Somalia (African Studies)

Introduction
In ancient times, the northern coast was known as Punt (“land of the Gods”) to the ancient Egyptians; as the land of the Barbaroi to the Greeks; as the Regio Cinnamafore (“land of the cinnamon”) to the Romans, who thought the Somali coast produced cinnamon, whereas it might have only served as a commercial hub for spices from the Indian subcontinent; and, finally, to medieval Arabs, as the land of the Berbers, an appellation apparently related to the Barbaroi of the Greeks and present in the early 21st century in the name of the northern port city of Berbera. The rest of what is, in the early 21st century, Somalia—more precisely, the coastal towns of southern Somalia, from Mogadishu to the Kenyan border—was until the last few centuries part of the Swahili coast and civilization—that is, until the Somali arrival in the South. The Somali republic, formed in 1960 from the former British Somaliland (the North) and the former Italian Somalia (the South), is situated in the Somali peninsula. It is the Somali republic, in disarray in the early 21st century, that is popularly known as Somalia. The Somali people, sometimes portrayed as just nomads who roamed the land until their encounter with Europeans, have been active participants in the affairs of the wider region, including the Asian side, as traders, seafarers, Muslim scholars, and immigrants since ancient times. That their country was known as the “land of the cinnamon” in Roman times, when they may have been only reexporting what they had imported from Asia, attests to their commercial savoir faire. Later, as Muslims, after the introduction of Islam, they propagated their faith to areas further south. For example, ʿUthman ibin ʿAli Zaylaʿi, from the city of Zeila, in the North, authored Tabyīn al-ḥaqāʾiq fī sharḥ fi sharḥ Kanz al-daqāʾiq, a well-known six-volume work, used particularly by the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence; one of his students went on to produce further jurisprudence work. Other Somalis wrote, also in Arabic, a number of religious eulogies (manaaqib) in praise of various saints. Thus, Somalis produced Muslim scholars who wrote in Arabic, the liturgical language, just as medieval Europeans wrote in Latin, the language of the church.
General Overviews
Most works on Somalia are anthropological and ethnographic studies; among these, Cerulli 1957–1964 provides a view of the pastoral institutions of mostly southern Somalia. Cassanelli 1982 presents a view of Somali history from the 17th to the 19th century, whereas Hersi 1977 (cited under the Arrival of Islam and the Development of Muslim City-States) is a detailed account of Somali historical interactions with the Arab world and, as such, offers valuable information on Somali history since the introduction of Islam into Somalia. Lewis 2002 gives an overview of Somali history from c. 10th century to modern times. Finally, Nelson 1982 and Metz 1993 are collections of thematic essays related mainly to the situation of Somalia in the 1970s and 1980s, before state collapse.
Cassanelli, Lee V. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900. Ethnohistory. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1982.
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Written by a historian, this text offers a view of Somali history, especially in the South, during the period of Somali expansion there.
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Cerulli, Enrico. Somalia, scritti vari editi ed inediti: A cura dell’Amministrazione fiduciaria italiana della Somalia. 3 vols. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico dello Stato, 1957–1964.
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Cerulli, an Italian scholar, gives valuable information about the pastoral institutions, history, politics, literature, and language of Somalis, particularly those of southern Somalia.
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Lewis, I. M. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. 4th ed. Eastern Africa Studies. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2002.
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Details Somali history from the 10th century to the present, covering colonial history and the dictatorship of Mohamed Siad Barre as well as the international intervention and events since state collapse in 1991.
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Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. Somalia: A Country Study. 4th ed. Area Handbooks. Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1993.
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This study, written by several authors, includes coverage of history, geography, government, and politics. Although some parts are outdated, this is a good starting point for the student. The bibliographical references at the end of each chapter are especially useful.
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Nelson, Harold D., ed. Somalia: A Country Study. 3d ed. Area Handbooks. Washington, DC: American University, 1982.
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This book treats Somalis and Somalia thematically, discussing history, geography, economy, politics, society, and clans. Outdated, but the socioeconomic statistical tables from the 1970s are excellent.
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Bibliographies
Although there is a large published literature on Somali history, society, language, and culture, finding everything in one place is not possible. For works published before 1972, Salad 1977 is the most authoritative source. Clarke 1995 provides references related to the international intervention in Somalia of 1992–1995. Diriye Abdullahi 2002 offers a list of works relating to Somali linguistics up to 2002.
