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Greek and Roman Technology (Classics)

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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. This bibliography is designed to survey the role of technology in the Greek and Roman cultures and their respective technological accomplishments, from approximately the 8th century BC through the 5th century AD. Technology consists of those human activities that intentionally alter the environment or natural materials to ensure human survival or simply a more comfortable lifestyle. All human societies build their technologies on the basis of what previous cultures have achieved. The Greco-Roman accomplishments in technology, however, were significantly more diverse than those of the earlier cultures of the Near East or the Mediterranean. They also show a coherent developmental sequence that reflects the shared attitudes and experiences of the Greek and Roman cultures themselves. The references collected here are not intended to be a compendium of literature concerning all the technological procedures, devices, and machines in use in the classical world. The objective was creation of a critical summation of our present knowledge of the Greek and Roman accomplishments in technology and engineering and the evolution of the technical capabilities of these cultures over the defined chronological period. Each section is designed to review the main issues surrounding that topic and then to list recent scholarly contributions that define the capacities and accomplishments of the technology in the context of the society that used it, the available “technological shelf,” and the resources consumed. Obviously, not all the important sources can be listed here, but they can be found in the bibliographies within the books and articles that are included. Important online sources are listed when they have stable addresses and a significant history. The material is organized in nine main categories: surveys, reference works, and periodicals; literary, visual, and artifactual sources; primary, extractive technologies; engineering activities and complex machines; secondary processes and manufacturing; technologies of movement and transport; technologies of war; technologies of the mind, including reading, writing, timekeeping, and calculation; and a final section concerned with inventors, invention, and attitudes toward innovation. The materials presented in this bibliography make it clear that the classical world was marked by remarkable technological advances in many areas, often fostered by the elite, and spread widely throughout the population. A technological Greek and Latin literature composed of both sophisticated compendia and workshop manuals did exist, although much of it has been lost, and both inscriptions and visual representations show that craftsmen and craftswomen were proud of their work and their products.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6. Numerous surveys of varying value have been produced over the last 50 years, and some earlier works, such as Blümner 1979, remains useful. Forbes 1964–1972 embodies a very old-fashioned approach, but the author compiles some useful data and illustrations, while Gille 1986 and White 1984 show a broader, more analytical vision. Greene 2000, Humphrey 2006, Rihll 2013, and Schneider 2007 provide shorter but up-to-date accounts of theoretical problems and major issues.
  7.  
  8. Blümner, Hugo. 1979. Technologie und terminologie der gewerbe und künst bei Griechen und Römern. 4 vols. New York: Arno.
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  11.  
  12. Surveys in exhaustive detail the techniques and terminology of most Greek and Roman arts and crafts. Although a century old, the study remains a fundamental reference work, particularly for the evidence in ancient authors. The illustrations are rudimentary, and the author had few archaeological data at his disposal. First published in 1875–1887 (Leipzig: Teubner).
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  16. Forbes, Robert J. 1964–1972. Studies in ancient technology. 2d ed. 9 vols. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
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  19.  
  20. Assembles in topical chapters and volumes archaeological and literary evidence for various technologies from the Bronze Age through Late Roman period. Approach is descriptive rather than analytical, and illustrations, and bibliography are sometimes capricious. Nevertheless, a pioneering effort to bring order to the study of ancient technology, and several section remain useful. Volume titles: Volume 1: Petroleum (1964); Volume 2: Irrigation; Power; Land Transportation (1965); Volume 3: Cosmetics and Perfumes; Food; Pigments, Inks (1965); Volume 4: Fibres and Fabrics; Dyes and Dyeing; Basketry (1964); Volume 5: Leather; Sugar and its substitutes (1966); Volume 6: Heat and Heating; Refrigeration; Light (1966); Volume 7: Mining and Quarrying (1966); Volume 8: Metallurgy (1971); and Volume 9: Copper, Bronze, Iron (1972).
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  24. Gille, Bertrand. 1986. History of techniques. 2 vols. New York: Gorden and Breach.
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  27.  
  28. Coherent, detailed discussion of Western technology from its beginnings to the present. Proposes that Western technology consists of a series of separate “systems,” each of which consists of “technical structures” (a basic tool or process), “technical ensembles” (a complex of techniques to produce a product), or “concatenations of technical ensembles.” Originally published in French in 1978.
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  31.  
  32. Greene, Kevin. 2000. Industry and technology. In The Cambridge ancient history. 2d ed. Vol. 11. Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 741–768. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  34. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521263351Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35.  
  36. Excellent short review of the main issues in the main Roman crafts and manufacturing. Considers social and economic context, demand, technological innovation, and conflicts between written and archaeological sources. Production shops were well organized, and manual labor was an honorable pursuit. There was no such thing as Roman technology but rather technology of Roman date. Also see Large-Scale Manufacturing, Standardization, and Trade.
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  40. Humphrey, John W. 2006. Ancient technology. Westport CT: Greenwood.
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  43.  
  44. A short review of the main issues in the development of human technologies from the Palaeolithic to Late Roman period. What prompts change? What cultural traditions inhibit change? What effect do these changes have on their societies and civilization? Numerous line drawings, and frequent citations of ancient literary evidence.
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  48. Rihll, Tracey E. 2013. Technology and society in the ancient Greek and Roman worlds. Washington, DC: American Historical Society.
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  51.  
  52. A survey appropriate more or less to high school, providing a good review of technological innovation and social response.
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  55.  
  56. Schneider, Helmuth. 2007. Geschichte der antiken technik. Munich: Beck.
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  59.  
  60. An excellent short review of the social and intellectual context of (for the most part) Greek and Roman technology. The main technologies are treated in thematic chapters that focus on issues of labor and attitudes. Few illustrations.
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  63.  
  64. White, Kenneth D. 1984. Greek and Roman technology. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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  67.  
  68. A major synthetic evaluation of Greek and Roman technology in its social context and of the relationship between technology and culture. Outlines the main directions of development in individual technologies, illustrated by selected examples. Sixteen appendices treat special problems in more detail, and thirteen tables provide a handy summary of the dates of various innovations.
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  71.  
  72. Reference Works
  73. There is still no proper encyclopedia of ancient technology, because of the challenging bulk of the subject material, the constant increase in fundamental data through archaeological excavation, and the need for rich illustration. McNeil 1990 provides some information on ancient technology, but unfortunately Radici Colace, et al. 2010 has problems in organization, quality of information, and accessibility. Many entries in Bianchi-Bandinelli 1958–1981, Daremberg and Saglio 1873–1917, Keyser and Irby-Massie 2008, and Pauly-Wissowa 1894–1980 are relevant to ancient technology, but only the first of these is properly illustrated. There are now numerous Internet sites relevant to ancient technology, often richly illustrated, but with text of varying originality and reliability. A search for a particular term or device will often return surprising and useful data.
  74.  
  75. Bianchi-Bandinelli, R., ed. 1958–1981. Enciclopedia dell’Arte Antica, Classica e Orientale. 9 vols. and 5 supplement vols. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana.
  76.  
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  78.  
  79. A major encyclopedia of the visual arts in the ancient Mediterranean and Near East. Many entries or parts of entries are relevant to the technology of construction, water supply, or the production of works of art in stone, ceramics, metal, and cloth. All entries are well illustrated and include full bibliographies.
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  82.  
  83. Daremberg, Charles, and Edmund Saglio. 1873–1917. Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines. 5 vols. in 9. Paris: Hachette.
  84.  
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  86.  
  87. Summarizes late 19th-century scholarship on Greek and Roman culture, arranged in encyclopedic form according to the relevant Greek or Latin term, many of which are related to ancient technology. Supplementary volume of tables and useful analytical indices in French to the main entries. Still useful for ancient written sources.
  88.  
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  90.  
  91. Keyser, Paul T., and Georgia L. Irby-Massie, eds. 2008. The encyclopedia of ancient natural scientists: The Greek tradition and its many heirs. London: Routledge.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. A comprehensive reference work with nearly 1,600 entries covering all the Greek and Latin natural scientists, from Thales in the 6th century BC through Isidore at the end of the Late Antiquity. Many of these figures were involved with practical technologies or interpretations of the place of technology in human society.
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  98.  
  99. McNeil, Ian, ed. 1990. An encyclopedia of the history of technology. London: Routledge.
  100.  
  101. DOI: 10.4324/9780203192115Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  102.  
  103. A poorly distributed but well-received encyclopedia of technology from the Palaeolithic to the modern period, organized by chapters. The introduction presents basic tools, devices, and mechanisms, and the chapters are grouped into sections dealing with materials, power and engineering, transportation, communication and calculation, and technology and society.
  104.  
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  106.  
  107. Pauly, August Friedrich von. 1894–1980. Paulys real-encyclopèdie der klassischen altertumswissenschaft. 34 vols. 15 supplement vols. Stuttgart: Metzler.
  108.  
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  110.  
  111. Standard encyclopedia of the whole field of classical literature, history, mythology, antiquities, biography, and so on including numerous topics relevant to ancient technology. The meticulously documented articles are arranged according to the relevant Greek, Latin, or German term. The index volume is essential for finding articles in the main series, “Nachträge,” and Supplements. Various editors. Also includes an index volume.
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  114.  
  115. Radici Colace, Paola, Silvio M. Medaglio, Livio Rossetti, and Sergio Sconocchia, eds. 2010. Dizionario delle scienze e delle tecniche di Grecia e Roma. 2 vols. Biblioteca di Technai 1. Florence: Fabrizio Serra Editore.
  116.  
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  118.  
  119. Presents entries of varying length and quality concerning many topics relating to Greco-Roman science and technology. Poor organization and editing make it difficult to use, and the outrageous price ensured poor distribution to libraries.
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  122.  
  123. Bibliographies
  124. Oleson 1986 provides a thorough, annotated bibliography through 1986, but fortunately there are several annual bibliographies of the ancient world that include ancient technology and are either available online or about to appear online: L’Année Philologique and Archäologische Bibliographie. There are also numerous bibliographies of world technology that include the ancient period: Isis, Technikgeschichte, and Technology and Culture. Numismatic Literature is an example of a topical, diachronic bibliography that includes information on technology. There are numerous topical bibliographies of varying accuracy and completeness on the Internet that can be accessed by a quick search for “bibliography” and the topic desired.
  125.  
  126. L’Année Philologique. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1928–.
  127.  
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  129.  
  130. Assembles annual bibliographies on all aspects of Greco-Roman culture, usually with short abstracts. The section on “Sciences, techniques et métiers” contains much material relevant to ancient technology, although the sources generally are restricted to periodicals in the field of Classics and Archaeology. Available online by subscription or library access.
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  133.  
  134. Archäologische Bibliographie: Beilage zum Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Institutes. 1956–.
  135.  
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  137.  
  138. Assembles current bibliography relevant to all aspects of classical archaeology. Prior to 1976, items relevant to technology were scattered among several subdivisions. Since that time they appear together under the heading “Technik und Material.” The indices are full and informative.
  139.  
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  141.  
  142. Isis. 1913–.
  143.  
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  145.  
  146. An international periodical devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences. Contains the Isis Current Bibliography (around 3,000 items annually), which includes a section on ancient technology. The entries, which lean toward the scientific basis for technologies, are now loaded into the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine database by subscription. Also see Periodicals.
  147.  
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  149.  
  150. Numismatic Literature. 1947–.
  151.  
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  153.  
  154. Publishes abstracts of articles concerned with numismatics. Each semiannual issue contains a section entitled “Technology and Methodology” that includes articles treating the metallurgy, production, and distribution of coins in the Greek and Roman World. In the process of moving to on-line format.
  155.  
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  157.  
  158. Oleson, John P. 1986. Bronze Age, Greek, and Roman technology: An annotated bibliography. New York: Garland.
  159.  
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  161.  
  162. Provides a full, carefully annotated bibliography of technologies from the Bronze Age through the Late Roman period, categorized by theme and technology with 2,030 entries through 1985.
  163.  
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  165.  
  166. Technikgeschichte: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Techik und Industrie. 1933–.
  167.  
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  169.  
  170. A periodical on the history of technology. Includes occasional well-illustrated and well-documented articles (always in German) relevant to classical Antiquity. Since 1979 most issues contain a list of recent articles relevant to the history of technology culled from a list of fifty journals. Also see Periodicals.
  171.  
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  173.  
  174. Technology and Culture. 1959–.
  175.  
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  177.  
  178. Publishes high quality, scholarly articles and reviews relevant to the history of technology and its relation to science and society. Items concerned with ancient technology occur relatively frequently. Current bibliography in the history of technology appears in most issues, including items on prehistoric and classical Antiquity. Also see Periodicals.
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  181.  
  182. Whitrow, Magda, ed. 1971–1984. Isis cumulative bibliography. A bibliography of the history of science formed from Isis Critical Bibliographies 1–90, 1913–1965. 6 vols. London: Mansel.
  183.  
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  185.  
  186. Assembles the bibliography from the annual lists in Isis. Volume 4 presents a vast amount of bibliography in careful subdivisions, some of which are relevant to ancient technology. A major reference work. Volume titles: Volume 1: Personalities, A–J; Volume 2: Personalities, K–Z and Institutions; Volume 3: Subjects. Volume 4: Civilizations and Periods, Prehistory to Middle Ages; Volume 5: Civilizations and Periods, 15th to 19th Centuries; Volume 6: Author Index. Seven supplementary volumes, edited by John Neu, cover the years 1965 to 1995.
  187.  
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  189.  
  190. Periodicals
  191. There are several high quality journals concerned with the history of technology and science, with a long record of publication: History of Science, History of Technology, Isis, Technikgeschichte, Technology and Culture, and The International Journal for the History of Engineering and Technology. All of these frequently contain material concerning the ancient world. More recently, several journals have appeared that concern the application of the physical or biological sciences to archaeological materials, such as Archaeometry and Journal of Archaeological Science. Many of these articles are relevant to technological processes.
  192.  
  193. Archaeometry. 1958–.
  194.  
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  196.  
  197. An international research journal covering the application of the physical and biological sciences to archaeology and the history of art. The topics covered include dating methods, artifact studies, conservation science, environmental reconstruction, biological anthropology and archaeological theory. The papers are frequently relevant to technological procedures.
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  200.  
  201. British Journal for the History of Science. 1962–.
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  204.  
  205. An international research journal devoted to the history of science, medicine, and technology from earliest times to the present. Articles discuss methodology and review the current state of knowledge and possibilities for future research.
  206.  
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  208.  
  209. History of Technology. 1976–.
  210.  
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  212.  
  213. Presents scholarly articles on all periods of technological history, generally well-illustrated and authoritative. Most issues contain at least one article relevant to Bronze Age Mediterranean or Greco-Roman technology.
  214.  
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  216.  
  217. The International Journal for the History of Engineering and Technology 1920–.
  218.  
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  220.  
  221. Formerly the Transactions of the Newcomen Society for the History of Engineering and Technology. Published by the oldest learned society devoted to the history of engineering and technology, highlighting original research material contributed by leading engineers and historians of technology. The articles cover all aspects of engineering history, including the social, economic, and cultural context. Occasional important articles concerned with the classical world.
  222.  
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  224.  
  225. Isis. 1912–.
  226.  
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  228.  
  229. An international periodical devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences. Contains occasional articles relevant to ancient technology, with a particular focus on the material and intellectual relationships between science and technology. Also see Bibliographies.
  230.  
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  232.  
  233. Journal of Archaeological Science. 1974–.
  234.  
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  236.  
  237. Provides an international forum for archaeologists and scientists from varying backgrounds who apply scientific methods to a wide variety of issues derived from archaeological research. Many of the issues or articles are relevant to Greco-Roman technology.
  238.  
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  240.  
  241. Technikgeschichte: Beiträge zur Geschichte der Techik und Industrie. 1933–.
  242.  
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  244.  
  245. Some of the well-illustrated and well-documented articles (always in German) are directly relevant to classical Antiquity, and all deal with theoretical and practical issues relevant to a wide variety of cultures and periods. Since 1979 most issues contain a bibliography of recent articles relevant to the history of technology, culled from a list of fifty journals. Also see Bibliographies.
  246.  
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  248.  
  249. Technology and Culture. 1959–.
  250.  
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  252.  
  253. Publishes high quality, scholarly articles and reviews relevant to the history of technology and its relation to science and society. Items concerned with ancient technology occur relatively frequently. Since 1962 there has appeared annually a “Current Bibliography in the History of Technology,” which includes chronological sections on prehistoric and classical Antiquity.
  254.  
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  256.  
  257. Historiography and Theoretical Approaches
  258. As the history of technology has matured as a discipline, discussions of the historiographical problems and possible theoretical approaches have become more important. Fox 1996, Matthewman 2011, and Pinch 1996 provide thorough introductions to the theories and methodologies applied to all periods, while Greene 2000, Greene 2003, and Greene 2008 rigorously apply some of these approaches to ancient technology.
  259.  
  260. Fox, Robert, ed. 1996. Technological change: Methods and themes in the history of technology. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic.
  261.  
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  263.  
  264. A collection of papers that deal with current approaches to the methodology and theoretical issues at play in the history of technology. Emphasizes the need for interaction between theoretical and empirical research concerning the technologies of all historical periods.
  265.  
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  267.  
  268. Greene, Kevin. 2000. Technological innovation and economic progress in the ancient world: M. I. Finley re-considered. Economic History Review 53:29–59.
  269.  
  270. DOI: 10.1111/1468-0289.00151Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271.  
  272. A long critique of Finley’s notorious and influential theory about alleged economic stagnation and economic blockage in the Greco-Roman world. Finley underestimated the spread of technological innovation and the form and scale of the Roman economy and constantly violated his principle of not applying modern concepts to the ancient world. Also see Inventors, Invention, and Attitudes toward Innovation.
  273.  
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  275.  
  276. Greene, Kevin. 2003. Archaeology and technology. In A companion to archaeology. Edited by John L. Bintliff, 155–173. Oxford: Blackwell.
  277.  
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  279.  
  280. A useful short study of the historiography of ancient technology and its relation with archaeology. Much research has been based on triumphalism, the paradigm of progress. The social construction of technology approach has irritating implications that everyone else has been missing the point. Examines phenomenology and actor-network theory, along with gendered and ethnic perspectives.
  281.  
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  283.  
  284. Greene, Kevin. 2008. Historiography and theoretical approaches. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 62–90. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  285.  
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  287.  
  288. A thorough presentation of Greene’s carefully documented and influential approach to the evaluation of Greek and Roman technology, along with a review of recent literature and competing interpretations.
  289.  
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  291.  
  292. Matthewman, Steve. 2011. Technology and social theory. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  293.  
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  295.  
  296. Reviews current approaches to applying social theory to the analysis of technology, including social construction of technology, actor-network theory, ethnographic approaches, “thing theory,” and post-humanism. Although not focused on antiquity, the book presents ways to approach and analyze ancient technology.
  297.  
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  299.  
  300. Pinch, Trevor. 1996. The social construction of technology: A review. In Technological change: Methods and themes in the history of technology. Edited by R. Fox, 17–35. Amsterdam: Harwood.
  301.  
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  303.  
