San Diego, 2011.
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380. In hopes of improving the efficacy of the justice system in combating organized crime, drug trafficking, and related violence, Mexico recently adopted “oral, adversarial criminal procedures” (p. 3). This report was based on nonrandomized, telephone-survey data from 276 actors in Mexico’s criminal justice system from nine states. Topics of interest include perceptions of the impact of judicial reforms on crime rates, workload of system actors, corruption, and due process.
  381. Ingram, Matthew, Octavio Rodríguez Ferreira, and David Shirk. 2011. Assessing Mexico’s judicial reform: Views of judges, prosecutors, and public defenders. San Diego, CA: Trans-Border Institute, Univ. of San Diego, 2011.
  382. Find this resource:
  383. Meyer, Maureen. 2010. Abused and afraid in Ciudad Juarez: An analysis of human rights violations by the military in Mexico. Washington, DC: Washington Office on Latin America.
  384. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  385. In a tragic and empirically driven report, Meyer outlines the Mexican military’s perpetration of violence and other human-rights abuses in Ciudad Juarez. Juarez, a key smuggling route into El Paso, has been an epicenter of drug-related violence since 2006. The unique contributions of the report are powerful testimonials from innocent civilians who experienced violence, sexual abuse, and torture by the military.
  386. Meyer, Maureen. 2010. Abused and afraid in Ciudad Juarez: An analysis of human rights violations by the military in Mexico. Washington, DC: Washington Office on Latin America.
  387. Find this resource:
  388. Reuter, Peter, and David Ronfeldt. 1992. Quest for integrity: The Mexican–US drug issue in the 1980s. In Special Issue: Drug Trafficking Research Update. Edited by Bruce M. Bagley and William O. Walker III. Journal of Interamerican Studies & World Affairs 34.3: 89–153.
  389. DOI: 10.2307/165926Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  390. The article analyzes the development of drug policy in the United States and Mexico and the evolving relationship between the two nations. Based on interviews and US documents, the major contributions of this piece are (1) the focus on issues of sovereignty and (2) the powerful empirical data on the production of various illegal drugs and estimated related revenues. Organized, clearly written, and informative.
  391. Reuter, Peter, and David Ronfeldt. 1992. Quest for integrity: The Mexican–US drug issue in the 1980s. In Special Issue: Drug Trafficking Research Update. Edited by Bruce M. Bagley and William O. Walker III. Journal of Interamerican Studies & World Affairs 34.3: 89–153.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Williams, Phil. 2009. Drug trafficking, violence and the state in Mexico. Carlisle, PA: US Army War College Strategic Studies Institute.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Relatively brief overview that encourages less “inflammatory language and hyperbolic rhetoric” (p. 1) and more neutral and encompassing analysis. The complex relationship between the cartels and the state is in a time of transition; thus, this conflict is not accurately described as an “insurgency” (p. 2) or a “nationwide epidemic” (p. 3), and existing concerns of Mexico becoming a failed state are exaggerated.
  396. Williams, Phil. 2009. Drug trafficking, violence and the state in Mexico. Carlisle, PA: US Army War College Strategic Studies Institute.
  397. Find this resource:
  398. Willoughby, Randy. 2003. Crouching fox, hidden eagle: Drug trafficking and transnational security—A perspective from the Tijuana–San Diego border. Crime, Law and Social Change 40.1: 113–142.
  399. DOI: 10.1023/A:1024993903819Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400. This is an analysis of drug trafficking within the social, political, and economic history between the United States and Mexico. Willoughby argues that Mexican DTOs have moved beyond traditional corruption; institutions of the state are being dominated by organized criminal groups in some situations. This is an important analysis that sets the stage for the 2006 Calderon administration’s escalation of the war on drugs in Mexico.
  401. Willoughby, Randy. 2003. Crouching fox, hidden eagle: Drug trafficking and transnational security—A perspective from the Tijuana–San Diego border. Crime, Law and Social Change 40.1: 113–142.
  402. Find this resource:
  403. The United States
  404.  