Clarke, Walter S., ed. Humanitarian Intervention in Somalia Bibliography. Carlisle Barracks, PA: US Army War College, 1995.
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This bibliography lists relevant literature on the international intervention in Somalia, which lasted from 1992 to 1995.
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Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed, ed. A Linguistics Bibliography of the Somali Language. 2002.
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Compiled by a linguist, this online bibliography is a good starting point for material on the Somali language, excluding literature.
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Salad, Mohamed Khalief. Somalia: A Bibliographical Survey. African Bibliographic Center. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1977.
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Compiled by a librarian, this survey provides a listing of source materials published up to 1972. The bibliography contains approximately four thousand entries, grouped by subject, such as history, linguistics, and so on.
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Reference Works
There are general reference works, mainly encyclopedias and atlases that relate to the whole of Africa. These are useful starting points for students seeking entries on Somalia. The Somali Studies International Association (SSIA), founded in 1978, has organized several academic conferences since its inception; their presentations have subsequently been published in several volumes, containing varied subjects. One example is Adam and Geshekter 1992. Shillington 2005 includes a number of articles on Somali history, from the Stone Age to the information age. Castagno 1975 provides a list of important names and places in Somali history, with a brief explanation of each item.
Adam, Hussein M., and Charles L. Geshekter, eds. Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Occasional Papers and Proceedings. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.
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Compiled from the proceedings of the Congress of Somali Studies, this work and subsequent compilations of the Congress of Somali Studies contain many articles of interest to students and researchers.
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Castagno, Margaret. Historical Dictionary of Somalia. African Historical Dictionaries 6. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1975.
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Written by a historian, this book gives an alphabetic listing of items connected to Somali history, culture, and institutions.
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Shillington, Kevin, ed. Encyclopedia of African History. 3 vols. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005.
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This encyclopedia includes several articles relating to Somalia; written by a linguist, and ranging through the different epochs of Somali, they offer a general view of Somali history. Topics range from the Stone Age to Somalia after state collapse in 1990; there is a short biographical essay on the late dictator Mohamed Siad Barre.
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Journals
Articles relating to the Somali may be found in academic journals relating to Africa. Journals that deal more specifically with the Somali include Halabuur, a literature-oriented journal; Horn of Africa and Northeast African Studies, two multidiscipline journals; Bildhaan, which is also multidisciplinary but which deals with political issues as well; and Somaliland Journal of Peace and Development, which deals with conflict resolution.
Bildhaan. 2001–.
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This journal mostly carries articles editorializing Somalia’s political problems, past and present. The journal’s editor-in-chief is a Somali professor.
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Halabuur. 1993–.
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Variously spelled Hal Abuur, this is a bilingual (English and Somali) journal devoted to Somali literature and culture.
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Horn of Africa. 1978–.
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This journal publishes articles relating to the Somali in all fields. Its editor is a Somali historian, Dr. Said S. Samatar.
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Northeast African Studies. 1994–.
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A scholarly journal that concerns itself with Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti, Eritrea, and Sudan as well as the Nile valley, the Red Sea, and adjacent areas.
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Somaliland Journal of Peace and Development. 2011–.
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This latest addition to scholarly journals concerning the Somali domain is published by the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies of the University of Hargeisa. The journal deals with peace and state building in the Somali context.
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Primary Sources
Most early primary sources are narrative accounts of travelers; in the case of the Somali, these sources are varied. The coastal areas that fall within Somalia in the early 21st century have been well visited since ancient times, from the time of the Egyptian queen Hatshepsut, who, in 1493 BC, sent an expedition to Punt (“the land of the Gods”), which is thought to fall within the confines of the northern Somali coast. Other travelers and adventures were recorded by the Greek author of the Periplus Maris Erythraie, c. 1st century AD. Arab and Muslim geographers of the Middle Ages, including the famous Arab traveler Ibn Battutah, who visited Zeila in the North and Mogadishu in the South, have also consistently mentioned places on the Somali coast. Narrative accounts culminate with those of European travelers of the 19th century. Freeman-Grenville 1975 lists some early documents; Casson 1989 provides a new translation of the Periplus Maris Erythraie; Sélincourt 2003 contains The Histories of Herodotus. Swayne 1895 and Burton 1987 are both accounts written by 19th-century travelers in Somali. Whiteway 1902 presents Portuguese narratives from the 16th century; Basset 1897–1909 is a translation of an important chronicle from the 16th century.