  304. An early summary of the social construction of technology (SCOT) approach to the interpretation of ancient and modern technologies, presenting the methods and preconceptions. Social construction of technology interpreters assert that technology does not determine human action but that human action shapes technology. The uses of a technology can be understood only by looking at how that technology is embedded in its social context.
  305.  
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  307.  
  308. Literary, Visual, Artifactual, and Ethnographic Sources
  309. The sources for the history of ancient technology are enormously rich and varied. Descriptions of materials and technical procedures in Latin and Greek written materials obviously have great relevance, as do the visual representations of craftspeople and technical processes in ancient sculpture and painting. Any ancient artifact is a testimony to technology, whether it is evidence of materials and processes or a tool used in production. Ancient workshops and the byproducts of technical processes are also very useful to the historian of technology. Finally, ethnographic evidence for the production and use of objects in early modern or traditional modern society can provide important comparative data.
  310.  
  311. Ancient Written Sources
  312. A surprising number of Greek and Latin technical works survive to varying degrees (Fleury 1990; Føgen 2005; Meissner 1999; Nicolet 1996; Santini, et al. 2002). Translations of the most important texts have been assembled, with commentary and bibliography, in Humphrey, et al. 1998. Pliny’s Natural History, an enormous work that includes much material relevant to ancient technology, has been the subject of a number of recent studies (e.g., Healy 1999). Cuomo 2008 provides an excellent introduction to the issues surrounding the interpretation of ancient written sources about technology, while Oleson 2005 reconstructs a class of lost subliterary technical manuals.
  313.  
  314. Cuomo, Serafina. 2008. Ancient written sources for engineering and technology. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 15–34. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  315.  
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  317.  
  318. Reviews the categories of ancient written evidence for technology: technical handbooks and texts, occasional nontechnical texts containing information on materials, technical processes, or attitudes, inscriptions, and papyri. An excellent survey of the range of information provided and its evolution through the Greco-Roman period.
  319.  
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  321.  
  322. Fleury, Philippe. 1990. Les textes techniques de l’antiquité. Sources, études et perspectives. Euphrosyne 18:359–394.
  323.  
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  325.  
  326. A very useful article summarizing research on Greek and Roman technical texts up to 1990, including an extensive bibliography on the various ancient authors and relevant topics.
  327.  
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  329.  
  330. Føgen, Thorsten, ed. 2005. Antike Fachtexte. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  331.  
  332. DOI: 10.1515/9783110912104Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  333.  
  334. Collection of essays in German and English on technical texts and technical languages in Graeco-Roman antiquity. The authors investigate the cultural dimension of technical texts and how ancient technical writers dealt with linguistic, stylistic, and terminological problems. Probes the intentions of authors and readers and the relationship between text and illustrations.
  335.  
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  337.  
  338. Healy, John F. 1999. Pliny the Elder on science and technology. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  339.  
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  341.  
  342. An authoritative reassessment of the character of Pliny’s encyclopedia, his language and methods of organization and composition, and his value as a source of information on ancient scientific knowledge and technology.
  343.  
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  345.  
  346. Humphrey, John, John P. Oleson, and Andrew N. Sherwood. 1998. Greek and Roman technology: A sourcebook. London: Routledge.
  347.  
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  349.  
  350. Presents several thousand translated excerpts from Greek and Roman literary works, inscriptions, and papyri relevant to all the ancient crafts and technologies. Nearly 150 authors are represented. The useful chapter and passage introductions and topical bibliographies make this the most comprehensive and useful collection of written sources on ancient technology.
  351.  
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  353.  
  354. Meissner, Burkhard. 1999. Die technologische fachliteratur der Antike: Struktur, überlieferung und wirkung technischen wissens in der antike: (ca. 400 v. Chr.–ca. 500 n. Chr.). Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
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  357.  
  358. An ambitious attempt to survey all the technical treatises that have survived from the classical world. Meissner concludes that the Greeks and Romans did follow the principles of economic rationality and that technological innovation continued to take place during the Roman imperial period. A useful analysis of the written sources.
  359.  
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  361.  
  362. Nicolet, Claude, ed. 1996. Les littératures techniques dans l’Antiquité romaine: Statut, public et destination, tradition. Sept exposés suivis de discussions. Entretiens sur l’Antiquité classique 42. Geneva: Fondation Hardt.
  363.  
  364. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365.  
  366. Collects seven authoritative presentations at a conference concerning ancient texts on architecture, machines, techniques of warfare, water supply, urban planning, and surveying, followed by an account of the group discussions.
  367.  
  368. Find this resource:
  369.  
  370. Oleson, John P. 2005. Design, materials, and the process of innovation in Roman force pumps. In Terra marique: Studies in art history and marine archaeology in honor of Anna Marguerite McCann. Edited by John Pollini, 211–231. Oxford: Oxbow.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. Uses similarities among rural pumping devices around the Roman Empire to propose the existence of subliterary technical manuals available to workmen. An interesting proposal of a lost technological literature, with full review of sources concerning surviving Greek and Roman technical works.
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378. Santini, Carlo, Ida Mastrorosa, and Antonio Zumbo. 2002. Letteratura scientifica e tecnica di Grecia e Roma. Rome: Carocci editore.
  379.  
  380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  381.  
  382. An extensive review of the ancient texts available for wide variety of subjects, including hydraulics, pneumatics, architecture, surveying, mechanics, and navigation.
  383.  
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Ancient Visual Representations
  387. Prior to the invention of digital photography and the Internet, images of the numerous illustrations of craftspeople and craft procedures in Greek and Roman art were difficult to come by. Even now printed articles and books show only a small selection of the images that survive. A topical search on Google Image© will often bring up well-published and less well-known images relevant to ancient technology. Ulrich 2008 provides a good introduction to the analysis of images, while Chevallier 1997, Reddé 1978, Zimmer 1982a, and Zimmer 1982b combine topical repertoires of images with careful commentary. Kretzschmer 1967 assembles a significant number of images without much commentary, while Basch 1987 and Kampen 1981 exemplify thematic collections of images of the representation of boats, harbors, and female workers.
  388.  
  389. Basch, Lucien. 1987. Le musée imaginaire de la marine antique. Athens: Greek Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition.
  390.  
  391. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  392.  
  393. An enormous, well-organized review of ships in the Mediterranean world from the Bronze Age through the Late Roman period, documented for the most part with nearly 1,100 high-quality reproductions of ancient representations. The text is clear and comprehensive, analyzing both the character of the representations and the evolution and social meaning of ancient nautical technology. Also see Ships and Navigation.
  394.  
  395. Find this resource:
  396.  
  397. Chevallier, Raymond. 1997. Perspectives de recherche sur les scènes de métiers (Gaule Cisalpine et Transalpine). Archeologia Classica 49:47–63.
  398.  
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400.  
  401. Examines and interprets figured relief scenes of crafts found in Gallia Cisalpina e Transalpina and attempts to identify various possible models. Compares figural representations with the relevant literary sources. A good review of an important corpus of evidence.
  402.  
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405. Kampen, Natalie. 1981. Image and status: Roman working women in Ostia. Berlin: Mann.
  406.  
  407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  408.  
  409. Explores reliefs from Ostia and Portus representing lower-class women at work as evidence for the role of females in the workforce and trades. An interesting social interpretation of the visual evidence for craft workers.
  410.  
  411. Find this resource:
  412.  
  413. Kretzschmer, Fritz. 1967. Bilddokumente römischer technik. Düsseldorf: VDI-Verlag.
  414.  
  415. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416.  
  417. Short, popularizing text accompanied by 158 drawings and photographs concerned with Roman technology, arranged by categories. Published in coordination with an exhibit held in 1958. Old-fashioned, but a useful source of images.
  418.  
  419. Find this resource:
  420.  
  421. Reddé, Michel. 1978. Les scènes de métier dans la sculpture funéraire gallo-romaine. Gallia 36:43–63.
  422.  
  423. DOI: 10.3406/galia.1978.1586Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. Catalogues and evaluates craft and manufacturing scenes in Roman sculpture. These became popular in Rome in the 1st century BC and appear elsewhere in large numbers only in northeast Gaul. Speculates that the inspiration in Rome was a new, positive attitude toward work and success through physical effort, but reasons for their popularity in Gaul are uncertain.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429. Ulrich, Roger. 2008. The representation of technical processes. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 35–61. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  430.  
  431. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432.  
  433. Classifies and interprets visual representations of workers, craftsmen, machines, and manufacture in the visual arts of the Greek and Roman world. An excellent, well-illustrated source on the meaning of the representations and the role of workers and technologies in the everyday world.
  434.  
  435. Find this resource:
  436.  
  437. Zimmer, Gerhard. 1982a. Antike Werkstattbilder. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag.
  438.  
  439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440.  
  441. Assembles photographs of Greek (and a few Roman) representations in vase paintings or engraved gems of workshops producing metalwork or ceramics. Describes the procedures involved and illustrates examples with surviving artifacts. An authoritative short museum handbook with excellent photographs.
  442.  
  443. Find this resource:
  444.  
  445. Zimmer, Gerhard. 1982b. Römische Berufdarstellungen: Archäologische Forschungen 12. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag.
  446.  
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. Catalogues and analyzes craft and working scenes on Roman reliefs, graffiti, and frescoes from Italy, accompanied by high-quality illustrations. Authoritative, scholarly text analyzes the technological information provided and the cultural meaning of the scenes. Provides a list of similar scenes in provincial Roman art. A fundamental study.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453. Archaeological Approaches to the History of Technology
  454. Greene 1986 and Miller 2007 consider the issues involved in the use of archaeological data as evidence for technological history, while Hodges 1976 focuses more on the straightforward evaluation of artifacts and Coles 1973 on the types of data available through experimental replication of technological processes.
  455.  
  456. Coles, John M. 1973. Archaeology by experiment. London: Hutchinson.
  457.  
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459.  
  460. Records the methods and results of experimental replication of prehistoric and Greco-Roman procedures in food production, construction, transport, and light industry. Many of the scrupulously documented experiments are relevant to Greco-Roman technology. Excellent illustrations. Numerous citations.
  461.  
  462. Find this resource:
  463.  
  464. Greene, Kevin. 1986. Archaeology of the Roman economy. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  465.  
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467.  
  468. Documents how archaeological data can provide a more balanced view of the Roman economy by presenting information about classes of society and geographical areas that are neglected by the elite writers whose literary works tend to survive. A pioneering work relevant to the history of technology.
  469.  
  470. Find this resource:
  471.  
  472. Hodges, Henry. 1976. Artifacts. An introduction to early materials and technology. 2d ed. London: Baker.
  473.  
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. Presents detailed, well-illustrated explanations of the materials and processes of traditional, premodern crafts and manufacturing, arranged by materials. Much of the information is relevant to Greek and Roman technology. The author, a conservator, provides a final section on how to examine and identify the relevant ancient artifacts. A clear, reliable source.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480. Miller, Heather M. -L. 2007. Archaeological approaches to technology. Boston: Academic Press.
  481.  
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483.  
  484. A thought-provoking study of the processes of innovation and production in some of the main premodern technologies, considered from the archaeologist’s point of view. Makes good use of context, materials, artifact history, production sequence, and ethnographic parallels to elucidate technological processes.
  485.  
  486. Find this resource:
  487.  
  488. Primary and Extractive Technologies
  489. Some of the earliest technologies involved methods of obtaining foodstuffs from the natural world, through hunting and gathering and then by means of agriculture and stock-breeding. Solar energy was already used by early humans for drying food to preserve it, while wind power was harnessed by sails in the 4th millennium BC and water power only in the 4th or 3rd century BC. Mining and metallurgy, like quarrying and stone-working, are technologies that became important in the Early Bronze Age and remained crucial to both classical cultures.
  490.  
  491. Sources of Energy and Power
  492. Wikander 2008 provides a clear introduction to the various sources of energy and the methods of exploiting power from wind and water. Solar power was also important (Ring 1996) and to a lesser extent the use of solar energy stored chemically in coal (Dearne and Branigan 1994). There is meager evidence for the harnessing of wind energy for something other than propelling boats (Lewis 1993), but the design and performance of water mills is now well documented (Spain 2008; Wikander 2000). Lewis 1997 proposes the early invention of the water mill and the use of the cam and lever and the crank and connecting rod in the Greco-Roman world; the latter conjectures are supported by the spectacular relief published in Ritti, et al. 2007.
  493.  
  494. Dearne, Martin J., and Keith Branigan. 1994. The use of coal in Roman Britain. Antiquaries Journal 74:71–105.
  495.  
  496. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  497.  
  498. Coal was first used as fuel on a large scale in the 1st century AD, but its use spread rapidly, in particular for domestic heating and metallurgy.
  499.  
  500. Find this resource:
  501.  
  502. Lewis, Michael J. T. 1993. The Greeks and the early windmill. History of Technology 15:141–189.
  503.  
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505.  
  506. Concludes that the small rotary fan inspired the windmill Heron described in the mid-1st century. The horizontal windmills of Persia, part of a different tradition, were brought west by Seljuks in the 11th century and married with idea of Heron’s mill to form the vertical windmill. A careful, well-documented investigation of a difficult problem.
  507.  
  508. Find this resource:
  509.  
  510. Lewis, Michael J. T. 1997. Millstone and hammer: The origins of water power. Hull, UK: Univ. of Hull Press.
  511.  
  512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  513.  
  514. Argues from Greek technical texts and later Arabic translations and illustrations of lost Greek texts that the water mill was invented in the 3rd century BC and that the water-powered trip-hammer was in use for crushing ore by the 1st century BC. Careful arguments in part supported by recent archaeological finds.
  515.  
  516. Find this resource:
  517.  
  518. Ring, James W. 1996. Windows, baths and solar energy in the Roman Empire. American Journal of Archaeology 100:717–724.
  519.  
  520. DOI: 10.2307/506675Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  521.  
  522. Large window openings were common in Roman imperial structures, particularly public baths. Window size, solar orientation, and contemporary comment indicate that the architects made intentional use of solar energy for heating. The windows had to be glazed to be effective. A careful evaluation of an important energy source.
  523.  
  524. Find this resource:
  525.  
  526. Ritti, Tullia, Klaus Grewe, and Paul Kessener. 2007. A relief of a water-powered stone saw mill on a sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its implications. Journal of Roman Archaeology 20:138–164.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. Publishes spectacular, newly discovered 3rd-century relief of a water-powered stone saw with cranks and connecting rods. Authoritative evaluation of the significance of this first clear evidence for the Roman ability to turn circular motion into linear motion on a large scale, with extensive citation of parallels.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534. Spain, Robert J. 2008. The power and performance of Roman water-mills: Hydro-mechanical analysis of vertical-wheeled watermills. BAR International Series S1786. Oxford: Hadrian.
  535.  
  536. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  537.  
  538. Excellent review of the archaeological evidence for Roman water mills, allowing careful mathematical calculation of power output. Accompanied by clear drawings and diagrams.
  539.  
  540. Find this resource:
  541.  
  542. Wikander, Örjan. 2000. The water-mill. In Handbook of ancient water technology. Edited by Örjan Wikander, 371–400. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  543.  
  544. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  545.  
  546. A thorough review of the archaeological and literary evidence for the invention and practical application of the water mill in the Greco-Roman period. The water mill was far more common around the Roman Empire than was previously believed. Summary of research by the world expert.
  547.  
  548. Find this resource:
  549.  
  550. Wikander, Örjan. 2008. Sources of energy and exploitation of power. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 136–157. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  551.  
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. A short but authoritative presentation of the various sources of energy exploited by the Greeks and Romans: direct solar energy, chemical energy, animal power, water power, and wind power. Uses both archaeological and literary evidence.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558. Mining and Metallurgy
  559. The mining of metal ores and recovery of the metals through processing were crucial technologies from the Early Bronze Age onward. Craddock 2008, Healy 1978, and Ramin 1977 are good introductions to Greek and Roman mining and metallurgy, while Craddock 1995 and Craddock and Lang 2003 cover a wider time period and geographical range. Cleere 1971 and Craddock and Hughes 1985 focus on the furnaces used for smelting oar, while Jones 1982 reviews research on the famous mines that supplied silver to Athens.
  560.  
  561. Cleere, Henry F. 1971. Ironmaking in a Roman furnace. Britannia 2:203–217.
  562.  
  563. DOI: 10.2307/525810Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  564.  
  565. Detailed description of the experimental recreation of Roman iron-making, using a facsimile of 2nd to 3rd century furnaces in Kent and Sussex. Iron was produced along with types of waste materials similar to those found on archaeological sites. Considers yields, process times, and manning requirements.
  566.  
  567. Find this resource:
  568.  
  569. Craddock, Paul T. 1995. Early mining and metal production. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
  570.  
  571. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  572.  
  573. An authoritative, well-organized presentation of the evidence for pre-industrial metallurgy in Europe, Africa, and the Far East. The chapters are arranged by technological process and metal and include consideration of prospecting.
  574.  
  575. Find this resource:
  576.  
  577. Craddock, Paul T. 2008. Mining and metallurgy. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 93–120. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  578.  
  579. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  580.  
  581. Presents the sources of metals in ancient Europe, the Mediterranean world, and the Near East; the methods of mine working and organization; the concentration of ores, smelting, and refining; and the methods of working the various resulting metals. Clear presentation by an authority.
  582.  
  583. Find this resource:
  584.  
  585. Craddock, Paul T., and M. J. Hughes, eds. 1985. Furnaces and smelting technology in Antiquity. London: British Museum.
  586.  
  587. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  588.  
  589. Assembles eighteen symposium papers on a variety of papers relevant to furnaces, smelting technology, metalworking, and the representation of furnaces in the ancient Mediterranean world and the Near East. A good introduction to a variety of topics and periods.
  590.  
  591. Find this resource:
  592.  
  593. Craddock, Paul T., and Jane Lang, eds. 2003. Mining and metal production through the ages. London: British Museum.
  594.  
  595. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  596.  
  597. Volume contains papers on iron, brass, and other metals in the ancient Mediterranean world and Europe, from the Bronze Age to the early modern period. A good complement to Craddock 1995.
  598.  
  599. Find this resource:
  600.  
  601. Healy, John F. 1978. Mining and metallurgy in the Greek and Roman world. London: Thames and Hudson.
  602.  
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604.  
  605. Draws together archaeological, literary, and epigraphic evidence to construct a well-rounded account of prospecting, mining, refining, and metalworking in the Greco-Roman world. An excellent, well-illustrated introduction to these topics, although now a bit dated.
  606.  
  607. Find this resource:
  608.  
  609. Jones, John Ellis. 1982. The Laurion silver mines: A review of recent researches and results. Greece and Rome 29:169–183.
  610.  
  611. DOI: 10.1017/S0017383500027522Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612.  
  613. Provides a clear, well-documented survey of the physical remains of the mines and the ore-processing structures. The discussion of structures and techniques constitutes a good introduction to the subject, with full bibliography.
  614.  
  615. Find this resource:
  616.  
  617. Ramin, Jacques. 1977. La technique minière et métallurgique des anciens. Collection Latomus 153. Brussels: Latomus.
  618.  
  619. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620.  
  621. Reviews Greek and Roman mining and metallurgy mainly on the basis of the evidence in ancient literary sources, including myths concerning metals and their symbolic meanings. Less useful for archaeological evidence.