  405. The United States is a critical nation in the international drug trade; the massive market for illegal drugs in the United States and the role of the United States in shaping international prohibition policy make it an essential case study for students of international drug trafficking. The resources in this section inform three issues involving drug policy and trafficking central to the United States: overviews of illegal drug use and policy, the daily operations of moderate-sized drug-dealing groups, and perspectives on more tolerant drug policy. Goode 2012, Inciardi and McElrath 2011, and Inciardi and McElrath 2014 contextualize the national and international drug trade by providing fairly encompassing overviews of the social and historical evolution of drug use and drug policy in the United States. Adler 1985 and Mohamed and Fritsvold 2010 offer insight into the culture and operations of moderately sized drug-dealing organizations in the United States and their points of access to the larger domestic and international drug trafficking community. Lastly, it is largely the criminalization of illegal drugs that creates the international underground market for them. Gray 2001, Gerber 2004, and Wilson 1990 offer competing viewpoints on the costs and benefits of alternative drug policy in the United States.
  406.  
  407. Adler, Patricia A. 1985. Wheeling and dealing: An ethnography of an upper-level drug dealing and smuggling community. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409. Six years of ethnographic fieldwork offer extraordinary insights into the lives, culture, and illegal business practices of approximately sixty-five upper-level drug dealers and smugglers. These dealers in the American Southwest are relatively high on the drug-dealing hierarchy, making it a near-unprecedented contribution to the criminological literature. Subjects smuggled marijuana and amphetamines from Mexico and cocaine from South America while indulging in a hedonistic lifestyle.
  410. Adler, Patricia A. 1985. Wheeling and dealing: An ethnography of an upper-level drug dealing and smuggling community. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
  411. Find this resource:
  412. Gerber, Rudolph J. 2004. Legalizing marijuana: Drug policy reform and prohibition politics. Westport, CT: Praeger.
  413. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  414. Judge Gerber provides readers with a detailed look at the role of marijuana in punitive prohibition, including pharmacology, marijuana politics, and states’ rights issues. The most vivid contribution is the historical insights into the political, law enforcement, and community actors involved in shaping US drug policy. The political dynamics can be extrapolated well beyond the case study of marijuana to drug policy and criminal-justice policy broadly.
  415. Gerber, Rudolph J. 2004. Legalizing marijuana: Drug policy reform and prohibition politics. Westport, CT: Praeger.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Goode, Erich. 2012. Drugs in American society. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. This textbook is a wide-ranging book ideal for first- and second-year undergraduate students. While similar in content to various anthologies on the market, the single-voice textbook makes it more cohesive and accessible. Highlights include chapters on drug policy research methods and the global drug trade, and the demythologizing framework of the book.
  420. Goode, Erich. 2012. Drugs in American society. 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
  421. Find this resource:
  422. Gray, James P. 2001. Why our drug laws have failed and what we can do about it: A judicial indictment of the war on drugs. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424. Broad and empirically driven critique of US drug policy. Gray argues that one of the benefits of alternative drug policy would be dramatically reducing the funding for local, national, and international organized crime. The most compelling component of the book is its author: Gray is a judge in conservative Orange County, California, and a former federal prosecutor. Excellent comprehensive critical overview and good starting point for students.
  425. Gray, James P. 2001. Why our drug laws have failed and what we can do about it: A judicial indictment of the war on drugs. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
  426. Find this resource:
  427. Inciardi, James A., and Karen McElrath, eds. 2011. The American drug scene: An anthology. 6th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  429. This anthology organizes cornerstone pieces of US drugs and society literature into an organized, student-friendly volume. Substantive foci include history of drug policy, drug use theories, drug-related crime, drug treatment, policy perspectives, and a series of case studies on legal and illegal drugs. The range of topics and temporal scope of the individual articles make it an excellent overview of US drugs and society literature.
  430. Inciardi, James A., and Karen McElrath, eds. 2011. The American drug scene: An anthology. 6th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  431. Find this resource:
  432. Inciardi, James, and Karen McElrath. 2014. The American drug scene: Readings in a global context. 7th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  433. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  434. This rich anthology samples nearly a century of scholarship on drug use, drug control efforts, and their larger social, political, and economic contexts. This text highlights the variety of types of drugs used and the variety of drug users in the contemporary United States, including college students, marginalized heroin users, sex workers, and some Native American populations. Thirty-three of the thirty-nine articles are new to this edition of the anthology, suggesting that both Inciardi and McElrath 2011 and Inciardi and McElrath 2014 have significant independent substantive value.