Basset, M. R., trans. Histoire de la conquête de l’Abyssinie, XVIe siècle, par Chihab Eddin Ahmed ben ʿAbd el Qader. 2 vols. Publications de l’École des lettres d’Alger: Bulletin de correspondance africaine. Paris: Leroux, 1897–1909.
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Written in Arabic by a local Muslim chronicler of the times and translated into French by Basset, this work tells the epic story of the Muslim Somali conquest of Christian Abyssinia in the 16th century, under the leadership of Imam Ahmed Guray (“the left-handed”), also known as Gragne to the Abyssinians.
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Burton, Richard. First Footsteps in East Africa; or, an Exploration Harar. 2 vols. Edited by Isabel Burton. New York: Dover, 1987.
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Burton, thinly disguised as an Arab, arrived, on a Somali sea vessel, in the coastal and ancient town of Zeila in 1854. He made his way to the Muslim city-state of Harar in the interior. He describes the ordinary life of Somalis at the time, along, sometimes, with prejudiced remarks that reveal prevalent European ideas of the time concerning other peoples.
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Casson, Lionel, ed. The Periplus Maris Erythraie. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
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This book, thought to be written in the 1st century AD, provides a glimpse of the Somali coastal areas in the North as well as places further south. Most important, it tells something about the mode of government of the inhabitants of those coastal towns and villages, who are described as being loosely organized and unruly, a description of a cultural trait of the Somali that at times seems quite undiminished even in our own age.
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Freeman-Grenville, G. S. P. The East African Coast: Select Documents from the First to the Earlier Nineteenth Century. 2d ed. London: Collings, 1975.
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This collection includes parts of some of the most important documents from Greek, Arab, Chinese, and Portuguese sources.
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Sélincourt, Aubrey de, trans. Herodotus: The Histories. Rev. ed. Edited by John Marincola. London and New York: Penguin, 2003.
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Authored by the father of history, and often criticized for being more hearsay than an account of history, The Histories, in its section about the Ethiopians, is nevertheless quite useful for conveying information about the mode of life in the Horn of Africa in early times. It must be remembered that in those days, Ethiopia referred to places just south of Egypt, especially what is, in the early 21st century, commonly called the Horn of Africa. With an introduction and notes by John Marincola.
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Swayne, H. G. C. Seventeen Trips through Somaliland: Record of Exploration and Big Game Shooting, 1885 to 1893, Being the Narrative of Several Journeys in the Hinterland of the Somali Coast Protectorate, Dating from the Beginning of Its Administration by Great Britain until the Present Time, with Descriptive Notes on the Wild Fauna of the Country. London: Rowland Ward, 1895.
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Written by a colonel of the British army, this book, which is mostly about the ramblings of the colonel through Somali territory, contains good ethnographic descriptions of the rural Somalis of the interior at the turn of the 19th century.
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Whiteway, R. W., trans. and ed. The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1543, as Narrated by Castanhaso, with Some Contemporary Letters; the Short Account of Bermudez, and Certain Extracts from Corrêa. Works Issued by the Hakluyt Society, 2d ser., 10. London: Hakluyt Society, 1902.
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This account gives the Portuguese version of events, as the Portuguese assisted their coreligionists in war with the Muslim Somalis, and furthers our knowledge of what happened in the 16th century, when Muslim Somalis conquered almost all of Christian Abysinia, under the leadership of Iman Ahmed Gurey.
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Early History
Aside from the narrative accounts of past travelers, there has not been much research into the extent and origins of the Somali civilization and the geographical area of early-21st-century Somalia. Research tells us that before the arrival of Somalis in the South, the southern coastal areas and the adjacent hinterland were inhabited by people of Bantu origin, and before them, by hunter-gatherer societies with affinities with the San of South Africa. In later times, possibly before the 10th century, the Benadir coast, starting approximately at Mogadishu (the capital of Somalia in the early 21st century), and areas further south were part of Swahili civilization, an indigenous African civilization that sprang up along the East African coast after the arrival of Islam in the area, owing to increased trading contacts with the Indian Ocean perimeter kingdoms and sultanates; see also the separate Oxford Bibliographies article Swahili City States of the East African Coast. Although limited in scope, archaeology and linguistics provide some tentative answers to the early history of the geographical area of Somalia. Concerning the early history of the South, Nurse 1992 looks at the legendary Shungwaya kingdom, which is supposed to have existed among the Bantu peoples. Brandt, et al. 1984 treats the prehistoric period in northern Somalia. Chittick 1969 presents an archaeological survey of the southern Somali coast, whereas Mire 2008 discusses rock paintings in the North. Ali 1983 attempts to outline early Somali history, Lewis 1960 is about early Somali migrations, and Diriye Abdullahi 2001 looks at early Somali history in the context of dialect and language. See also Lewis 2002 (cited under the Colonial Era).