  622.  
  623. Find this resource:
  624.  
  625. Quarrying and Stone-Working
  626. Quarrying supplied stones desired for their special character or color or where blocks or a particular size or shape were required. Waelkens, et al. 1992 discusses some earlier quarrying activities, while Korres 1995 presents Greek quarrying techniques, less often studied than the Roman. Fant 2008 constitutes the most accessible introduction to Greek and Roman quarrying, shipping of blocks, and stone-working. The operation of quarries and shipping of marble in the Roman period was carefully organized, both on an Empire-wide scale and in the city of Rome (Fant 1989; Fant 2001; Maischberger 1997; Ward-Perkins 1992). At several sites there is now evidence for water-powered stone saws that transformed large quantities of marble into revetment slabs for use in buildings (Ritti, et al. 2007).
  627.  
  628. Fant, J. Clayton, ed. 1989. Cavum antrum Phrygiae: The organization and operations of the roman imperial marble quarries in Phrygia. British Archaeological Reports International Series S482. Oxford: BAR.
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. A thorough study of the Roman quarries at Docimium, based largely on the quarry inscriptions found there and on exported blocks of the famous purple pavonazzetto marble. The inscriptions reveal very complex and sophisticated accounting and control systems, which evolved because of high demand in the first half of the 2nd century.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636. Fant, J. Clayton. 2001. Rome’s marble yards. Journal of Roman Archaeology 14:167–198.
  637.  
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639.  
  640. Discusses the Emporium, Rome’s first marble yard by the Aventine hill, and the imperial administered yard at Portus that became important under Trajan. Skilled marble workers could salvage or improve marbles damaged in shipping or deemed to be substandard. There is no strong evidence for an immense stockpile of blocks available for use. Solid archaeological and epigraphical review.
  641.  
  642. Find this resource:
  643.  
  644. Fant, J. Clayton. 2008. Quarrying and Stoneworking. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 121–135. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  645.  
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647.  
  648. A short, up-to-date review of evidence for Greek and Roman quarrying and stone-working. Topics include the techniques of cutting and transport, the organization of the Roman marble trade, main types of Roman marble, technological innovation in the Roman period, and the reuse of existing blocks from the 4th century on.
  649.  
  650. Find this resource:
  651.  
  652. Korres, Manolis. 1995. From Pentelicon to the Parthenon: The ancient quarries and the story of a half-worked column capital of the first marble Parthenon. Translated by Dorothea Turner and W. Phelps. Athens: Melissa.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. An account of the design and construction of the Parthenon and its predecessor, beginning with the quarrying of the stone. An authoritative, clear account of how Greek architects and craftsmen created a masterpiece in marble. Translated from Greek.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660. Maischberger, Martin. 1997. Marmor in Rom: Anlieferung, lager- und werkplätze in der kaiserzeit. Wiesbaden, Germany: Reichert.
  661.  
  662. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663.  
  664. A thorough study of what happened to marble once it had been shipped from the quarry to Rome, including consideration of reception, stockpiling, administration, working, and transfer to the building site. Excellent analysis of archaeological, epigraphical, and literary evidence.
  665.  
  666. Find this resource:
  667.  
  668. Ritti, Tullia, Klaus Grewe, and Paul Kessner. 2007. A relief of a water-powered stone saw mill on a sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its implications. Journal of Roman Archaeology 20:138–164.
  669.  
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671.  
  672. A review of the evidence for water-powered stone saws in the Roman Empire, in the context of a striking relief showing such a machine in operation.
  673.  
  674. Find this resource:
  675.  
  676. Waelkens, Marc, Norman Herz, and Luc Moens, eds. 1992. Ancient stones: Quarrying, trade and provenance: Interdisciplinary studies on stones and stone technology in Europe and the Near East from the prehistoric to the early Christian period. Acta Archaeologica Lovaniensia monographia 4. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven Univ. Press.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. Compilation of thirty-four papers presented at the second meeting of the Association for the Study of Marble and Other Stones Used in Antiquity. Useful in presenting a spectrum of scholarly opinion.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684. Ward-Perkins, John B. 1992. Marble in antiquity: Collected papers of J. B. Ward-Perkins. Edited by Hazel Dodge and J. Brian Ward-Perkins. Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome 6. Rome: British School at Rome.
  685.  
  686. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687.  
  688. Collection of previously published papers. Argues that the tools and techniques of quarrying changed very little in antiquity but that the extent and organization of the trade in stone reached a peak with the Roman Empire. Clear, thoroughly documented discussion of social and technological developments.
  689.  
  690. Find this resource:
  691.  
  692. Greek and Roman Agriculture
  693. The number of surveys of Greek and Roman agriculture reflects the crucial importance of the technology in antiquity and the enormous amount of evidence that survives (Isager and Skydsgaard 1992; White 1967; White 1970; White 1975). Margaritis and Jones 2008 provides a useful short introduction to the topic, while White 1977 collects and analyzes much of the written evidence. The character of the small farm in classical Greece is less well understood (Gallant 1991). Irrigation was important in some regions of the Mediterranean world (Oleson 2000).
  694.  
  695. Gallant, Thomas W. 1991. Risk and survival in ancient Greece: Reconstructing the rural domestic economy. Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.
  696.  
  697. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  698.  
  699. A somewhat controversial but pioneering attempt to analyze the ancient Greek rural household on the basis of parallels from anthropology, ethnography, and agronomy. Uses theoretical and computer models to show that the rural farm was in constant flux depending on changes in family, property holdings, age, marriage status, and health.
  700.  
  701. Find this resource:
  702.  
  703. Isager, Signe, and Jens E. Skydsgaard. 1992. Ancient Greek agriculture. An introduction. London: Routledge.
  704.  
  705. DOI: 10.4324/9780203294901Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  706.  
  707. A good review of ancient Greek agricultural practices, including implements, buildings, stock-rearing, and agrarian systems, along with geography and climate. The second half, criticized for acceptance of Finley’s “primitivist” view of the ancient economy, considers land ownership, taxation, law, religion, and the agricultural calendar.
  708.  
  709. Find this resource:
  710.  
  711. Margaritis, Eva, and Martin K. Jones. 2008. Greek and Roman agriculture. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 158–174. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  712.  
  713. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  714.  
  715. A useful short review of the main features of Greek and Roman farming, including crops, agricultural practices, and the relation between plowing methods and crops and between animal husbandry and agriculture. A good place to start research, with a good bibliography.
  716.  
  717. Find this resource:
  718.  
  719. Oleson, John P. 2000. Irrigation. In Handbook of ancient water technology. Edited by Örjan Wikander, 183–215. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  720.  
  721. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  722.  
  723. A well-documented review of the techniques and purposes of irrigation in the Mediterranean region and the Near East, from the Bronze Age through the Late Roman period.
  724.  
  725. Find this resource:
  726.  
  727. White, Kenneth D. 1967. Agricultural implements of the Roman world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. Catalogues and discusses Roman farm tools and machines on the basis of literary sources and archaeological remains. Special attention to determining the design and function of tools described by Roman authors, including digging tools, knives and sickles, forks, saws, shears, ploughs, harrows, and threshing and reaping machines.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735. White, Kenneth D. 1970. Roman farming. London: Thames and Hudson.
  736.  
  737. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  738.  
  739. The only complete survey of Roman farming in English, the product of decades of research. Based on archaeological, literary, and ethnographic sources, it treats all the relevant topics, including animal husbandry and the progress and limitations in agricultural technique. A storehouse of information.
  740.  
  741. Find this resource:
  742.  
  743. White, Kenneth D. 1975. Farm equipment of the Roman world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  744.  
  745. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  746.  
  747. A carefully documented and well-illustrated discussion of the equipment found on most Roman farms, such as rolling and grinding equipment, vine-props, fencing, rope-work, basketry, and utensils of ceramic, stone, metal, wood, and leather. Essentially a reference work.
  748.  
  749. Find this resource:
  750.  
  751. White, Kenneth D. 1977. Country life in classical times. London: Elek.
  752.  
  753. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  754.  
  755. Assembles translations from Greek and Roman authors of passages illustrative of country life from the elite point of view, including the landscape, town life versus country life, farm management, farming procedures, animal husbandry, and festivals. A general introduction and separate chapter introductions put the passages in their social and technical context.
  756.  
  757. Find this resource:
  758.  
  759. Animal Husbandry, Hunting, and Fishing
  760. Hunting was seldom crucial to survival in the Greco-Roman world (Anderson 1985; Dumont 2001), but it supplemented domesticated plants and animals. Recent research documents the high quality of livestock in this period and the productivity of fish farming (Bekker-Nielsen 2005; Higginbotham 1997; Kron 2008; MacKinnon 2004; Peters 1999).
  761.  
  762. Anderson, John K. 1985. Hunting in the ancient world. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  763.  
  764. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  765.  
  766. Good review of the character and role of hunting in the Greco-Roman world, including techniques, types of animals hunted, breeds of hunting dogs, and the use of the resulting meat. Makes excellent use of both ancient texts and visual representations.
  767.  
  768. Find this resource:
  769.  
  770. Bekker-Nielsen, Tønnes, ed. 2005. Ancient fishing and fish processing in the Black Sea region. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press.
  771.  
  772. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  773.  
  774. An excellent, wide-ranging study of fresh water and marine fishing in the Black Sea and the Mediterranean world, including the various methods of processing the fish for storage or trade. Topics include fishing techniques, productivity, representations of fish and fishing, and the transport and trade in fish products. Well illustrated.
  775.  
  776. Find this resource:
  777.  
  778. Dumont, Jacques. 2001. Les animaux dans l’antiquité grecque. Paris: L’Harmattan.
  779.  
  780. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. Reviews the role of animals in Greek life, myth, literature, and religion from the Bronze Age through the Hellenistic period. The sources are mainly literary and the discussion is focused more on the sociology of animal use rather than technical issues, but the overview is useful.
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786. Higginbotham, James. 1997. Piscinae: Artificial fishponds in Roman Italy. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
  787.  
  788. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  789.  
  790. Catalogues the known artificial fishponds in Italy and provides a well-documented discussion of the history of fish-raising in the Greco-Roman world, the technologies and skills involved, and the productivity of the fishponds. Farmed fish were an important source of protein in the Roman world.
  791.  
  792. Find this resource:
  793.  
  794. Kron, Geoffrey. 2008. Animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 175–222. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  795.  
  796. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  797.  
  798. Meticulously documented account of these sources of animal byproducts and animal protein in the Greco-Roman world. The Greeks and Romans were capable of selective breeding, and animal size and productivity rivaled what recent traditional farmers were capable of. Fish-raising and to a lesser extent hunting were also important sources of protein.
  799.  
  800. Find this resource:
  801.  
  802. MacKinnon, Michael R. 2004. Production and consumption of animals in Roman Italy. Integrating the zooarchaeological and textual evidence. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 54. Portsmouth: JRA.
  803.  
  804. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  805.  
  806. Analyzes the literary sources and the bone remains of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs from ninety-seven Roman sites in Italy to chart the use of these animals across time. A good introduction to the utility of faunal remains in the study of animal husbandry.
  807.  
  808. Find this resource:
  809.  
  810. Marzano, Annalisa. 2013. Harvesting the sea: The exploitation of marine resources in the Roman Mediterranean. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  811.  
  812. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199675623.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  813.  
  814. Authoritative, wide-ranging analysis of the methods and productivity of Roman fishing, fish-raising, and the exploitation of marine mollusks and plants. Discusses both the technologies supporting these activities and their social, legal, and economic contexts. Masterful synthesis of archaeological, literary, and ethnographic sources.
  815.  
  816. Find this resource:
  817.  
  818. Peters, Joris. 1999. Romische tierhaltung und tierzucht: Eine synthese aus archaozoologischer untersuchung und schriftlich-bildlicher uberlieferung. Rahden, Germany: Leidorf.
  819.  
  820. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  821.  
  822. Reviews Roman methods and accomplishments in animal husbandry on the basis of both literary sources and archaeological evidence.
  823.  
  824. Find this resource:
  825.  
  826. Engineering and Complex Machines
  827. Both the Greeks and the Romans had remarkable engineering skills, although the greater wealth, population, and access to resources allowed the Romans more scope in their projects. Both cultures boasted striking accomplishments in construction, hydraulic engineering, tunneling, and canal construction. Large mechanical devices for processing olives and grapes or lifting building materials were common from the 7th century onward, but complex machines to harness water power, lift water, shoot projectiles in warfare, or make astronomical and calendrical calculations were developed only in the Hellenistic period. It has now been shown that the Romans made use of the crank and connecting rod and possibly the cam and tip lever in large machines, devices that were known at least in small-scale devices in the 3rd century BC.
  828.  
  829. Greek Engineering and Construction
  830. The Greek aesthetic preference for trabeated architectural designs and the absence of structural concrete limited their engineering accomplishments. Nevertheless, they achieved remarkable precision in the use of cut stone for civil and religious structures (Cooper 2008; Haselberger 1999) and by the 2nd century BC had mastered the techniques of building complex arched and vaulted structures with this material. The Greeks also had significant engineering accomplishments (Grewe 2010). Surviving structures, written sources, and building models have allowed the reconstruction of many of the techniques used by the ancient Greek architects (Coulton 1977; Haselberger 1997; Hellmann 2002; Martin 1965; Orlandos 1966–1968).
  831.  
  832. Cooper, Fredrick. 2008. Greek engineering and construction. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 225–255. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  833.  
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835.  
  836. A useful, but somewhat eccentric review of construction technology in the Greek world, focusing on the availability of materials and the adaptation of temple design to the need for seismic protection.
  837.  
  838. Find this resource:
  839.  
  840. Coulton, John J. 1977. Ancient Greek architects at work: Problems of structure and design. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  841.  
  842. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  843.  
  844. A classic discussion of the procedures and technologies involved in the planning, funding, and construction of public structures in ancient Greece. Clear text with excellent diagrams and illustrations.
  845.  
  846. Find this resource:
  847.  
  848. Grewe, Klaus. 2010. Meisterwerke antiker technik. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  849.  
  850. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851.  
  852. A beautifully illustrated review of the major Greek and Roman engineering accomplishments in road building, hydraulic engineering, and tunnel and canal building.
  853.  
  854. Find this resource:
  855.  
  856. Haselberger, Lothar. 1997. Architectural likenesses: Models and plans of architecture in classical antiquity. Journal of Roman Archaeology 10:77–94.
  857.  
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859.  
  860. Authoritative survey of architectural plans and models in antiquity. They were used for dedications, votives, and funerary objects; for documentation of existing structures; and for planning and construction.
  861.  
  862. Find this resource:
  863.  
  864. Haselberger, Lothar, ed. 1999. Appearance and essence: Refinements of classical architecture—curvature. Philadelphia: Univ. Museum.
  865.  
  866. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867.  
  868. A collection of symposium papers concerned with visual refinements in Greek architecture, defined as intentional deviations from geometric regularity. Issues include stereobate or entablature curvature, inclination of columns, entasis, and other aesthetic revisions. A vigorous discussion of a striking aspect of Greek architecture.
  869.  
  870. Find this resource:
  871.  
  872. Hellmann, Marie-Christine. 2002. L’Architecture grecque, 1: Les principes de la construction. Paris: Picard.
  873.  
  874. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875.  
  876. An up-to-date, beautifully illustrated discussion of the materials, planning procedures, and techniques of construction in Greece from the Archaic through the Hellenistic periods, based largely on archaeological remains. The bibliography is useful for further investigation.
  877.  
  878. Find this resource:
  879.  
  880. Martin, Roland. 1965. Manuel d’architecture grecque, I: Matériaux et techniques. Paris: Picard.
  881.  
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. A thorough academic review of the materials, planning procedures, and techniques of construction in ancient Greece, utilizing both literary sources and archaeological remains. Similar in concept to Orlandos 1966–1968.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888. Orlandos, Anastasios. 1966–68. Les matériaux de construction et la technique architecturale des anciens grecs. 2 vols. Paris: De Boccard.
  889.  
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891.  
  892. A thorough academic review of the materials, planning procedures, and techniques of construction in ancient Greece, utilizing both literary sources and archaeological remains. Similar in concept to Martin 1965.
  893.  
  894. Find this resource:
  895.  
  896. Roman Engineering and Construction
  897. As a result of the scope of their empire and its enormous material, financial, and cultural resources, the amount of source material relevant to Roman engineering and construction is enormous. Roman materials and construction techniques have attracted attention for centuries, and there are several comprehensive handbooks (Adam 1994; Lancaster 2008; Lugli 1957). Recent research has accomplished great advances in our understanding of the costs, pace, and procedures of Roman construction (DeLaine 1997; Taylor 2003; Wilson 2006), the special character of Roman marine concrete (Oleson, et al. 2006), and the interplay of aesthetics and materials in vaulted concrete structures (Lancaster 2005).
  898.  
  899. Adam, Jean-Pierre. 1994. Roman building: Materials and techniques. Translated by Anthony Mathews. London: Batsford.
  900.  
  901. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  902.  
  903. A thorough, well-researched review of the materials and techniques of Roman construction, lavishly documented with excellent photographs and engaging, instructive drawings by the author. A good place to start when researching Roman building practices. Translated from French.
  904.  
  905. Find this resource:
  906.  
  907. DeLaine, Janet. 1997. The baths of Caracalla: A study in the design, construction, and economics of large-scale building projects in imperial Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supplement 25. Portsmouth, RI: JRA.
  908.  
  909. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  910.  
  911. A pioneering study of the practical aspects of a major Roman imperial construction project, including costs of materials and labor, transport, time required for completion of various tasks, and overall organization.
  912.  
  913. Find this resource:
  914.  
  915. Lancaster, Lynne C. 2005. Concrete vaulted construction in imperial Rome: Innovations in context. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  916.  
  917. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511610516Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  918.  
  919. Explores the methods by which Roman engineers produced large-scale vaulted structures, allowing the construction of innovative interior functional and symbolic spaces. An expert synthesis of architectural history and engineering analysis.
  920.  
  921. Find this resource:
  922.  
  923. Lancaster, Lynne C. 2008. Roman engineering and construction. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 256–284. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  924.  
  925. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  926.  
  927. An authoritative short presentation of the materials and techniques used to produce Roman structures of all types, particularly in concrete and particularly during the empire, with a current bibliography.
  928.  
  929. Find this resource:
  930.  
  931. Lugli, Giuseppe. 1957. La tecnica edilizia romana con particolare riguardo a Roma e Lazio. 2 vols. Rome: Bardi.
  932.  
  933. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  934.  
  935. An older standard handbook of the materials and techniques of Roman architecture from the early Republic through the late Empire. Still useful for the extensive descriptions of structures and the photographs of structural details.
  936.  
  937. Find this resource:
  938.  
  939. Oleson, John P., C. Brandon, L. Bottalico, R. Cucitorre, E. Gotti, and R. L. Hohlfelder. 2006. Reproducing a Roman maritime structure with Vitruvian Pozzolanic concrete. Journal of Roman Archaeology 19:29–52.
  940.  
  941. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  942.  