  435. Inciardi, James, and Karen McElrath. 2014. The American drug scene: Readings in a global context. 7th ed. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Mohamed, Rafik A., and Erik D. Fritsvold. 2010. Dorm room dealers: Drugs and the privileges of race and class. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Six-year ethnographic investigation into a drug-dealing network comprised of fifty affluent college students in Southern California. These “anti-targets” (p. 2) of the war on drugs bungled their way through the drug trade, were not actively targeted by police, and were able to minimize any official consequences. The privileged subjects make it a unique contribution and contrasts the legacy of studies focused on drug crime among marginalized populations.
  440. Mohamed, Rafik A., and Erik D. Fritsvold. 2010. Dorm room dealers: Drugs and the privileges of race and class. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
  441. Find this resource:
  442. Wilson, James Q. 1990. Against the legalization of drugs. Commentary Magazine 89.2: 21–28.
  443. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  444. Wilson argues in favor of punitive prohibition approaches to drugs. Focusing on heroin, cocaine, crack-cocaine, and PCP, he argues that drug prohibition has prevented higher rates of drug use. Moreover, legalization would likely increase the availability of illegal drugs, decrease their price to consumers, and thus likely increase drug use. Wilson was a member of the 1972 Congressional National Advisory Council for Drug Abuse and Prevention.
  445. Wilson, James Q. 1990. Against the legalization of drugs. Commentary Magazine 89.2: 21–28.
  446. Find this resource:
  447. Policy, Law Enforcement, and the CIA
  448.  
  449. The punitive prohibition drug policies of the United States have been influential in the historic evolution of global drug policy and a core component of US foreign policy. However, in the midst of a war on drugs, the role of US federal law enforcement bodies has been quite controversial, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in particular. The following resources critically examine the role of the United States and its attempts to control the drug trade worldwide. Perl 2006 presents an accessible overview of these policies illustrated by several contemporary case studies. Perl 2006 is more contemporary and more encompassing compared to Perl 1992, an analysis of Bolivia, Columbia, and Peru. Andreas and Nadelmann 2006 focuses on the politicalization of US international drug-control strategies and claims that the United States regularly uses coercion in attempts to achieve its international drug-policy goals. Scott and Marshall 1991 uses the Kerry Commission hearings as a platform to explore the controversial role of the CIA in facilitating the cocaine industry in Central America. Similarly, McCoy 2003, a frequently cited book, presents evidence concerning the CIA’s involvement with global drug trafficking in several regions over time. Lastly, Duster 1997 provides an account of how domestic drug policies in the United States reshaped the marijuana and powder cocaine industries in the 1970s and 1980s. In combination, these resources demonstrate the controversial role of the United States in shaping the global drug industry.
  450.  
  451. Andreas, Peter, and Ethan Nadelmann. 2006. Policing the globe: Criminalization and crime control in international relations. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  453. This is a sociohistorical account of the global politics of crime control. It challenges the dominant explanation that the Western world has increased its global police presence as a result of globalization and corresponding global criminal threats, including international drug trafficking. Rather, the authors argue that the United States and other Western countries are attempting to coerce other nations into subscribing to their crime definitions and crime-control strategies.
  454. Andreas, Peter, and Ethan Nadelmann. 2006. Policing the globe: Criminalization and crime control in international relations. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  455. Find this resource:
  456. Duster, Troy. 1997. Pattern, purpose, and race in the drug war: The crisis of credibility in criminal justice. In Crack in America: Demon drugs and social justice. Edited by Craig Reinarman and Harry Gene Levine, 260–287. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  457. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  458. This broad critique of the US war on drugs focuses on race and class inequalities, the incarceration of low-level offenders, money laundering, and connections between the legitimate and illegitimate economy. Duster outlines how the vigorous policing of marijuana in the 1970s eliminated the “cottage marijuana industry,” leading international criminal groups to increase cocaine production and importation, which increased its domestic availability and decreased its price.