  943. Account of the carefully documented replication of a block of maritime concrete with the materials and procedures specified by Vitruvius. Provides details of the crucial Roman technology of concrete construction in the sea.
  944.  
  945. Find this resource:
  946.  
  947. Taylor, Rabun. 2003. Roman builders: A study in architectural process. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  948.  
  949. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  950.  
  951. Reconstructs the sequence of design and construction for some of the very large public structures of the Roman Empire. Deals with typically overlooked issues such as the design, erection, and dismantling of formwork and the methods for erecting large monolithic columns.
  952.  
  953. Find this resource:
  954.  
  955. Wilson, Andrew I. 2006. The economic impact of technological advances in the Roman construction industry. In Innovazione technica e progresso economico nel mondo Romano. Edited by E. Lo Cascio, 225–236. Bari, Italy: Edipuglia.
  956.  
  957. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  958.  
  959. Highlights the innovations that sped up or otherwise made Roman construction more efficient, including the use of opus reticulatum or standardized brick facings, modular architectural members, and standardized formwork. Mass production of bricks and ceramics shows how long-distance trade or large-scale and mass production for the world market were typical of the Roman economy. Also see Large-Scale Manufacturing, Standardization, and Trade.
  960.  
  961. Find this resource:
  962.  
  963. Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply
  964. Although the Romans are particularly renowned for their aqueducts (Hodge 1992; Frontinus 2004), the Greeks, too, were adept at managing water systems and water supply structures (Kienast 1995, cited under Tunnels and Canals; Lewis 1999). Public toilets, an important part of the Roman urban infrastructure, have received significant attention recently (Jansen, et al. 2011). There are several excellent recent publications surveying both Greek and Roman hydraulic engineering and issues surrounding it (Fabre, et al. 1992; Wikander 2000; Wilson 2008).
  965.  
  966. Fabre, Guilhem, Jean-Luc Fiches, Philippe Leveau, and Jean-Louis Paillet. 1992. Pont du Gard: Water and the Roman town. Paris: CNRS.
  967.  
  968. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  969.  
  970. Excellent short study of the problems and issues involved in the commissioning, design, and execution of a major aqueduct project. Includes careful consideration of the social, economic, and technological aspects.
  971.  
  972. Find this resource:
  973.  
  974. Frontinus, Sextus Julius. 2004. Frontinus de aquaeductu urbis Romae. Edited by Robert H. Rodgers. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  975.  
  976. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  977.  
  978. The standard commentary on Frontinus’s handbook of Rome’s water-supply system, including the Latin text and English translation. Rodgers’s introduction and commentary provides detailed analysis of the technology and administrative system.
  979.  
  980. Find this resource:
  981.  
  982. Hodge, A. Trevor. 1992. Roman aqueducts and water supply. London: Duckworth.
  983.  
  984. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  985.  
  986. The standard handbook of the technologies involved in Roman aqueduct construction and maintenance, with extensive citation of written and archaeological sources. Very well illustrated, with an extensive bibliography.
  987.  
  988. Find this resource:
  989.  
  990. Jansen, Gemma C. M., Ann Olga Koloski-Ostrow, and Eric M. Moormann, eds. 2011. Roman toilets: Their archaeology and cultural history. Babesch Supplement 19. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
  991.  
  992. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  993.  
  994. The most recent review of the evidence for public sanitation, particularly toilets, in the Roman world. Establishes the importance of these structures for the urban framework and the contemporary social system.
  995.  
  996. Find this resource:
  997.  
  998. Kienast, Hermann J. 1995. Die wasserleitung des Eupalinos auf Samos. Samos 19. Bonn, Germany: Habelt.
  999.  
  1000. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1001.  
  1002. Definitive publication of one of the longest tunnels in the ancient world, excavated in the 6th century BC to supply water to the city of Samos. Also see Tunnels and Canals.
  1003.  
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005.  
  1006. Lewis, Michael J. T. 1999. Vitruvius and Greek aqueducts. Papers of the British School at Rome 67:145–172.
  1007.  
  1008. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200004530Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1009.  
  1010. Proposes that the difficulties in understanding Vitruvius 8.5–6, 9 result from the author’s failure to understand some of the technical details of his sources, many of which were associated with 2nd-century BC Pergamum and thus with Hellenistic rather than Roman aqueducts. A good introduction to the problem of sources in Roman technical authors.
  1011.  
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013.  
  1014. Wikander, Örjan, ed. 2000. Handbook of ancient water technology. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1015.  
  1016. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1017.  
  1018. The best and most ambitious handbook of the technology of water supply in the Mediterranean world and the Near East from the Bronze Age through the Roman Empire. Topics include aqueducts, canals, irrigation, water mills, water-lifting devices, and drainage. Well-illustrated. Also see Machines in Greek and Roman Technology.
  1019.  
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021.  
  1022. Wilson, Andrew I. 2008. Hydraulic engineering and water supply. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 285–318. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1023.  
  1024. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1025.  
  1026. Authoritative short account of hydraulic engineering in the Greek and Roman world, with particular attention to innovation the relationship between technology and the economy.
  1027.  
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029.  
  1030. Tunnels and Canals
  1031. For cultures without explosives or mechanical excavation devices powered by steam or internal combustion engines, the excavation of tunnels or canals represented enormous engineering challenges (Grewe 1998; Grewe 2008; Isserlin 1996; Wikander 2000). The typical response was the deployment of an enormous labor force. Land drainage was a related issue (Wilson 2000). Proper surveying was important, because mistakes were difficult to remedy (Kienast 1995; Lewis 2001). It is still not clear whether Roman engineers used locks on their canals (Smith 1978).
  1032.  
  1033. Grewe, Klaus. 1998. Licht am ende des tunnels: Planung und trassierung im antiken tunnelbau. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  1034.  
  1035. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1036.  
  1037. Presents the archaeological evidence for tunnels excavated in the Mediterranean region and Europe from the Bronze Age through the Late Roman period, enlivened with splendid color illustrations and drawings. The only book-length treatment of this important topic.
  1038.  
  1039. Find this resource:
  1040.  
  1041. Grewe, Klaus. 2008. Tunnels and canals. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 319–336. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1042.  
  1043. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1044.  
  1045. A short, but well-documented, discussion of the two most challenging engineering tasks in the ancient world. Despite the absence of mechanical earth-moving devices, there were significant achievements.
  1046.  
  1047. Find this resource:
  1048.  
  1049. Isserlin, B. S. J. 1996. The canal of Xerxes. Annual of the British School of Archaeology at Athens 91:329–340.
  1050.  
  1051. DOI: 10.1017/S0068245400016531Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1052.  
  1053. Collects and analyzes literary and archaeological evidence for the canal cut across the Athos peninsula by Xerxes in 480 BC. Like Xerxes’s pontoon bridge over the Hellespont built in the same year, the canal was intended as much as a showpiece for the power of human technology as for practical advantage.
  1054.  
  1055. Find this resource:
  1056.  
  1057. Kienast, Hermann J. 1995. Die wasserleitung des Eupalinos auf Samos. Samos 19. Bonn, Germany: Habelt.
  1058.  
  1059. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1060.  
  1061. Definitive publication on one of the most impressive surviving tunneling projects from the ancient world. The details of execution, combined with written sources, allow reconstruction of the process of planning and execution. Also see Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply.
  1062.  
  1063. Find this resource:
  1064.  
  1065. Lewis, Michael J. T. 2001. Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1066.  
  1067. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511483035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1068.  
  1069. Splendidly documented discussion of the surveying instruments used in the Greco-Roman period, relying both on ancient written sources and careful replication. The devices used to lay out buildings, roads, tunnels, and canals were capable of very high accuracy. Also see Roads and Bridges.
  1070.  
  1071. Find this resource:
  1072.  
  1073. Smith, Norman A. 1978. Roman canals. Transactions of the Newcomen Society 49:75–86.
  1074.  
  1075. DOI: 10.1179/tns.1977.006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1076.  
  1077. Collects literary and archaeological evidence for the construction of Roman canals. Several projects should have required locks for completion, but there is no explicit description of them in Latin literature. Dry dock gates, apparently known around 200 BC in Alexandria, could have been adapted for pound locks or flash locks on canals.
  1078.  
  1079. Find this resource:
  1080.  
  1081. Wikander, Charlotte. 2000. Canals. In Handbook of ancient water technology. Edited by Örjan Wikander, 321–330. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1082.  
  1083. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1084.  
  1085. Clear short review of the evidence for canals in the Mediterranean and Near East from the Bronze Age through the Roman Imperial period.
  1086.  
  1087. Find this resource:
  1088.  
  1089. Wilson, Andrew I. 2000. Land drainage. In Handbook of ancient water technology. Edited by Örjan Wikander, 303–317. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1090.  
  1091. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1092.  
  1093. Reviews the practice of water drainage in the ancient Mediterranean world and the Near East, and analyzes the economic motivations and the social organization required.
  1094.  
  1095. Find this resource:
  1096.  
  1097. Machines in Greek and Roman Technology
  1098. Large or complex mechanical devices played an important part in the Greek and Roman world, even in rural contexts (Cotterell and Kamminga 1990; Landels 2000; Wilson 2008). Water-lifting devices and military projectile throwers were developed particularly early, by the 4th century BC (Bouet 2005; Campbell 2003; Wikander 2000) and the water mill probably by the 3rd century BC (Lewis 1997). Recent discoveries have proven that the crank and connecting rod mechanism was in practical, large-scale use by at least the 3rd century AD and probably earlier (Ritti, et al. 2007, cited under Sources of Energy and Power). The sponsorship and intentions of the engineers is still a topic of discussion (Schürmann 1991).
  1099.  
  1100. Bouet, Alain. 2005. Aquam in altum exprimere: Les machines élévatrices d’eau dans l’Antiquité. Scripta Antiqua 12. Pessac, France: Ausonius.
  1101.  
  1102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1103.  
  1104. A review of recent discoveries of Roman water-lifting devices, particularly in Europe. Well-illustrated, with full references to earlier publications.
  1105.  
  1106. Find this resource:
  1107.  
  1108. Campbell, Duncan B. 2003. Greek and Roman artillery 399 BC–AD 363. Oxford: Osprey.
  1109.  
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111.  
  1112. A short but well-illustrated and authoritative discussion of Greek and Roman projectile-throwing machines.
  1113.  
  1114. Find this resource:
  1115.  
  1116. Cotterell, Brian, and Johan Kamminga. 1990. Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: An introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional material culture. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1117.  
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119.  
  1120. Clear analysis by an archaeologist and an engineer of the mechanical principles behind the preparation of artifacts, tools, and mechanical devices in the ancient world, including the Greek and Roman cultures.
  1121.  
  1122. Find this resource:
  1123.  
  1124. Landels, John G. 2000. Engineering in the ancient world. Rev. ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  1125.  
  1126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127.  
  1128. Presents competent, well-documented, and illustrated discussions of selected Greek and Roman accomplishments involving the application of power to engineering or related tasks. Topics treated are power and energy sources, hydraulic engineering, cranes, catapults, ships and land transport, the progress of theory, and a brief survey of Greek and Latin technical authors.
  1129.  
  1130. Find this resource:
  1131.  
  1132. Lewis, Michael J. T. 1997. Millstone and hammer: The origins of water power. Hull, UK: Univ. of Hull.
  1133.  
  1134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135.  
  1136. Argues from Greek technical texts and later Arabic translations and illustrations of Greek texts that the water mill was invented in the 3rd century BC and that the water-powered trip-hammer was in use for crushing ore by the 1st century BC. Persuasive arguments in part supported by recent archaeological finds.
  1137.  
  1138. Find this resource:
  1139.  
  1140. Schürmann, Astrid. 1991. Griechische mechanik und antike gesellschaft: Studien zur staatlichen förderung eine technischen wissenschaft. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  1141.  
  1142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143.  
  1144. Asserts that Ktesibios, Philon, and Heron invented and developed sets of devices or tools widely used in society and that their research was deliberately promoted by governments. Engineers and sponsors consciously aimed at alleviating heavy labor, satisfying daily needs, and boosting production. Probably overestimates intentions of the engineers and ubiquity of their inventions.
  1145.  
  1146. Find this resource:
  1147.  
  1148. Wikander, Örjan, ed. 2000. Handbook of ancient water technology. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1149.  
  1150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1151.  
  1152. The various chapters include expert discussions of the industrial applications of machines and water power in the Greco-Roman period: the water mill, water-lifting devices, stone saws, and water clocks. Also see Hydraulic Engineering and Water Supply.
  1153.  
  1154. Find this resource:
  1155.  
  1156. Wilson, Andrew I. 2008. Machines in Greek and Roman technology. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 337–366. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1157.  
  1158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1159.  
  1160. A masterly analysis of the types of machines in use in ancient Greek and Roman society, the technological heritage and stimuli that brought about their use, and the character of the innovations that they represent.
  1161.  
  1162. Find this resource:
  1163.  
  1164. Secondary Processes and Manufacturing
  1165. The extractive technologies, engineering accomplishments, and machines, along with the harnessing of various power sources, made possible the secondary processing of raw materials and the production of foodstuffs and finished goods. These products made possible the relatively comfortable lifestyle of the ancient Mediterranean cultures. Some of this production took place in large, carefully organized workshops that were not quite factories in the modern sense but can be termed “manufactories.” The bibliography for this heading is enormous, as it covers most of the crafts practiced by the Greek and Roman cultures, including the intense economic system of the Roman Empire.
  1166.  
  1167. Food Processing and Preparation
  1168. The main aliments of the Greco-Roman world were grains, olives and olive oil, and wine, all of which are processed with fairly simple machinery by pressing, grinding, or pounding (Brun 2003; Curtis 2001; Curtis 2008; Thurmond 2006). In Roman cities the preparation of bread was carried out on a large scale by professional bakers, who also milled the grains (Bakker 1999). Meat, fish, vegetables, and fruit played a constant but less important role in the diet, with meat and fish requiring preservation if not consumed immediately (André 1981; Dalby 1997; Frost 1999).
  1169.  
  1170. André, Jacques. 1981. L’alimentation et la cuisine à Rome. 2d ed. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
  1171.  
  1172. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1173.  
  1174. A comprehensive review of every kind of Roman food, for the rich and the poor, in the cities and in the countryside. Despite the detail, there is careful consideration of trends and fashions. The Romans enjoyed combinations of strong, seemingly incompatible flavors, accompanied by powerful smells.
  1175.  
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177.  
  1178. Bakker, Jan T. 1999. The mills-bakeries of Ostia: Description and interpretation. Amsterdam: Gieben.
  1179.  
  1180. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1181.  
  1182. Catalogues twenty milling establishments and bakeries in Ostia. The approximately 178 pairs of stones in the bakeries produced sufficient flour for the forty thousand inhabitants. The milling establishments were located near grain warehouses and incorporated baking activities. An excellent review of evidence nearly unique in the Empire.
  1183.  
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185.  
  1186. Brun, Jean-Pierre. 2003. Le vin et l’huile dans la méditerranée antique: Viticulture, oléiculture et procédés de transformation. Paris: Editions Errance.
  1187.  
  1188. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1189.  
  1190. Authoritative review of the practical details of the cultivation of olives and grapes and the processes for transforming them into oil or wine. Numerous illustrations, plus careful citation of literary sources. The same author published three more chronologically or geographically more specialized volumes on the same topic in 2004–2005.
  1191.  
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193.  
  1194. Curtis, Robert I. 2001. Ancient food technology. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1195.  
  1196. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1197.  
  1198. A detailed survey of diet and food preparation from the Palaeolithic through Roman periods. Well illustrated, but somewhat lacking in social analysis.
  1199.  
  1200. Find this resource:
  1201.  
  1202. Curtis, Robert I. 2008. Food processing and preparation. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 369–392. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1203.  
  1204. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1205.  
  1206. An authoritative short review of the processing of the major foodstuffs used by the Greeks and Romans and the preparation of foods themselves. Grinding and pressing were the major preparation methods.
  1207.  
  1208. Find this resource:
  1209.  
  1210. Dalby, Andrew. 1997. Siren feasts: A history of food and gastronomy in Greece. London: Routledge.
  1211.  
  1212. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1213.  
  1214. A thorough review and analysis of the literary evidence for the range of foods available in the Aegean area from the Bronze Age through the Byzantine period, their place on the menu, and the notable special varieties. Archaeological data back up the enormously wide variety of literary sources.
  1215.  
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217.  
  1218. Frost, Frank J. 1999. Sausage and meat preservation in Antiquity. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 40:241–252.
  1219.  
  1220. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1221.  
  1222. Reviews the useful, often overlooked technology of sausage production and the other means of preserving the surplus meat from sacrifices and other opportunities for meat consumption, thus making it available throughout the year. Preserved meat was a useful addition to the caloric intake from cereal and other vegetable products.
  1223.  
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225.  
  1226. Thurmond, David L. 2006. A handbook of food processing in classical Rome: For her bounty no winter. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1227.  
  1228. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1229.  
  1230. Collects the literary sources for the processing and preservation of foodstuffs between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD, including cereals, olives, grapes, legumes, vegetables, fruits, animal byproducts, and condiments. Useful explanation of the physical reasons for processing raw materials for consumption and the resulting need for preservation.
  1231.  
  1232. Find this resource:
  1233.  
  1234. Large-Scale Manufacturing, Standardization, and Trade
  1235. There is significant archaeological and written evidence for the organization of numerous craft processes to allow large-scale production of finished objects that were of better quality, cheaper, or more standardized than similar objects produced by a single craftsperson (Greene 2000; Wilson 2008). This approach was followed early on in ceramic production (Biers 1994; Fülle 1997) and weapons production (Sim 1995) and in the preparation and installation of construction materials (Helen 1975; Wilson 2006).
  1236.  
  1237. Biers, W. R. 1994. Mass-production, standardized parts, and the Corinthian plastic vase. Hesperia 63:509–516.
  1238.  
  1239. DOI: 10.2307/148210Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1240.  
  1241. Traces the appearance of interchangeable parts for Corinthian animal-shaped perfume vases in the 6th century BC. Although not quite the same as mass production, the use of such ceramic elements facilitated unusual combinations and new forms and on a large scale. Similar developments took place in the rapid production of vase paintings on Corinthian pottery.
  1242.  
  1243. Find this resource:
  1244.  
  1245. Fülle, G. 1997. The internal organization of the Arretine terra-sigillata industry: Problems of evidence and interpretation. Journal of Roman Studies 87:111–155.
  1246.  
  1247. DOI: 10.1017/S0075435800058111Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1248.  
  1249. An in-depth investigation of the organization of workshops around Arretium that produced high-quality ceramics with the use of molds and marked with a wide variety of production stamps. The study raises important issues of innovation in modes of production and the organization, training, and status of the labor force.
  1250.  
  1251. Find this resource:
  1252.  
  1253. Greene, Kevin. 2000. Industry and technology. In The Cambridge ancient history. 2d ed. Vol. 11. Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey, and Dominic Rathbone, 741–768. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1254.  
  1255. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521263351Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1256.  
  1257. Comprehensive short review of the main Roman crafts and manufacturing activities and their relation to technology. Considers social and economic context, demand, technological innovation, and conflicts between written and archaeological sources. Production shops were well organized, and manual labor an honorable pursuit. Also see General Overviews.
  1258.  
  1259. Find this resource:
  1260.  
  1261. Helen, Tapio. 1975. Organization of Roman brick production in the first and second centuries A.D.: An interpretation of Roman brick stamps. Acta Instituti romani Finlandiae 9. Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica.
  1262.  
  1263. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1264.  
  1265. Reconstructs the organization of brick production at Rome in the early Empire, based on information in brick stamps. These mention the clay district, brickyard, landowner (dominus), brick producer (officinator), and even (from AD 110–164) the consular date. Illuminates the social and legal organization of a large-scale manufacturing industry. See also Ceramic Production.
  1266.  
  1267. Find this resource:
  1268.  
  1269. Sim, David. 1995. Weapons and mass production. Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies 6:1–3.
  1270.  
  1271. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1272.  
  1273. To speed up production, some types of Roman weapons, including spear, arrow, and ballista bolt heads, were mass produced and deliberately left unhardened. Large workshops were organized exclusively for military production.
  1274.  
  1275. Find this resource:
  1276.  
  1277. Wilson, Andrew I. 2006. The economic impact of technological advances in the Roman construction industry. In Innovazione technica e progresso economico nel mondo Romano. Edited by E. Lo Cascio, 225–236. Bari, Italy: Edipuglia.
  1278.  
  1279. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1280.  
  1281. Highlights innovations that sped up or otherwise made Roman construction more efficient, including opus reticulatum or standardized brick facings, modular architectural members, and standardized formwork. Mass production of bricks and ceramics shows that large-scale, long-distance trade and mass production for the world market were typical of the Roman economy. Also see Roman Engineering and Construction.
  1282.  
  1283. Find this resource:
  1284.  
  1285. Wilson, Andrew I. 2008. Large-scale manufacturing, standardization, and trade. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 393–417. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1286.  
  1287. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1288.  
  1289. Analyzes the importance of mass-produced objects in the Roman economy, including the technologies of both production and organization. Considers the artifacts, workshops, and division of labor, with special consideration of marble working and food production.
  1290.  
  1291. Find this resource:
  1292.  
  1293. Metalworking and Tools
  1294. With the spread of iron-working throughout the Mediterranean world in the course of the 9th and 8th centuries BC, iron became the metal of choice for tools that had to be cheap, strong, or keep a sharp edge or point (Gaitzch 1985; Mattusch 2008). This development freed up enormous quantities of copper and bronze for objects that had to be cast in complex shapes or had to resist corrosion (Lehoërff 2004). Bronze statuary was a particularly important category, for which we have significant archaeological evidence (Landwehr 1985; Mattusch 1996; Zimmer 1990). The metalworking on Roman parade helmets shows particularly sophisticated techniques, including the use of nuts and bolts as fasteners (Klumbach 1973). In the 1st century AD Roman craftsmen began shaping small vessels from silver or bronze sheets on the lathe, in imitation of the new shapes possible in blown glass (Cave 1977).
  1295.  
  1296. Cave, J. F. 1977. A note on Roman metal-turning. History of Technology 2:77–94.
  1297.  
  1298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1299.  
  1300. Examines the traces of metalworking with a lathe on Roman vessels in an attempt to reconstruct tools and working procedures. Vessels were shaped and decorated by cutting and spinning on lathes that were probably reciprocating rather than one directional. The technique sped up production and allowed more elaborate shapes.
  1301.  
  1302. Find this resource:
  1303.  
  1304. Gaitzch, Wolfgang. 1985. Werkzeuge und geräte in der Römischen kaiserzeit: Eine übersicht. In Aufstieg und niedergang der Römischen welt. Vol. 2.12.3. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 170–204. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  1305.  
  1306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1307.  
  1308. A thorough discussion and bibliography of the tools and equipment used in the Roman crafts, organized by craft. A good overview of the most important evidence.
  1309.  
  1310. Find this resource:
  1311.  
  1312. Klumbach, Hans, ed. 1973. Spatrömische gardehelme. Münchner Beiträge zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte 15. Munich: Beck.
  1313.  
  1314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1315.  
  1316. Catalogues Late Roman parade helmets from northern Europe, with full illustration. The metalworking technologies involved were surprisingly sophisticated, including some of the rare Roman examples of the nut and bolt fastener.
  1317.  
  1318. Find this resource:
  1319.  
  1320. Landwehr, Christa. 1985. Die antiken gipsabgüsse aus Baiae: Griechische bronzestatuen in abgüssen Römischer zeit. Berlin: Gebr. Mann.
  1321.  
  1322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1323.  
  1324. Describes the remains of plaster casts of Greek bronze statuary found in a Roman metalworker’s shop at Baiae. This rare find provides important primary evidence for the methods of copying elaborate metalwork in antiquity.
  1325.  
  1326. Find this resource:
  1327.  
  1328. Lehoërff, Anne, ed. 2004. L’Artisanat métallurgique dans les sociétiés anciennes en Méditerranée Occidentale: Techniques, lieux et formes de production. Paris: de Boccard.
  1329.  
  1330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1331.  
  1332. Fourteen symposium papers that provide an overview of metalworking in Italy and the western Mediterranean from the Late Bronze Age through the Roman imperial period. Useful range of subjects based mainly on archaeological evidence.
  1333.  
  1334. Find this resource:
  1335.  
  1336. Mattusch, Carol C. 1996. Classical bronzes. The art and craft of Greek and Roman statuary. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  1337.  
  1338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1339.  
  1340. Thorough, well-illustrated review of the methods of production of large-scale bronze statuary in the Greco-Roman world, including tools and molds. The statues were usually generic in character, produced in series by modifying the master model through indirect lost wax casting.
  1341.  
  1342. Find this resource:
  1343.  
  1344. Mattusch, Carol C. 2008. Metalworking and tools. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 418–438. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1345.  
  1346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1347.  
  1348. A short account of Greek and Roman metalworking, based mainly on the materials, tools, and techniques applied to large bronze sculpture but with some consideration of other common metal objects.
  1349.  
  1350. Find this resource:
  1351.  
  1352. Zimmer, Gerhard. 1990. Griechische bronzegusswerkstätten: Zur Technologieentwicklung eines antiken kunsthandwerkes. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  1353.  
  1354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1355.  
  1356. The definitive presentation of archaeological evidence for Greek bronze-casting workshops and the finds from them. Reconstructs the technology from the remains of foundries, literary testimonia, vase painting, and bronze statues. Greek foundries were temporary establishments; molds were made of clay.
  1357.  
  1358. Find this resource:
  1359.  
  1360. Woodworking
  1361. Although iron and other metals were important in Greek and Roman life, worked wood was ubiquitous, used for countless objects from small tools and furniture to wagons, ships, and architecture (Hodge 1960; Pugsley 2003; Richter 1966; Ulrich 2007; Ulrich 2008). The wide variety of tree species in the Mediterranean world allowed the use of specific types of timber for particular purposes (Meiggs 1982). Woodworking tools were made of iron and early on assumed practical, functional shapes that in many cases have remained in use until the present (Mutz 1980).
  1362.  
  1363. Hodge, A. Trevor. 1960. The woodwork of Greek roofs. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1364.  
  1365. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1366.  
  1367. Restores the methods of roofing Greek temples of the classical period, through an examination of literary sources and marks in surviving structures. Argues that the Sicilian architects used the truss in roofing temples from 550 BC but architects in Greece did not. The principle became widespread only with the Roman period.
  1368.  
  1369. Find this resource:
  1370.  
  1371. Meiggs, Russell. 1982. Trees and timber in the ancient Mediterranean world. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1372.  
  1373. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1374.  
  1375. Comprehensive study of the supply of timber and applications of wood in the Near East and the Greco-Roman world from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Roman period. Examines literary, archaeological, and epigraphic evidence for the use of wood in construction, shipbuilding, agriculture, sculpture, and furniture.
  1376.  
  1377. Find this resource:
  1378.  
  1379. Mutz, Alfred. 1980. Ein fund von holzbearbeitungs-werkzeugen aus Augst Insula 31. Jahresberichte aus Augst und Kaiseraugst 1:117–131.
  1380.  
  1381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1382.  
  1383. Describes an interesting find of twenty-six iron woodworking tools found in a 3rd-century AD context at Augst.
  1384.  
  1385. Find this resource:
  1386.  
  1387. Pugsley, Paola. 2003. Roman domestic wood: Analysis of the morphology, manufacture and use of selected categories of domestic wooden artefacts with particular reference to the material from Roman Britain. British Archaeological Reports International Series Supplement S1118. Oxford: BAR.
  1388.  
  1389. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1390.  
  1391. Catalogues and discusses 343 wooden objects from domestic contexts at Roman sites in Britain, but with appendices presenting numerous wooden objects from elsewhere in the Roman world. Replication experiments provide important evidence concerning manufacture.
  1392.  
  1393. Find this resource:
  1394.  
  1395. Richter, Gisela M. A. 1966. The furniture of the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. London: Phaidon.
  1396.  
  1397. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1398.  
  1399. Provides an encyclopedic handbook of ancient furniture, arranged chronologically by culture and function. Most of the text concerns design and use, but there is a short section on materials, tools, and techniques of assembly and decoration. A reliable descriptive text with excellent illustrations.
  1400.  
  1401. Find this resource:
  1402.  
  1403. Ulrich, Roger B. 2007. Roman woodworking. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  1404.  
  1405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1406.  
  1407. Authoritative account of the products of Roman woodworking in both architecture and small objects, along with the woodworkers, their tools and methods, and their raw materials. Makes use of surviving wood objects, tools and depictions of tools, and literary references from both Greek and Roman authors. Well-illustrated.
  1408.  
  1409. Find this resource:
  1410.  
  1411. Ulrich, Roger B. 2008. Woodworking. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 439–464. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1412.  
  1413. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1414.  
  1415. Thorough, well-illustrated review of the place of wooden objects and woodworking in Greek and Roman life and the types of wood used. Considers ancient written accounts, remains of tools and representations of tools, procedures, and objects, along with surviving wooden objects.
  1416.  
  1417. Find this resource:
  1418.  
  1419. Textile Production and Basketry
  1420. Textiles largely replaced pelts or skin clothing during the Neolithic period, and to the Greeks and Romans they were the natural material for garments. Already by the Archaic period there were numerous sources for fibers for weaving, complex looms, sophisticated dyes, and numerous weaving patterns for cloth (Jenkins 2003; Rogers, et al. 2001; Wild 2008). The principle fabric was wool (Moeller 1976), although linen was common in some areas and for some applications. Large, specialized workshops existed for the production and finishing of woolen cloth and the cleaning of soiled garments (Forbes 1964; Loftus 2000; Wilson 2003). Basketry, a related technology, was also common, providing inexpensive, lightweight, durable containers for numerous purposes (Cullin-Mingaud 2010).
  1421.  
  1422. Cullin-Mingaud, Magali. 2010. La vannerie dans l’antiquité romaine: Les ateliers de vannier et les vanneries de Pompéi, Herculanum et Oplontis. Collection du Centre Jean Bérard 35. Paris: De Boccard.
  1423.  
  1424. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1425.  
  1426. An extensively illustrated review of Roman basketwork, based on both surviving remains from Italian sites and on extensive visual representations. Although not often mentioned in the sources, baskets played an important part in Roman rural and urban life as inexpensive, light-weight, and strong containers that could take numerous forms.
  1427.  
  1428. Find this resource:
  1429.  
  1430. Forbes, Robert J. 1964. Studies in ancient technology. Vol. 4, The fibres and fabrics of antiquity; washing, bleaching, fulling and felting; dyes and dyeing; spinning; sewing, basketry and weaving; weaving and looms; fabrics and weavers. 2d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1431.  
  1432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1433.  
  1434. A short, descriptive account of the materials, techniques, and applications of textiles and basketry.
  1435.  
  1436. Find this resource:
  1437.  
  1438. Jenkins, David, ed. 2003. The Cambridge history of Western textiles. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1439.  
  1440. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1441.  
  1442. Authoritative survey of the production and use of textiles in Western societies from the Neolithic to the present, with separate chapters on the Greeks and the Romans. Topics include raw materials and their processing, manufacturing, the uses of textiles, and the trade in raw materials and finished textiles.
  1443.  
  1444. Find this resource:
  1445.  
  1446. Loftus, Ariel. 2000. A textile factory in the third century BC Memphis: Labor, capital and private enterprise in the Zeno archive. In Archéologie des textiles des origines au Ve siècle: Actes du colloque de Lattes, Oct. 1999. Edited by D. Cardon and M. Feugère, 173–186. Montagnac, France: Mergoil.
  1447.  
  1448. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1449.  
  1450. A useful review of the evidence for the social and technological context of a textile factory in Hellenistic Egypt.
  1451.  
  1452. Find this resource:
  1453.  
  1454. Moeller, Walter O. 1976. The wool trade of ancient Pompeii. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1455.  
  1456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1457.  
  1458. Identifies thirty-nine wool-processing workshops at Pompeii: twelve for wool scouring, six for dyeing, six for weaving, and eleven for fulling. The local aristocracy appears to have been involved in the important industry.
  1459.  
  1460. Find this resource:
  1461.  
  1462. Rogers, Penelope W., Lise B. Jørgensen, and Antoinette Rast-Eichler, eds. 2001. The Roman textile industry and its influence: A birthday tribute to John Peter Wild. Oxford: Oxbow.
  1463.  
  1464. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1465.  
  1466. Twenty-one essays by current leading experts in the study of archaeological textiles of the Roman period in Egypt and Europe, along with textiles brought through contacts with Asia. Even single textile scraps provide important information about chronology, origin, function, and technology, along with the social context.
  1467.  
  1468. Find this resource:
  1469.  
  1470. Wild, John P. 2008. Textile production. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 465–482. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1471.  
  1472. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1473.  
  1474. A distillation of our knowledge of the materials, production methods, tools, finishing, and dyeing of Greek and Roman textiles, by a world authority.
  1475.  
  1476. Find this resource:
  1477.  
  1478. Wilson, Andrew I. 2003. The archaeology of the Roman fullonica. Journal of Roman Archaeology 16:442–446.
  1479.  
  1480. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1481.  
  1482. A rebuttal of a proposal that the large workshops called fullonicae did not process woolen cloth but only washed it. The archaeological evidence strongly suggests space was set aside for finishing cloth and that there was no space for receiving individual customers leaving clothing for cleaning.
  1483.  
  1484. Find this resource:
  1485.  
  1486. Tanning and Leather Production
  1487. Like textile production, the production of leather was already a mature technology by the Archaic period, and the applications and objects had taken forms and shapes still in use at the present (Forbes 1966; Leguilloux 2004; van Driel-Murray 2008). Vegetable tanning, which preserves the leather for longer than drying or curing with salt or fat, is more common in the Roman period than earlier (Leguilloux 2002; van Driel-Murray 2002; van Driel-Murray 2011), and it was particularly important in the production of leather equipment for the Roman army (van Driel-Murray 1985).
  1488.  
  1489. Forbes, Robert J. 1966. Studies in ancient technology. Vol. 5, Leather in antiquity. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1490.  
  1491. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1492.  
  1493. See pp. 1–79. A descriptive presentation of tanning and leather-working from the Late Bronze Age through the Roman period. Some useful data and illustrations.
  1494.  
  1495. Find this resource:
  1496.  
  1497. Leguilloux, Martine. 2002. Techniques et équipements de la tannerie romaine: L’example de l’officina coriaria de Pompéi. In Le travail du cuir de la préhistoire à nos jours. Edited by F. Audoin-Rouzeau and S. Beyries, 267–281. Antibes, France: Editions APDCA.
  1498.  
  1499. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1500.  
  1501. A short archaeological evaluation of the evidence provided by the remains of a leather-processing shop in Pompeii.
  1502.  
  1503. Find this resource:
  1504.  
  1505. Leguilloux, Martine. 2004. Le cuir et la pelleterie à l’époque romaine. Paris: Éditions Errance.
  1506.  
  1507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1508.  
  1509. Evaluates the important role that leather goods played in Roman life as clothing, fasteners, shoes and sandals, military equipment, and boats. The production and trade in this material had an important economic impact.
  1510.  
  1511. Find this resource:
  1512.  
  1513. van Driel-Murray, Carol. 1985. The production and supply of military leatherwork in the 1st and 2nd centuries AD: A review of the archaeological evidence. In The production and distribution of Roman military equipment. Edited by M. C. Bishop, 43–81. British Archaeological Reports International Series S275. Oxford: BAR.
  1514.  
  1515. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1516.  
  1517. The archaeological remains of Roman leather military equipment show a certain standardization that suggests carefully organized production in specialized workshops.
  1518.  
  1519. Find this resource:
  1520.  
  1521. van Driel-Murray, Carol. 2002. Ancient skin processing and the impact of Rome on tanning technology. In Le travail du cuir de la préhistoire à nos jours. Edited by F. Audoin-Rouzeau and S. Beyries, 251–265. Antibes, France: Editions APDCA.
  1522.  
  1523. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1524.  
  1525. Vegetable tanning produces much longer-lasting leather than curing with oil or minerals and a material more durable in daily use. In many parts of the Empire tanned leather is an artifact of Roman occupation.
  1526.  
  1527. Find this resource:
  1528.  
  1529. van Driel-Murray, Carol. 2008. Tanning and leather. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 483–495. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1530.  
  1531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1532.  
  1533. An authoritative short review of the place of leather in Greco-Roman life and the methods for preserving and working it. Surviving fragments of leather are common, but there is little archaeological evidence for the tanneries that produced some of them. The advantageous characteristics of tanned leather affected the design of many leather objects.
  1534.  
  1535. Find this resource:
  1536.  
  1537. van Driel-Murray, Carol. 2011. Are we missing something? The elusive tanneries of the Roman period. In Leather tanneries: The archaeological evidence. Edited by Roy Thomson and Quita Mould, 69–83. London: Archetype.
  1538.  
  1539. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1540.  
  1541. Very few properly documented remains are known because of complexity of processing. Horn debris is a good sign, but tanning may have taken place elsewhere.
  1542.  
  1543. Find this resource:
  1544.  
  1545. Ceramic Production
  1546. Like textile production and leather-working, ceramic technology was an old technology, but the Greeks and Romans nevertheless managed to develop new methods for decorating, shaping, firing, and distributing ceramics, which played a crucial role in both private life and the public economy (Blondé and Perreault 1992; Noble 1988; Schreiber 2000). The production and distribution of “factory lamps” (Harris 1980), Arretine ware shaped in molds, and ceramic building materials played a particularly important role in the Roman economy (Tapio 1975). Close examination of excavated ceramic corpora provides important data about the pace and structure of the ancient economy (Greene 2005; Jackson and Greene 2008; Peña 2007).
  1547.  
  1548. Blondé, Francine, and Jacques Y. Perreault, eds. 1992. Les ateliers de potiers dans le monde Grec aux époques Géometrique, Archaïque et Classique. Bulletin de Correspondance Hellénique Supplement 23. Athens: École Française d’Athènes.
  1549.  
  1550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1551.  
  1552. Presents archaeological data for ancient Greek kilns and the associated workshops and the manner of production. Useful data for the Geometric through classical periods, but little synthesis.