  459. Duster, Troy. 1997. Pattern, purpose, and race in the drug war: The crisis of credibility in criminal justice. In Crack in America: Demon drugs and social justice. Edited by Craig Reinarman and Harry Gene Levine, 260–287. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. McCoy, Alfred M. 2003. The politics of heroin: CIA complicity in the global drug trade, Afghanistan, Southeast Asia, Central America, Colombia. Rev. ed. Chicago: Lawrence Hill.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. This revised edition of McCoy’s original 1972 book is frequently cited and somewhat contentious. It begins with a detailed history of the evolution of international heroin and opium trafficking. In particular, evidence is provided to explore the role of the CIA in the facilitation of international drug trafficking, especially during the Vietnam War and Iran-Contra scandal.
  464. McCoy, Alfred M. 2003. The politics of heroin: CIA complicity in the global drug trade, Afghanistan, Southeast Asia, Central America, Colombia. Rev. ed. Chicago: Lawrence Hill.
  465. Find this resource:
  466. Perl, Raphael. 1992. United States Andean drug policy: Background and issues for decisionmakers. Journal of Interamerican Studies & World Affairs 34.3: 13–35.
  467. DOI: 10.2307/165923Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  468. Concise case study of the United States’ attempts to reduce the supply of illegal drugs from Bolivia, Columbia, and Peru. An element of President Bush’s 1989 drug control initiative, this multiagency, multipronged strategy involved military, law enforcement, and economic components. Experts disagree if the entire strategy, and its various constitutive elements, have been successful. Valuable case study of the benefits and limitations of international supply-side strategies.
  469. Perl, Raphael. 1992. United States Andean drug policy: Background and issues for decisionmakers. Journal of Interamerican Studies & World Affairs 34.3: 13–35.
  470. Find this resource:
  471. Perl, Raphael. 2006. International drug trade and US foreign policy. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
  472. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  473. Clearly written and user-friendly report outlines the international efforts of the United States to combat illegal drugs. Perl notes that US international foreign policy objectives are sometimes in conflict with drug-control strategies. Supply-side policing efforts are discussed, along with case studies of Plan Colombia, the Bush administration’s 2006 National Drug Control Strategy, and the link between terrorism and opium production in Afghanistan.
  474. Perl, Raphael. 2006. International drug trade and US foreign policy. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress.
  475. Find this resource:
  476. Scott, Peter Dale, and Jonathan Marshall. 1991. Cocaine politics: Drugs, armies, and the CIA in Central America. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478. Beginning with a detailed examination of the Kerry Committee’s findings, this book marshals evidence concerning CIA involvement in drug trafficking in Central America. This history links the CIA with high-level political actors in the United States and international covert and overt military action to combat Communism.
  479. Scott, Peter Dale, and Jonathan Marshall. 1991. Cocaine politics: Drugs, armies, and the CIA in Central America. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Costs and Alternatives to the War on Drugs
  482.  
  483. The following reports, cross-national analyses, and position papers call for a de-escalation or elimination of the war on drugs and the corresponding punitive prohibition approach to drugs and drug crime. In a series of macro-level reports, Global Commission on Drug Policy 2011, Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy 2009, and Jelsma 2011 outline the negative consequences of punitive drug control worldwide and cite compelling examples of the benefits of harm-reduction approaches. MacCoun and Reuter 2001 and Nadelmann 1998 write from an American perspective and critically evaluate what can be learned from other, more tolerant drug policy regimes in the developed world. Crick, et al. 2013 examines how legal and regulated marijuana markets in the United States impact domestic and global drug dynamics, as well as the role of the US government in global prohibition efforts. Lastly, Levine 2003 takes a very critical look at the politicalization of drug policy. While alternative policy has been a longstanding topic in the drug policy literature, these contemporary resources add thorough empirical evidence, rich case studies, and insightful analysis to a topic that is too often more political than practical.
  484.  
  485. Crick, Emily, H. Haase, and Dave Bewley-Taylor. 2013. Legally regulated cannabis markets in the U.S.: Implications and possibilities. Swansea, UK: Global Drug Policy Observatory.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Examines the potential consequences, both within the United States and the world community, of legal and regulated marijuana US markets in Colorado and Washington State. Of paramount importance is the conflict between state and federal law within the United States and how this might hamstring the US government’s role in international drug prohibition efforts.