  1553.  
  1554. Find this resource:
  1555.  
  1556. Greene, Kevin. 2005. Roman pottery: Models, proxies and economic interpretation. Journal of Roman Archaeology 18:34–56.
  1557.  
  1558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1559.  
  1560. A thought-provoking, impeccably researched discussion of the history of archaeological interpretations of the role of ceramics in the ancient economy, with suggestions on how to proceed in the future. Close examination of the methods of extracting economic information from raw archaeological data and the use of model building.
  1561.  
  1562. Find this resource:
  1563.  
  1564. Harris, William V. 1980. Roman terracotta lamps: The organization of an industry. Journal of Roman Studies 70:126–145.
  1565.  
  1566. DOI: 10.2307/299559Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1567.  
  1568. Seminal analysis of an industry producing signed lamps and manufactured lamps with no decoration but with a name inscribed on the base. It lasted from the mid-1st to the mid-3rd century. The two main groups of maker’s names originated in North Italy and central Italy or North Africa.
  1569.  
  1570. Find this resource:
  1571.  
  1572. Jackson, Mark, and Kevin Greene. 2008. Ceramic production. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 496–519. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1573.  
  1574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1575.  
  1576. Few fundamental changes took place in ceramic production during Greco-Roman period, so the authors emphasize diverse political cultures, artistic styles, trading systems, and forms of consumption. A thorough review of the main production techniques and styles as they relate to contemporary social norms and economic patterns.
  1577.  
  1578. Find this resource:
  1579.  
  1580. Noble, Joseph V. 1988. The techniques of painted Attic pottery. London: Thames and Hudson.
  1581.  
  1582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1583.  
  1584. Reconstructs the techniques of Attic black- and red-figured pottery of the 7th to 4th centuries BC by means of careful analysis of the archaeological remains and attempts at replication. Considers all stages of preparation and firing. A standard handbook with superb illustrations.
  1585.  
  1586. Find this resource:
  1587.  
  1588. Peña, J. Theodore. 2007. Roman pottery in the archaeological record. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1589.  
  1590. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511499685Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1591.  
  1592. Excellent treatment of the practical problems of pottery production and use, based on construction of flow models of the life cycle of ceramics, as documented at archaeological sites. Isolates eight practices: manufacture, distribution, prime use, maintenance, recycling, discard, and reclamation.
  1593.  
  1594. Find this resource:
  1595.  
  1596. Schreiber, Toby. 2000. Athenian vase construction: A potter’s analysis. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
  1597.  
  1598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1599.  
  1600. Illuminating analysis by a master potter of the methods and sequence of construction of all the shapes produced by Athenian potters in antiquity. Careful examination of the details of ancient pots provides important primary information, including identification of errors made by the ancient potter. Numerous illustrations.
  1601.  
  1602. Find this resource:
  1603.  
  1604. Tapio, Helen. 1975. Organisation of Roman brick production in the first and second centuries AD: An Interpretation of Roman brick stamps. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.
  1605.  
  1606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1607.  
  1608. Reconstructs the organization of brick production at Rome on the basis of brick stamps. The stamps can mention the clay district, brick yard, landowner (dominus), brick producer (officinator), and even (from AD 110–164) the consular date. Interesting study of the social and legal organization of a large-scale ceramic industry. See also Large-Scale Manufacturing, Standardization, and Trade.
  1609.  
  1610. Find this resource:
  1611.  
  1612. Glass-Working
  1613. Although glass had been produced in significant quantities since the Late Bronze Age (Nenna 2000; Saldern 2004), there was little transformative progress in the technology of shaping vessels until the invention of glassblowing somewhere in the Near East in the 1st century BC (Stern 1999, Stern 2008). This new procedure not only allowed the production of elaborate new free-blown shapes and the shaping of glass in molds, but it also made the product affordable. Glass vessels soon became common around the entire Mediterranean world and Europe, as vessels were traded over long distances and workshops moved to new markets. Glass objects were valued for their bright colors, exotic forms, and resistance to corrosion (Stern 1999; Wight 2011). Glass could also be shaped by grinding and possibly by turning on a wheel (Lierke 1995; Lierke 1999). A significant number of glass-making workshops have been identified (Price 2005).
  1614.  
  1615. Lierke, Rosemarie. 1995. Vasa diatreta: Ein kritischer exkurs über die glasschneidekunst der Römer. Antike Welt 26:42–59.
  1616.  
  1617. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1618.  
  1619. Beautifully illustrated review of a tour de force of Roman glass-working in which a raised decorative network of glass suspended over the main body of the vessel (usually a cup) on struts is produced either by grinding or by fusing.
  1620.  
  1621. Find this resource:
  1622.  
  1623. Lierke, Rosemarie. 1999. Antike glastöpferei: Ein vergessenes kapitel der glasgeschichte. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  1624.  
  1625. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1626.  
  1627. The author, a skilled glass worker who distrusts the Roman capacity to grind and cut glass, reconstructs a technique of glass-working in which a pottery wheel is used to assist the molding, twisting, decoration, and layering of vessels while the glass was soft. Fascinating but controversial proposal.
  1628.  
  1629. Find this resource:
  1630.  
  1631. Nenna, Marie-Dominique, ed. 2000. La route du verre: Ateliers primaires et secondaires du second millénaire av. J.-C. au Moyen Age. Travaux de la Maison d’Orient Méditerranéen 33. Lyon, France: Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen-Jean Pouilloux.
  1632.  
  1633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1634.  
  1635. Contains several papers dealing with the workshops that produced raw glass and those that produced glass vessels in the Late Bronze Age, Roman, and Byzantine periods. A good regional survey.
  1636.  
  1637. Find this resource:
  1638.  
  1639. Price, Jennifer. 2005. Glass-working and glassworkers in cities and towns. In Roman working lives and urban living. Edited by Ardle MacMahon and Jennifer Price, 167–190. Oakville, CT: Brown.
  1640.  
  1641. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1642.  
  1643. A useful compilation and analysis of the archaeological, textual, epigraphic, and iconographic evidence for glass-working sites, the artisans involved in glass production and glass-working, the retail outlets, and glass in circulation in the Roman world.
  1644.  
  1645. Find this resource:
  1646.  
  1647. Saldern, Axel von. 2004. Antikes glas. Handbuch der Archäologie. Munich: Beck.
  1648.  
  1649. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1650.  
  1651. Detailed review of the techniques of glass-working from its beginnings in the Early Bronze Age through the Late Roman period, with numerous illustrations. Covers the Middle East and Black Sea regions as well as the Mediterranean world.
  1652.  
  1653. Find this resource:
  1654.  
  1655. Stern, E. Marianne. 1999. Roman glassblowing in a cultural context. American Journal of Archaeology 103:441–484.
  1656.  
  1657. DOI: 10.2307/506970Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1658.  
  1659. Review of the development of glassblowing, which probably started with terracotta blowing tubes in the reign of Augustus. Iron tubes probably invented in North Italy by AD 70 allowed production of heavier vessels. Glass-making and glassblowing were two separate crafts; blowing was tied in with the recycling of glass.
  1660.  
  1661. Find this resource:
  1662.  
  1663. Stern, E. Marianne. 2007. Ancient glass in a philological context. Mnemosyne 60:341–406.
  1664.  
  1665. DOI: 10.1163/156852507X195402Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1666.  
  1667. A comprehensive collection and analysis of the numerous Greek and Latin texts that concern the production and use of glass, with appendices of Greek, Latin, and modern technical terms.
  1668.  
  1669. Find this resource:
  1670.  
  1671. Stern, E. Marianne. 2008. Glass production. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 520–547. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1672.  
  1673. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1674.  
  1675. Expert review of the issues involved in the production and distribution of raw glass and glass vessels in the Greco-Roman world, including materials and tools, the organization of labor, and the productivity of workshops.
  1676.  
  1677. Find this resource:
  1678.  
  1679. Wight, Karol B. 2011. Moulton color: Glassmaking in Antiquity. Los Angeles: Getty.
  1680.  
  1681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1682.  
  1683. Exhibition catalogue with splendid color illustrations of ancient glassware from the Late Bronze Age through the Late Roman period, with brief discussion of materials and techniques. Useful mainly for the illustrations.
  1684.  
  1685. Find this resource:
  1686.  
  1687. Technologies of Movement and Transport
  1688. The Greek homeland was such a broken, dissected landscape and the sea was usually so close that most trade and travel took place by sea. In addition, the lack of resources in Greece required the export of surplus population to colonies all around the Mediterranean and the development of long maritime trade routes for the exchange of goods. As the Roman Empire formed, administrators at first placed great emphasis on the infrastructure of land travel to allow the rapid deployment of troops throughout the Mediterranean. By the 1st century BC, the Mediterranean scope of the Empire required the construction of great harbors for trade and the accommodation of naval forces, a development made possible by the Roman expertise in marine concrete.
  1689.  
  1690. Roads and Bridges
  1691. Because of the mountainous landscape of Greece and the small size of political units during the classical period, the roads were few and poor (Talbert, et al. 2000). The Roman Empire, in contrast, was linked together by approximately 100,000 kilometers of roads, most of them carefully paved with stone or gravel (Chevallier 1997; Esch 1997; Quilici 2008), with thousands of bridges (O’Connor 1993). Accurate surveying techniques were crucial to the layout of the road system (Lewis 2001) and the extent of the road network affected the Roman concept of relations between space and society (Laurence 1999).
  1692.  
  1693. Chevallier, Raymond. 1997. Les voies Romaines. Paris: Picard.
  1694.  
  1695. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1696.  
  1697. One of the few scholarly treatments of Roman roads across the whole Empire, rather than single routes. An introduction to literary and epigraphic sources is followed by the archeological and aerial photographic evidence for Roman roads. The final section describes Roman roads throughout the Empire, region by region. Enormous bibliography.
  1698.  
  1699. Find this resource:
  1700.  
  1701. Esch, Arnold. 1997. Römische strassen in ihrer landschaft: Das nachleben antiker strassen um rom, mit hinweisen zur begehung im gelände. Mainz, Germany: von Zabern.
  1702.  
  1703. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1704.  
  1705. Solid, well-illustrated introduction to the field study of Roman road topography. Based on photographs and maps of the region around Rome, along with thorough consideration of the literary sources.
  1706.  
  1707. Find this resource:
  1708.  
  1709. Laurence, Ray. 1999. The roads of Roman Italy. Mobility and cultural change. London: Routledge.
  1710.  
  1711. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1712.  
  1713. Stimulating but uneven study of how roads helped shape the relations between space and society in Roman Italy. Topics include the practical role played by roads in facilitating conquest and trade, the symbolic importance of roads in enhancing the ambitions of magistrates and emperors, and the way in which Roman roads redefined Roman time/space relationships.
  1714.  
  1715. Find this resource:
  1716.  
  1717. Lewis, Michael J. T. 2001. Surveying instruments of Greece and Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1718.  
  1719. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511483035Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1720.  
  1721. Splendidly documented discussion of the surveying instruments used in the Greco-Roman period, relying both on ancient written sources and careful replication. Describes careful experiments showing how roads were surveyed over long distances despite physical barriers. Also see Tunnels and Canals.
  1722.  
  1723. Find this resource:
  1724.  
  1725. O’Connor, Colin. 1993. Roman bridges. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1726.  
  1727. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1728.  
  1729. A review of the history and engineering aspects of Roman bridges by a civil engineer. Excellent drawings and technical engineering evaluation, but poor historical and social analysis.
  1730.  
  1731. Find this resource:
  1732.  
  1733. Quilici, Lorenzo. 2008. Land transport, Part 1: Roads and bridges. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 551–579. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1734.  
  1735. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1736.  
  1737. An expert short review of the history, technology, and purposes of Roman roads, focused on Italy but with comments on selected roads in the rest of the Mediterranean world. Mixes the written and archaeological evidence in a convincing manner.
  1738.  
  1739. Find this resource:
  1740.  
  1741. Talbert, Richard J. A., et al. 2000. Barrington atlas of the Greek and Roman world. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1742.  
  1743. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1744.  
  1745. The most extensive and authoritative atlas of the Greek and Roman world, with carefully designed large-scale maps that show cities, roads, and other manmade features in their topographical context. Portions of the atlas are available online.
  1746.  
  1747. Find this resource:
  1748.  
  1749. Riding, Harnesses, and Vehicles
  1750. Although Greece had few decent roads until the Roman period, there was a rich local repertoire of designs for light carts for traveling or warfare, heavy-duty carts for transporting agricultural supplies or building materials, and sledges for the heaviest loads (Burford 1960; Crouwel 1992; Meijer and Van Nijf 1992). Given the size of the Roman world and its economy and the excellent road system, carts and wagons were more widely used and a variety of specialized forms developed (Kolb 2000; Raepsaet 2008). Contrary to common opinion, harnesses were developed that did take account of the special character of equine anatomy, so horses, mules, and donkeys could work efficiently (Hyland 1990; Raepsaet 2002).
  1751.  
  1752. Burford, A. 1960. Heavy transport in Ancient Greece. Economic History Review 13:1–18.
  1753.  
  1754. DOI: 10.2307/2591403Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1755.  
  1756. A pioneering study of the important role played by heavy transport in ancient Greece, particularly for construction materials. Inscriptions provide important evidence and clarify that animals, particularly oxen, were used instead of humans.
  1757.  
  1758. Find this resource:
  1759.  
  1760. Crouwel, Joost H. 1992. Chariots and other wheeled vehicles in Iron Age Greece. Amsterdam: Pierson.
  1761.  
  1762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1763.  
  1764. Meticulously documented treatise on chariots, carts, and four-wheeled wagons in Greece from the Geometric to the Hellenistic period. Literary sources are combined with archaeological remains of vehicles and harness, ancient models, and visual representations. Insufficient consideration given to technological development over time.
  1765.  
  1766. Find this resource:
  1767.  
  1768. Hyland, Ann. 1990. Equus: The horse in the Roman world. London: Batsford.
  1769.  
  1770. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1771.  
  1772. A careful, scholarly account focused on the use of the horse for riding, particularly with military cavalry, with little account of chariot racing or the horse as a draft animal. Useful review of the breeding and management of horses and veterinary medicine.
  1773.  
  1774. Find this resource:
  1775.  
  1776. Kolb, Anne. 2000. Transport und nachrichtentransfer im Römischen Reich. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
  1777.  
  1778. DOI: 10.1524/9783050048246Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1779.  
  1780. A wide-ranging, systematic investigation of the character and role of public transport and communication in the Roman Empire. The role of the cursus pubicus evolved over time, but it basically consisted of an extensive infrastructure that supported officials as they traveled.
  1781.  
  1782. Find this resource:
  1783.  
  1784. Meijer, Fik J., and O. Van Nijf. 1992. Trade, transport and society in the ancient world: A sourcebook. London: Routledge.
  1785.  
  1786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1787.  
  1788. A well-chosen, categorized collection of translated literary, papyrological, epigraphic, and legal sources illustrating important issues surrounding trade and transport. Includes consideration of technical issues concerning roads, harbors, ships, vehicles, and draft animals, along with evaluation of their economic and social context.
  1789.  
  1790. Find this resource:
  1791.  
  1792. Raepsaet, Georges. 2002. Attelages et techniques de transport dans le monde Gréco-Romain. Brussells: Timperman.
  1793.  
  1794. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1795.  
  1796. Presents important new research on the character and efficiency of ancient harnesses for draft animals and the ramifications for our evaluation of the speed and capacity of land transport and agricultural work with draft animals, particularly equines. Ancient harnesses did take account of equine anatomy.
  1797.  
  1798. Find this resource:
  1799.  
  1800. Raepsaet, Georges. 2008. Land transport, Part 2: Riding, harnesses, and vehicles. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 580–605. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1801.  
  1802. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1803.  
  1804. A short version of many of the ideas expressed in Raepsaet 2002, along with consideration of the interplay of river transport and land transport as an integrated system in Roman Europe.
  1805.  
  1806. Find this resource:
  1807.  
  1808. Ships and Navigation
  1809. Both the Greek and the Roman culture depended on sea trade for political, economic, and social reasons. They were superb sailors and navigators who mastered the Mediterranean Sea and sailed as well on the North Atlantic, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean (Casson 1989). Their ships, built hull first with planks held together by pegged mortise-and-tenon joints or by sewing, were strong and effective designs, with a variety of sailing rigs (Basch 1987; McGrail 2008; Steffy 1994; Whitewright 2011). Their navigators routinely sailed out of sight of land, and the sailing season was longer than generally assumed (Beresford 2012). The warships of the classical and Hellenistic period were state-of-the-art designs that attracted the efforts of the most famous scientists of the time (Morrison, et al. 2000; Murray 2012).
  1810.  
  1811. Basch, Lucien. 1987. Le musée imaginaire de la marine antique. Athens, Greece: Greek Institute for the Preservation of Nautical Tradition.
  1812.  
  1813. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1814.  
  1815. Review of ships in the Mediterranean world from the Bronze Age through the Late Roman period, documented with nearly 1,100 high-quality reproductions of ancient representations. The text is clear and comprehensive, analyzing both the character of the representations and the evolution and social meaning of ancient nautical technology. Also see Ancient Visual Representations.
  1816.  
  1817. Find this resource:
  1818.  
  1819. Beresford, James. 2012. The ancient sailing season. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  1820.  
  1821. DOI: 10.1163/9789004241947Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1822.  
  1823. Comprehensive examination of the capacity of ancient ships and seafarers to cope with seasonally changing sea conditions, based on ancient literary sources, modern weather records, and hydrological and archaeological data. Important for our understanding of the nature of seaborne trade, naval warfare, and piratical operations.
  1824.  
  1825. Find this resource:
  1826.  
  1827. Casson, Lionel. 1989. Periplus Maris Erythrae: Text with introduction, translation and commentary. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  1828.  
  1829. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1830.  
  1831. Standard edition, translation, and analysis of the only surviving ancient navigator’s handbook, which provides information on the navigational hazards and the trade opportunities along the coastal route between the Red Sea and the ports of western India.
  1832.  
  1833. Find this resource:
  1834.  
  1835. McGrail, Seán. 2008. Sea transport, Part 1: Ships and navigation. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 606–637. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1836.  
  1837. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1838.  
  1839. Authoritative review of the development of ships and techniques of navigation from 800 BC to AD 500. Considers sources of information, materials, construction, innovation in design and working, and navigation. Excellent glossary of nautical terms.
  1840.  
  1841. Find this resource:
  1842.  
  1843. Morrison, John S., John F. Coates, and N. Boris Rankov. 2000. Athenian Trireme, 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1844.  
  1845. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1846.  
  1847. Fascinating account of the construction and testing of the Olympias, a full-scale replication of a 5th-century BC Athenian trireme. Five seasons of testing on the sea provided enormous amounts of data concerning the performance and design of the ancient warship, for which there are no shipwreck remains available.
  1848.  
  1849. Find this resource:
  1850.  
  1851. Murray, William M. 2012. The age of titans: The rise and fall of the great Hellenistic navies. Onassis Series in Hellenic Culture. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1852.  
  1853. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195388640.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1854.  
  1855. A carefully documented review of the evidence for the very large-oared warships built during the Hellenistic period throughout the Mediterranean. Considers design, materials, working, and tactics and concludes that the largest ships were intended to facilitate the siege of port and harbor sites.
  1856.  
  1857. Find this resource:
  1858.  
  1859. Steffy, J. Richard. 1994. Wooden shipbuilding and the interpretation of shipwrecks. College Station: Texas A & M Univ. Press.
  1860.  
  1861. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1862.  
  1863. The standard introduction to the excavation, recording, study, and analysis of premodern wooden ship and boat construction. Invaluable for an understanding of what the remains of such ships can tell us about the shipwrights and their procedures.
  1864.  
  1865. Find this resource:
  1866.  
  1867. Whitewright, Julian. 2011. The potential performance of ancient Mediterranean sailing rigs. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 40:2–17.
  1868.  
  1869. DOI: 10.1111/j.1095-9270.2010.00276.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1870.  
  1871. Evaluates data on the performance of lateen rigged and square sail ships, concluding that there is no conclusive evidence that the lateen functioned better for the needs of Greco-Roman trade. Sailors often waited for the appropriate wind, and the sprit sail was more effective than either the lateen or square sail.
  1872.  
  1873. Find this resource:
  1874.  
  1875. Harbors
  1876. The fragmented topography and ecology of the Mediterranean world meant that seaborne “connectivity” among coastal sites was crucial to survival (Horden and Purcell 2000). The Greek cities of the Aegean had little need for artificial harbor structures, because the landscape provided numerous naturally protected harbors (Blackman 2008; Oleson and Hohlfelder 2011). Exceptionally, structures were built to overcome geographical barriers to navigation (Pettegrew 2012). To support their imperial system, the Romans needed to place harbors where they were needed, whether or not the coastal topography was advantageous, and in this they were aided by their mastery of marine concrete, which could set underwater. There were more than three thousand ancient harbors in the Mediterranean (Ancient Ports—Ports antiques).
  1877.  
  1878. Blackman, David J. 2008. Sea transport, Part 2: Harbors. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 638–670. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1879.  
  1880. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1881.  
  1882. An updated version of Blackman’s 1982 edition, with consideration of much new material and a careful study of the issues of construction materials, design, and innovation.
  1883.  
  1884. Find this resource:
  1885.  
  1886. de Graauw, Arthur. Ancient Ports—Ports antiques.
  1887.  
  1888. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1889.  
  1890. Online catalogue of approximately three thousand ancient Mediterranean harbors, with interactive maps, list of ancient authors, passages from ancient literary works describing harbors, and a bibliography of ancient harbors. Frequently updated.
  1891.  
  1892. Find this resource:
  1893.  
  1894. Horden, Peregrine, and Nicholas Purcell. 2000. The corrupting sea: A study of Mediterranean history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1895.  
  1896. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1897.  
  1898. Seminal study of the landscape and peoples of the premodern Mediterranean. The broken character of much of the landscape and variations in local resources forced the inhabitants to move and trade by sea. Connectivity is the clue to understanding the settlement patterns and economic interchanges in the Mediterranean.
  1899.  
  1900. Find this resource:
  1901.  
  1902. Oleson, John P., and Robert L. Hohlfelder. 2011. Ancient harbors in the Mediterranean. In The Oxford handbook of maritime archaeology. Edited by Alexis Catsambis, Ben Ford, and Donny L. Hamilton, 809–833. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1903.  
  1904. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1905.  
  1906. A well-documented, concise review of the issues surrounding the study of ancient harbors and the evolution of harbor design and construction from the Late Bronze Age through the Late Roman period.
  1907.  
  1908. Find this resource:
  1909.  
  1910. Pettegrew, David K. 2012. The Diolkos of Corinth. American Journal of Archaeology 116:549–574.
  1911.  
  1912. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1913.  
  1914. Carefully considers the problems with usual reconstruction of the use of the roadway across the Isthmus of Corinth. Concludes that the frequent, routine movement of ships and goods across was unlikely. Asserts that the Diolkos was mainly used by and for Corinth and its allies.
  1915.  
  1916. Find this resource:
  1917.  
  1918. Technologies of Death
  1919. The openness of the Mediterranean Sea and of many stretches of its coastline inevitably brought conflict among city-states and empires intent upon increasing their territory or obtaining the resources or labor of their neighbors. Warfare was the inevitable result, spawning the constantly innovative technologies of combat and fortification.
  1920.  
  1921. Greek Warfare and Fortification
  1922. For the most part, Greek military technology prior to the Hellenistic period was based on part-time, amateur citizen warriors using simple equipment and tactics (Campbell and Lawrence 2013, cited under Roman Warfare and Fortification; Sabin, et al. 2007; van Wees 2004). Fortification of sites was uncommon in classical Greece (Lawrence 1979), and cavalry played an important supporting role (Spence 1993). All this changed with the rise of the great Hellenistic kingdoms, which could afford standing, professional armies, elaborate equipment, and fortified strongholds (Chaniotis 2005; Leriche and Tréziny 1986). Recent studies suggest that religious, cultural, and emotional motivations were as important as technological advances in warfare (Lendon 2005; van Wees 2004). For siege engines see Campbell 2003 (cited under Machines in Greek and Roman Technology).
  1923.  
  1924. Chaniotis, Angelos. 2005. War in the Hellenistic world: A social and cultural history. Oxford: Blackwell.
  1925.  
  1926. DOI: 10.1002/9780470773413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1927.  
  1928. Examines the effects of war on Hellenistic society, culture, and mentality and the manner in which social and cultural conditions shaped the approach to war. An interesting complement to technological analysis.
  1929.  
  1930. Find this resource:
  1931.  
  1932. de Souza, Philip. 2008. Greek warfare and fortification. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 673–690. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1933.  
  1934. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1935.  
  1936. Provides a clear short review of the essential aspects of warfare and fortification in the Greek world, particularly the hoplite method of fighting and how it differed from the Macedonian approach to warfare.
  1937.  
  1938. Find this resource:
  1939.  
  1940. Lawrence, Arnold W. 1979. Greek aims in fortification. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  1941.  
  1942. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1943.  
  1944. Catalogues a large number of Greek fortifications from France to Afghanistan in an investigation of the constituent elements and the intended purposes of the various types. The designs varied according to location, purpose, and technological innovation. Still a useful compilation.
  1945.  
  1946. Find this resource:
  1947.  
  1948. Lendon, John E. 2005. Soldiers and ghosts. A history of battle in classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  1949.  
  1950. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1951.  
  1952. Asserts that cultural ideals and tradition rather than technological evolution of the tools of war had the greatest effect on the tactics of Greek and Roman armies. An unproven but stimulating approach.
  1953.  
  1954. Find this resource:
  1955.  
  1956. Leriche, Pierre, and H. Tréziny, eds. 1986. La fortification dans l’histoire du monde grec: Actes du colloque international, la fortfication et sa place dans l’histoire politique, culturelle et sociale du monde grec (Valbonne, Décembre 1982). Paris: CNRS.
  1957.  
  1958. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1959.  
  1960. Presents forty-five colloquium papers concerned with fortifications in the Greek world from the Late Bronze to the Hellenistic period. Collects material on a wide variety of regions and topics.
  1961.  
  1962. Find this resource:
  1963.  
  1964. Sabin, Philip, L. Michael Whitby, and Hans van Wees, eds. 2007. The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 1, Greece, The Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  1965.  
  1966. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1967.  
  1968. A comprehensive account of Greek warfare and related issues from the Archaic through Hellenistic periods, along with Roman warfare of the Republic down to 100 BC. The appendices, charts, and bibliography are useful for further study. This will remain a major reference work for some time.
  1969.  
  1970. Find this resource:
  1971.  
  1972. Spence, Iain G. 1993. The cavalry of classical Greece: A social and military history with particular reference to Athens. Oxford: Clarendon.
  1973.  
  1974. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1975.  
  1976. Social and military history of how classical Greek cavalry operated; looks at mobility, protection, armament, training, leadership, flexibility, and motivation. Challenges assumption that cavalry was subordinated to infantry.
  1977.  
  1978. Find this resource:
  1979.  
  1980. van Wees, Hans. 2004. Greek warfare: Myths and realities. London: Duckworth.
  1981.  
  1982. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1983.  
  1984. Provides broad historical framework for the development of military practice and attitudes toward war. Reconstructs why Greeks waged war, who did most of the fighting, what fighting methods were used, and how land and sea battle marked social distinctions.
  1985.  
  1986. Find this resource:
  1987.  
  1988. Roman Warfare and Fortification
  1989. Roman armies of the Early Republic used equipment and tactics similar to those of the early Greek hoplite forces (Campbell and Lawrence 2013), but in the 3rd century they adapted some of the equipment and tactics of the Hellenistic armies to their own needs (Sabin, et al. 2007; Southern 2007). With an emphasis on strong discipline and constant training, the Roman armies developed superbly effective, flexible tactics and efficient equipment, allowing remarkably quick acquisition of their Empire (Bishop and Coulston 2006; D’Amato and Sumner 2009; Le Bohec 2006). Subsequently, the imperial army became an army of occupation and frontier protection, stationed in massive, carefully designed fortresses (Bishop 2012; Brewer 2000).
  1990.  
  1991. Bishop, Mike C. 2012. Handbook to Roman legionary fortresses. Barnsley: Pen and Sword.
  1992.  
  1993. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1994.  
  1995. A well-illustrated reference guide to the more or less eighty-five known legionary fortresses of the Roman Empire. Introductory chapters discuss the legions, development of fort design, walls, and internal structures.
  1996.  
  1997. Find this resource:
  1998.  
  1999. Bishop, Mike C., and Jon C. N. Coulston. 2006. Roman military equipment. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxbow.
  2000.  
  2001. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2002.  
  2003. The standard handbook of Roman military equipment (other than projectile-throwing machines) based on archaeological remains and visual representations. Arranged chronologically, with chapters on production methods and innovation. Extensively illustrated and with full bibliography.
  2004.  
  2005. Find this resource:
  2006.  
  2007. Brewer, Richard J., ed. 2000. Roman fortresses and their legions. London: Society of Antiquaries.
  2008.  
  2009. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2010.  
  2011. Collection of eleven scholarly papers concerned with the organization of legionary forces, their fortifications, and issues of supply. Regional surveys treat Britain, Germany, the Danube region, and the Near East. Reliable, well-illustrated source.
  2012.  
  2013. Find this resource:
  2014.  
  2015. Campbell, Brian, and Lawrence A. Tritle, eds. 2013. The Oxford handbook of warfare in the classical world. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2016.  
  2017. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2018.  
  2019. A comprehensive, authoritative handbook of the motives, methods, and results of warfare in the Greek and Roman world. Considers the role and attitudes of the common soldier as well as the elite commanders, concluding with six useful case studies of military campaigns at a variety of periods and locations.
  2020.  
  2021. Find this resource:
  2022.  
  2023. D’Amato, Raffaele, and Graham Sumner. 2009. Arms and armour of the imperial Roman soldier from Marius to Commodus, 112 BC–AD 192. London: Frontline.
  2024.  
  2025. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2026.  
  2027. A useful compendium of illustrations of Roman military arms, armor, and subsidiary equipment of all kinds, based on photographs of sculptural representations and archaeological remains, drawings, and reconstructions. Chronologically arranged. Best used for the illustrations rather than the text.
  2028.  
  2029. Find this resource:
  2030.  
  2031. Le Bohec, Yann. 2006. L’armee romaine sous le Bas-Empire. Paris: Picard.
  2032.  
  2033. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2034.  
  2035. The standard work on the later history of the Roman army by an acknowledged expert. Based on archaeological, epigraphical, numismatic, and papyrological sources, considers the strengths and weaknesses of the army as reorganized after the crisis of the 3rd century.
  2036.  
  2037. Find this resource:
  2038.  
  2039. Sabin, Philip, Michael Whitby, and Hans van Wees, eds. 2007. The Cambridge history of Greek and Roman warfare. Vol. 2, Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2040.  
  2041. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2042.  
  2043. A major reference work providing thematic analysis of the main aspects of warfare in the Late Republic and Empire. Chapters have titles such as International Relations, War, Battle, Warfare and the State, War and Society. The extensive appendices and bibliography are important sources of information. Few illustrations.
  2044.  
  2045. Find this resource:
  2046.  
  2047. Southern, P. 2007. The Roman army: A social and institutional history. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2048.  
  2049. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2050.  
  2051. A reliable, popular study and the Roman army and its equipment, with a good summary of the main issues.
  2052.  
  2053. Find this resource:
  2054.  
  2055. Technologies of the Mind
  2056. The complexities of economic, social, and cultural life in the cities of the classical world fostered and demanded the development of numerous methods of recording and transferring information, keeping track of time and seasons, and numerical calculation. The degree to which these technologies spread beyond the elite is still the subject of dispute, but by the Roman imperial period literacy and numeracy were most likely more widespread than they would be for another 1,500 years.
  2057.  
  2058. Writing and Book Production
  2059. The Greeks borrowed their alphabet from the Phoenicians and spread this useful tool to the peoples of the western Mediterranean through trade and colonization (Clarysse and Vandorpe 2008; Powell 1990; Yunis 2003). Once literate, the Romans adopted many conventions of Greek literary expression, along with borrowed vocabulary and an interest in written literature (Bouquiaux-Simon, et al. 2004; Johnson and Parker 2009; Winsbury 2009). The spread of literacy was fostered by the endowment of libraries, which were more common in the Roman than the Greek world (Casson 2001). Although few original literary texts survive other than the papyri of Egypt, the numerous Greek and Latin inscriptions provide important primary information about ancient culture, society, and history (Bodel 2001).
  2060.  
  2061. Bodel, John P., ed. 2001. Epigraphic evidence: Ancient history from inscriptions. London: Routledge.
  2062.  
  2063. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2064.  
  2065. A useful introduction to the application of value and limitations of inscriptional evidence to ancient history, cultural diversity, onomastics and prosopography, family and society, civic and religious life, and inscribed objects. Designed for the nonspecialist.
  2066.  
  2067. Find this resource:
  2068.  
  2069. Bouquiaux-Simon, Odette, Marie-Hélène Marganne, Willy Clarysse, Katelijn Vandorpe, and Jean-Christophe Didderen. 2004. Les livres dans le monde gréco-romain. Liège, Belgium: Editions de l’Université de Liège.
  2070.  
  2071. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2072.  
  2073. An authoritative short review of the character and place of books in the Greco-Roman world. Excellent bibliography.
  2074.  
  2075. Find this resource:
  2076.  
  2077. Casson, Lionel. 2001. Libraries in the ancient world. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  2078.  
  2079. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2080.  
  2081. An appealing, well-written account of ancient libraries, focusing on the Greco-Roman period. Considers archaeological evidence for buildings, and textual evidence about their collections and the way that visitors made use of the libraries.
  2082.  
  2083. Find this resource:
  2084.  
  2085. Clarysse, Willy, and Katelijn Vandorpe. 2008. Information technologies: Writing, book production, and the role of literacy. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 715–739. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2086.  
  2087. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2088.  
  2089. An authoritative short review of the materials and technology of book production and circulation in the Greco-Roman world and of the role played by literacy in those societies. Good review of the issues concerning the book roll versus the codex.
  2090.  
  2091. Find this resource:
  2092.  
  2093. Johnson, William A., and Holt N. Parker, eds. 2009. Ancient literacies: The culture of reading in Greece and Rome. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2094.  
  2095. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2096.  
  2097. Thirteen symposium papers about the character and role of literacy in Greek and (mainly) Roman society, including book production and sale and public and private libraries.
  2098.  
  2099. Find this resource:
  2100.  
  2101. Powell, Barry B. 1990. Homer and the origin of the Greek alphabet. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2102.  
  2103. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2104.  
  2105. A careful review of early writing systems, the early Greek alphabet, and sixty-eight of the earliest Greek inscriptions in a somewhat controversial attempt to prove that the Greek alphabet was adopted from a western Semitic alphabet sometime around 800 BC to write down Homer’s poetry.
  2106.  
  2107. Find this resource:
  2108.  
  2109. Winsbury, Rex. 2009. The Roman book: Books, publishing and performance in classical Rome. Classical Literature and Society. London: Duckworth.
  2110.  
  2111. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2112.  
  2113. Tries to construct a new picture of both the practicalities and the sociology of Roman publishing based on the limited written evidence. Asserts that oral presentation of a written work was the first act of publication, sometimes followed by text publication. Well documented but controversial.
  2114.  
  2115. Find this resource:
  2116.  
  2117. Yunis, Harvey, ed. 2003. Written texts and the rise of literate culture in ancient Greece. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2118.  
  2119. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497803Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2120.  
  2121. A collection of conference papers that focus on the practical effects of the written word in Greek society and culture. Good review of the central themes of literacy, orality, writing, and texts.
  2122.  
  2123. Find this resource:
  2124.  
  2125. Timekeeping
  2126. Although the calculation of the proper seasons for agricultural activities or for initiating voyages by sea was a necessity from the Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, respectively, the desire to know the time of day belongs to the busy cultures of the crowded Greek and Roman urban centers (Hannah 2005; Hannah 2008; Lehoux 2007). Sundials were a product of Hellenistic science and became very popular in the Roman world (Gibbs 1976; Schaldach 1998; Schaldach 2006). Sophisticated mechanical devices for calculating astronomical positions or for determining times in various cities around the Mediterranean were products of the same tradition (Freeth, et al. 2006).
  2127.  
  2128. Freeth, T., Y. Bitsakis, X. Moussas, et al. 2006. Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera mechanism. Nature 444:587–591.
  2129.  
  2130. DOI: 10.1038/nature05357Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2131.  
  2132. Surface imaging and high-resolution X-ray tomography of the fragments of this late-2nd-century BC device enabled reconstruction of the complex gear train and the explanatory Greek inscriptions. The complex, ingenious mechanism is one of the few scientific instruments that survives from a highly accomplished Hellenistic school of astronomical research otherwise known only from ancient literary sources. Detailed illustrations. Also see Gadgets and Scientific Instruments.
  2133.  
  2134. Find this resource:
  2135.  
  2136. Gibbs, Sharon L. 1976. Greek and Roman sundials. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
  2137.  
  2138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2139.  
  2140. Accurate and systematic catalogue and explanation of this important method of telling time in the ancient world, based on both written sources and archaeological data. Includes numerous illustrations and an explanation of the theory behind design and construction.
  2141.  
  2142. Find this resource:
  2143.  
  2144. Hannah, Robert. 2005. Greek and Roman calendars: Constructions of time in the classical world. London: Duckworth.
  2145.  
  2146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2147.  
  2148. Analyzes the calendars of the Greeks and Romans from astronomical and social perspectives from the Bronze Age to the Late Roman period. Topics include the principal units of time based on observational astronomy and the afterlife of the Julian calendar in the Christian world.
  2149.  
  2150. Find this resource:
  2151.  
  2152. Hannah, Robert. 2008. Timekeeping. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 740–758. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2153.  
  2154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2155.  
  2156. Authoritative short review of the main issues related to timekeeping in the classical world, including social meaning, mechanisms and procedures, and the function of hours.
  2157.  
  2158. Find this resource:
  2159.  