  488. Crick, Emily, H. Haase, and Dave Bewley-Taylor. 2013. Legally regulated cannabis markets in the U.S.: Implications and possibilities. Swansea, UK: Global Drug Policy Observatory.
  489. Find this resource:
  490. Global Commission on Drug Policy. 2011. War on drugs. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Global Commission on Drug Policy.
  491. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  492. The Commission concludes, “The global war on drugs has failed, with devastating consequences for individuals and societies around the world” (p. 2). Calls for a reduction of supply-side and punitive drug-control strategies. Recommends a series of harm-reduction, public health, and legal regulation approaches. Case studies of Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and The Netherlands are marshaled to support their position.
  493. Global Commission on Drug Policy. 2011. War on drugs. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Global Commission on Drug Policy.
  494. Find this resource:
  495. Jelsma, Martin. 2011. The development of international drug control: Lessons learned and strategic challenges for the future. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Global Commission on Drug Policies.
  496. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  497. This report presents a sociopolitical history of the global war on drugs, emphasizing the negative health consequences for drug users, strained correction systems, and controversial role of military forces. Calls for tolerant, harm-reduction approaches emphasizing human rights. “The excessive negative consequences and negligible effectiveness have now been broadly acknowledged and a process of de-escalation is in full motion in many places” (p. 16).
  498. Jelsma, Martin. 2011. The development of international drug control: Lessons learned and strategic challenges for the future. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Global Commission on Drug Policies.
  499. Find this resource:
  500. Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy. 2009. Drugs and democracy: Toward a paradigm shift. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy.
  501. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  502. Established by former presidents of Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil, this seventeen-member commission “evaluated the impact of the ‘war on drugs’ policies and framed recommendations for safer, more efficient and humane policies” (p. 12). Major themes include the violence and corruption created by drug trafficking organizations, as well as the need for a less politicized and more open and honest global discussion about drug policy.
  503. Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy. 2009. Drugs and democracy: Toward a paradigm shift. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Levine, Harry G. 2003. Global drug prohibition: Its uses and crises. International Journal of Drug Policy 14.2: 145–153.
  506. DOI: 10.1016/S0955-3959(03)00003-3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. In a critical piece, Levine presents a socio-historical analysis that highlights the political utility of “anti-drug crusades” (p. 147) and the role of the United States and United Nations in facilitating the worldwide criminalization of drugs. He argues that three contemporary issues may lead to more tolerant global drug policies: the momentum of the harm-reduction movement, increased resistance to punitive drug control policies, and controversies about the criminalization of cannabis.
  508. Levine, Harry G. 2003. Global drug prohibition: Its uses and crises. International Journal of Drug Policy 14.2: 145–153.
  509. Find this resource:
  510. MacCoun, Robert J., and Peter Reuter. 2001. Drug war heresies: Learning from other vices, times, and places. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  511. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511754272Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  512. This is a quantitative-heavy, cross-national comparison of drug policy in the United States and many Western European countries with more tolerant regimes. Grounded in dense sociohistorical analyses and a claim of political neutrality, this book explores alternative policies for cocaine, heroin, and marijuana. Notably, the authors examine illicit markets for drugs, the relationship between policing and illicit drug markets, drug dealer incomes, drug prices, and violence within these markets.
  513. MacCoun, Robert J., and Peter Reuter. 2001. Drug war heresies: Learning from other vices, times, and places. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  514. Find this resource:
  515. Nadelmann, Ethan. 1998. Commonsense drug policy. Foreign Affairs 77.1: 111–126.
  516. DOI: 10.2307/20048366Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517. This article utilizes cross-national comparisons to advocate for a harm-reduction approach to drug use and policy. Nadelmann outlines the negative health consequences of prohibitionist drug policy and the harm-reduction benefits of more progressive approaches. Examples include cannabis in The Netherlands, methadone maintenance, and safe injection facilities in Switzerland and Germany. Excellent introductory overview of harm-reduction policies.
  518. Nadelmann, Ethan. 1998. Commonsense drug policy. Foreign Affairs 77.1: 111–126.
  519. Find this resource:
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Advertisement
Public Pastes
Advertisement
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!