  2160. Lehoux, Daryn R. 2007. Astronomy, weather, and calendars in the ancient world: Parapegmata and related texts in classical and Near Eastern societies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2161.  
  2162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2163.  
  2164. Assembles and analyzes the ancient texts and archaeological remains relating to these devices for tracking temporal cycles, in some cases inscribed panels marked by a moveable peg but also written almanacs of temporal cycles.
  2165.  
  2166. Find this resource:
  2167.  
  2168. Schaldach, Karlheinz. 1998. Römische sonnenuhren: Eine einführung in die antike gnomonik. Frankfurt: Verlag Harri Deutsch.
  2169.  
  2170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2171.  
  2172. An update and expansion of Gibbs 1976 for the Roman period.
  2173.  
  2174. Find this resource:
  2175.  
  2176. Schaldach, Karlheinz. 2006. Die antiken sonnenuhren griechenlands: Festland und peloponnes. Frankfurt: Verlag Harri Deutsch.
  2177.  
  2178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2179.  
  2180. An update and expansion of Gibbs 1976 for the Greek mainland, including a CD with remarkable photographic documentation.
  2181.  
  2182. Find this resource:
  2183.  
  2184. Weights and Measures
  2185. The proper calculation of weights and measures of length and volume facilitates engineering, trade and a variety of other technologies so it is not surprising that standards of weight and measure appeared by at least the Early Bronze Age. A wide variety of standards was in play in the Greek world (Hitzl 1996; Hultsch 1882; Richardson 2003; Wikander 2008), but the spread of Roman political power brought some measure of standardization (Hecht 1979).
  2186.  
  2187. Hecht, K. 1979. Zum römischen fuss. Abhandlungen der Braunschweigischen Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft 30:1–34.
  2188.  
  2189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2190.  
  2191. Metrological analysis of numerous Roman buildings in Europe to determine the length of the Roman foot. Length varies from building to building but seems consistent within certain limits for each structure. The module is sometimes closer to 29.4 cm than to the traditional value of 29.57 cm.
  2192.  
  2193. Find this resource:
  2194.  
  2195. Hitzl, Konrad. 1996. Die gewichte griechischer zeit aus Olympia: Eine studie zu den vorhellenisticshen gewichtssystem in Griechenland. Olympische Forschungen 25. Berlin: de Gruyter.
  2196.  
  2197. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2198.  
  2199. A milestone in study of Greek weight system, based on pre-Hellenistic bronze weights from Olympia, in the context of written sources and archaeological parallels from elsewhere in Greece.
  2200.  
  2201. Find this resource:
  2202.  
  2203. Hultsch, Friedrich. 1882. Griechische und Römische metrologie. 2d ed. Berlin: Weidmann.
  2204.  
  2205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2206.  
  2207. Exhaustive account of the Greek and Roman modules of length, area, weight, and the weight standards of coinage. There is a long section on the various local weight systems of the Mediterranean world. Still a useful reference.
  2208.  
  2209. Find this resource:
  2210.  
  2211. Richardson, William F. 2003. Numbering and measuring in the classical world. 2d ed. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical.
  2212.  
  2213. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2214.  
  2215. A useful short handbook of numbers and measures in the Greek and Roman cultures, including simple arithmetical operations, calculation of area and volume, weights, and the measurement of capacity, value, and time. Very simplistic in approach but a good introduction to how these cultures counted and measured in daily life.
  2216.  
  2217. Find this resource:
  2218.  
  2219. Wikander, Charlotte. 2008. Technologies of calculation, Part 1: Weights and measures. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 759–769. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2220.  
  2221. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2222.  
  2223. A clear short review of the major issues involved with the study of Greco-Roman weights and measures, with useful charts of various standards and bibliography.
  2224.  
  2225. Find this resource:
  2226.  
  2227. Coinage
  2228. The beginnings of coinage remain obscure, but it is likely that proto-monetary systems involving weighed silver and gold clippings preceded the appearance of coins with standardized shape, weight, and figured types (Harris 2008; Balmuth 2001). By the 6th century BC many Greek city-states began to strike coinage in response to the growing pace of inter-city commerce, but only in a few cases were these issues useful for everyday small expenses (Jones 1993–2007; Meadows 2008; Metcalf 2012). More elaborate systems of coinage appeared in the Hellenistic period and set the stage for the Roman imperial system, which included subdivisions small enough to facilitate day-to-day transactions (Harl 1996).
  2229.  
  2230. Balmuth, Miriam S., ed. 2001. Hacksilber to coinage: New insights into the monetary history of the Near East and Greece. New York: American Numismatic Society.
  2231.  
  2232. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2233.  
  2234. Eight important symposium papers that deal with the use of uncoined silver for monetary purposes in the early Iron Age Greece and Near East. Evidence is derived from archaeological, historical, numismatic, and metallurgical analysis.
  2235.  
  2236. Find this resource:
  2237.  
  2238. Harl, Kenneth. 1996. Coinage in the Roman economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press. 533.
  2239.  
  2240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2241.  
  2242. Discusses how Romans made practical use of money in the later Republic and Empire, not just the history of the issues; concludes that there was extensive use of coinage in small-scale, everyday transactions.
  2243.  
  2244. Find this resource:
  2245.  
  2246. Harris, William V., ed. 2008. The monetary systems of the Greeks and Romans. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2247.  
  2248. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199233359.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2249.  
  2250. Thirteen symposium papers that review a wide variety of topics centering around the survival of noncoinage means of exchange after the introduction of coinage, such as bullion exchange or credit.
  2251.  
  2252. Find this resource:
  2253.  
  2254. Jones, John R. Melville. 1993–2007. Testimonia numaria: Greek and Latin texts concerning ancient Greek coinage. 2 vols. London: Spink.
  2255.  
  2256. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2257.  
  2258. Volume 1: Texts and Translations. Volume 2: Addenda and Commentary. Collects texts concerning the early history and precedents of coinage, the earliest coins, references to mints and rulers, minting, money changing, forgeries, hoards, and denominations. The second volume provides discussion and indices.
  2259.  
  2260. Find this resource:
  2261.  
  2262. Meadows, Andrew R. 2008. Technologies of calculation, Part 2: Coinage. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 769–777. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2263.  
  2264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2265.  
  2266. A strikingly clear and issue-oriented short introduction to Greek and Roman coinage. A very useful, authoritative introductory source.
  2267.  
  2268. Find this resource:
  2269.  
  2270. Metcalf, William E., ed. 2012. The Oxford handbook of Greek and Roman coinage. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2271.  
  2272. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195305746.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2273.  
  2274. Authoritative handbook of all the issues concerning Greek and Roman coinage, from its beginnings through the Early Byzantine period, with numerous illustrations and full bibliographies. Arranged chronologically. A good place to start research.
  2275.  
  2276. Find this resource:
  2277.  
  2278. Applied Mathematics
  2279. Systems for numbering and measuring appear in the Early Bronze Age, but the systems used by the Greeks and Romans were still awkward to use for mathematical functions (Cuomo 2000; 2001; Netz 2002; Taisbak 1965). Nevertheless, both cultures were skilled at measuring on both a large and small scale, accounting for sums of money or other numerical totals, and executing basic mathematical functions (Richardson 2003, cited under Weights and Measures; Tybjerg 2008).
  2280.  
  2281. Cuomo, Serafina. 2000. Pappus of Alexandria and the mathematics of Late Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2282.  
  2283. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2284.  
  2285. Reviews the mathematical thought of Pappus, which is based in large part on earlier theoreticians, providing a rigorous introduction to Greek and Roman mathematics.
  2286.  
  2287. Find this resource:
  2288.  
  2289. Cuomo, Serafina. 2001. Ancient mathematics. London: Routledge.
  2290.  
  2291. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2292.  
  2293. Short, authoritative review of mathematics from the 5th century BC through the 6th century AD. Treats both the theoretical basis of mathematics and topics such as counting and measuring and puts the history of ancient mathematics into its cultural context.
  2294.  
  2295. Find this resource:
  2296.  
  2297. Netz, Revier. 2002. Counter culture: Towards a history of Greek numeracy. History of Science 40:321–351.
  2298.  
  2299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2300.  
  2301. Stimulating discussion of the approach of Greek culture to numerical practices, which involved numerical manipulation with counters, rather than numerical record with written or spoken symbols. This approach had important implications for money, trade, and the political sphere.
  2302.  
  2303. Find this resource:
  2304.  
  2305. Taisbak, Christian M. 1965. Roman numerals and the abacus. Classica et medievalia 26:147–160.
  2306.  
  2307. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2308.  
  2309. A discussion of the Roman method of calculation with the abacus, which is based on positional notation. The need to translate from Roman numerals to the positional system and back again impeded progress in calculation.
  2310.  
  2311. Find this resource:
  2312.  
  2313. Tybjerg, Karin. 2008. Technologies of calculation, Part 3: Practical mathematics. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 777–784. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2314.  
  2315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2316.  
  2317. Authoritative short review of the function of mathematics in daily life in the Greco-Roman period.
  2318.  
  2319. Find this resource:
  2320.  
  2321. Gadgets and Scientific Instruments
  2322. In the course of the 3rd century BC, Greek technical authors and thinkers such as Ktesibios and Philon produced descriptions and drawings of tabletop gadgets for display (Drachmann 1976; Lewis 1997; Lewis 2000). These were in part a spin-off of mechanistic philosophy, but they were also intended to demonstrate innovative mechanisms and power systems (Drachmann 1963; Price 1962; Wikander 2008). A number of precision instruments and gearing techniques grew out of these efforts, of which only a small number of examples survive (Freeth, et al. 2006; Kiechle 1967). In the mid-1st century AD Heron of Alexandria compiled from several sources a miscellany of such devices (Tybjerg 2005).
  2323.  
  2324. Drachmann, Aage G. 1963. The mechanical technology of Greek and Roman antiquity. A study of the literary sources. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.
  2325.  
  2326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2327.  
  2328. Translations and analysis of the major Greek and Roman texts concerned with mechanical technology, especially Heron, Aristotle, Vitruvius, and Oreibasios. Major topics include gears, pulleys, lever, wedge, screw, and winch. A classic synthesis of literary evidence, ancient illustrations, and the Arabic role in the transmission of Greco-Roman texts.
  2329.  
  2330. Find this resource:
  2331.  
  2332. Drachmann, Aage G. 1976. Ktesibios’s waterclock and Heron’s adjustable siphon. Centaurus 20:1–10.
  2333.  
  2334. DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00213.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2335.  
  2336. A clear, careful analysis of the evidence for the design of the klypsedra built by Ktesibios ca. 290 BC, the first mechanical clock. It depended on a constant outflow of water and adjustable scales, but later technicians developed adjustable valves and siphons to compensate for the changing length of the day.
  2337.  
  2338. Find this resource:
  2339.  
  2340. Freeth, T., Y. Bitsakis, X. Moussas, et al. 2006. Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera mechanism. Nature 444:587–591.
  2341.  
  2342. DOI: 10.1038/nature05357Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2343.  
  2344. Surface imaging and high-resolution X-ray tomography of the fragments of this late-2nd-century device enabled reconstruction of the gear function and new details of the inscriptions. The complex, ingenious mechanism predicted lunar and solar eclipses and possibly provided mechanical display of planetary positions. Detailed illustrations. Also see Timekeeping.
  2345.  
  2346. Find this resource:
  2347.  
  2348. Kiechle, Franz. 1967. Zur verwendung der schraube in der antike. Technikgeschichte 34:14–22.
  2349.  
  2350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2351.  
  2352. Presents the literary and archaeological evidence for the use of the screw, bolt, and nut in antiquity. The principle was known from the 3rd century BC, but metal screws and nuts appear only rarely, in small objects. Metalworking techniques did not allow production of large examples. Clear presentation of the data.
  2353.  
  2354. Find this resource:
  2355.  
  2356. Lewis, Michael J. T. 1997. Millstone and hammer: The origins of water power. Hull, UK: Univ. of Hull Press.
  2357.  
  2358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2359.  
  2360. Argues from Greek technical texts and later Arabic translations and illustrations of lost Greek texts that various machines such as the water mill, the crank and connecting rod, and the trip-hammer were invented in the 3rd century BC. Very persuasive arguments that are in part supported by recent archaeological finds.
  2361.  
  2362. Find this resource:
  2363.  
  2364. Lewis, Michael J. T. 2000. Theoretical hydraulics, automata and water clocks. In Handbook of ancient water technology. Edited by Örjan Wikander, 343–369. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  2365.  
  2366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2367.  
  2368. Examines the use of water in Greek and Roman automata, a spin-off from mechanistic philosophy in the 3rd century BC. The mechanisms of automata and water clocks are related and were often integrated as a time-keeping system, and they are a symptom of an interest in fine mechanical systems.
  2369.  
  2370. Find this resource:
  2371.  
  2372. Price, Derek J. de Solla. 1962. Automata and the origins of mechanism and mechanistic philosophy. Technology and Culture 5:9–23.
  2373.  
  2374. DOI: 10.2307/3101119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2375.  
  2376. Brilliant analysis of the relationship between automata and mechanistic philosophy from classical Antiquity to the 17th century AD. The urge for a mechanistic explanation of the universe led to the automata of the Greco-Roman period, especially water clocks and astronomical models. The early tradition survived in Medieval and Renaissance mechanisms.
  2377.  
  2378. Find this resource:
  2379.  
  2380. Tybjerg, Karin. 2005. Hero of Alexandria’s mechanical treatises: Between theory and practice. In Geschichte der mathematik und der naturwissenschaften. Vol. 3, Physik/mechanik. Edited by Astrid Schürmann, 204–226. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  2381.  
  2382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2383.  
  2384. Hero’s compendium is not a document of original research but rather a carefully arranged compendium of material borrowed from earlier written sources. The arrangement of material is interesting in itself.
  2385.  
  2386. Find this resource:
  2387.  
  2388. Wikander, Örjan. 2008. Gadgets and scientific instruments. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 785–799. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2389.  
  2390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2391.  
  2392. Expert short review of the issues and bibliography concerned with complex small mechanisms in the Greek and Roman world—some designed for practical applications and others for display of mechanical innovations or scientific theories.
  2393.  
  2394. Find this resource:
  2395.  
  2396. Inventors, Invention, and Attitudes toward Innovation
  2397. Until the 1960s, historians of technology tended to assume that cultural blocks in Greek and Roman society impeded invention and technological innovation, based in part on the misapprehension that manual labor and craftsmanship were not valued (Burford 1972; Greene 2000) and that there was little technological advancement in the Roman period. Even the great inventor and scientist Archimedes was felt to have been disinterested in technological matters (Geymonat 2010; Gille 1979; Simms 1995). Both archaeological research and reconsideration of ancient written sources have now documented both significant technological innovation in the classical cultures (Greene 2007, Greene 2008) and cultural acceptance of the need for innovation and efficiency (Cuomo 2007; Schürmann 1991).
  2398.  
  2399. Burford, Alison M. 1972. Craftsmen in Greek and Roman society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  2400.  
  2401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2402.  
  2403. Surveys the role of artisans, craftspeople, sculptors, and architects in the economic and social life of the Greek and Roman world, based on literary sources, inscriptions, and ancient visual representations. Clearly written, well-illustrated discussion of the professional and private lives of individuals who worked with their hands. Still useful.
  2404.  
  2405. Find this resource:
  2406.  
  2407. Cuomo, Serafina. 2007. Technology and culture in Greek and Roman antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  2408.  
  2409. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2410.  
  2411. Convincing series of case studies of technological attitudes, involving literary sources, the Hellenistic military revolution, craftspeople and their memorials, boundary disputes and surveying, and architects and their social role. There was no impediment to innovation but constant interest in possible accomplishments and the role of technology.
  2412.  
  2413. Find this resource:
  2414.  
  2415. Geymonat, Mario. 2010. The Great Archimedes. Translated and edited by Riggs A. Smith. Waco, TX: Baylor Univ. Press.
  2416.  
  2417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2418.  
  2419. A popularizing but accurate account of the works and technological accomplishments of Archimedes. An excellent distillation of the enormous body of scholarship on this important figure. Translated from Italian.
  2420.  
  2421. Find this resource:
  2422.  
  2423. Gille, Bertand. 1979. Les mécaniciens grecs: La naissance de la technologie. Paris: Éditions du Seuil.
  2424.  
  2425. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2426.  
  2427. Traces the development of technological thought and innovation from the 6th century BC through the Roman Empire, with emphasis on the role of Hellenistic Greek “mechanicians”—technical authors and thinkers. Describes their motives and remarkable accomplishments and failures but fails to appreciate Roman capabilities.
  2428.  
  2429. Find this resource:
  2430.  
  2431. Greene, Kevin. 2000. Technological innovation and economic progress in the ancient world: M. I. Finley re-considered. Economic History Review 53:29–59.
  2432.  
  2433. DOI: 10.1111/1468-0289.00151Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2434.  
  2435. A long critique of Finley’s long-accepted theory about economic stagnation and technological blockage in the classical world. Finley underestimated the spread of technological innovation and constantly violates his principle of not applying modern concepts to the ancient situation. In form and scale the Roman economy resembled that of northwest Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries and most supposedly medieval innovations were rooted in the ancient world. Also see Historiography and Theoretical Approaches.
  2436.  
  2437. Find this resource:
  2438.  
  2439. Greene, Kevin. 2007. Late Hellenistic and Early Roman invention and innovation: The case of lead-glazed pottery. American Journal of Archaeology 111:653–672.
  2440.  
  2441. DOI: 10.3764/aja.111.4.653Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2442.  
  2443. Excellent review of ancient attitudes toward the processes of innovation. Synchronous developments in Hellenistic and Roman glass and metalwork suggest cognitive synchronization among workers in different materials. The invention, innovation, and diffusion of lead-glazed pottery are examples of the winding roads new inventions take before they become technology in use.
  2444.  
  2445. Find this resource:
  2446.  
  2447. Greene, Kevin. 2008. Inventors, invention, and attitudes toward technology and innovation. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 800–818. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  2448.  
  2449. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2450.  
  2451. A richly textured, well-documented discussion of the role and social appreciation of human ingenuity in the Greek and Roman cultures. Topics include contemporary perceptions of machines, status of work, nature of inventions, and characteristics of known Greek and Roman inventors. Creative analysis of the character and pace of change in ancient technology.
  2452.  
  2453. Find this resource:
  2454.  
  2455. Schürmann, Astrid. 1991. Griechische mechanik und antike gesellschaft: Studien zur staatlichen förderung eine technischen wissenschaft. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  2456.  
  2457. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2458.  
  2459. Asserts that government supported research by Ktesibios, Philon, and Heron led to a set of devices or tools widely used in society. Engineers and their sponsors consciously aimed at alleviating heavy physical labor, satisfying daily needs, and boosting production.
  2460.  
  2461. Find this resource:
  2462.  
  2463. Simms, D. L. 1995. Archimedes the engineer. History of Technology 17:45–111.
  2464.  
  2465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2466.  
  2467. Thorough review of Archimedes’s inventions and his attitude toward technical innovation. Good discussion of the supposed hostility to innovation, along with lists of innovations. There was no general indifference or hostility to innovation in antiquity.
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