Ali, Mohamed Nuuh. “A Linguistic Outline of Early Somali History.” Ufahamu 12.3 (1983): 234–242.
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This article, by a Somali historian, establishes an early outline of Somali history through the classification of dialects, which are yet to be firmly established as discrete unities; thus, the result is largely speculative.
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Brandt, Steven A., George A. Brook, and Thomas H. Gresham. “Quaternary Paleoenvironments and Prehistoric Human Occupation of Northern Somalia.” In Proceedings of the Second International Congress of Somali Studies, University of Hamburg, August 1–6, 1983. Vol. 2, Archaeology and History. Edited by Thomas Labahn, 7–21. Hamburg, West Germany: Buske, 1984.
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This article deals with paleolithic traces in the North as well as traces of rock paints from later periods.
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Chittick, Neville. “An Archeological Reconnaissance of the Southern Somali Coast.” Azania 4.1 (1969): 115–130.
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Chittick, an archaeologist, provides results from a survey of early settlements in the coastal areas of the South. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed. “Le somali, dialectes et histoire.” PhD diss., Université de Montréal, 2001.
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This dissertation reexamines previous dialect classification efforts as well as migration theories about Somalis. In the end, the work agrees with Lewis 1960 that the trend of migration has historically been from north to south, not from south to north, as suggested by some.
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Lewis, I. M. “The Somali Conquest of the Horn of Africa.” Journal of African History 1.2 (1960): 213–230.
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Written by a cultural anthropologist, this article deals with the migration of Somalis over the centuries from the northern coastal areas to the southern areas and onward to what is, in the early 21st century, northern Kenya. Available online by subscription.
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Mire, Sada. “The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site, Somaliland.” African Archaeological Review 25.3–4 (2008): 153–168.
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Written by a Somali archaeologist, this article looks at the cave paintings found at the Dhambalin site.
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Nurse, Derek. “Shungwaya and the Bantu of Somalia: Some Linguistic Evidence.” In Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Edited by Hussein M. Adam and Charles L. Geshekter, 54–61. Occasional Papers and Proceedings. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.
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Nurse is a linguist with much interest in the history of the Swahili. The article examines the question of Bantu presence in southern Somalia.
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The Arrival of Islam and the Development of Muslim City-States
Muslim geographers and travelers provide valuable information on the Somali before the colonial era. Along with the famous Ibn Battuttah of the 14th century, some mentions of the Somali coast, particularly towns such as Zeila and Berbera, occur as far back as the 10th century in these sources. Hersi 1977 refers to these sources, whereas Mukhtar 1987 provides a list of relevant Muslim and Arab sources. Luling 2001 contains a description of a 19th-century sultanate in the South, Cassanelli 1975 surveys history in the South from the 16th to the 19th century in the context of Islam and politics, and Alpers 1992 tentatively sketches a history of 19th-century Mogadishu. See also the Oxford Bibliographies article Swahili City States of the East African Coast.
Alpers, Edward. “Toward a History of Nineteenth Century Mogadishu: A Report of Research in Progress.” In Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Edited by Hussein M. Adam and Charles L. Geshekter, 125–144. Occasional Papers and Proceedings. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.
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Written by a historian, this article covers the history of Mogadishu before the start of Italian colonization.
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Cassanelli, Lee V. “Migrations, Islam, and Politics in the Somali Benaadir, 1500–1843.” In Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Michigan State University, 2–5 May 1973. Edited by Harold G. Marcus, 101–115. Occasional Papers: Committee on Ethiopian Studies, Monograph 3. East Lansing: African Studies Center, Michigan State University, 1975.
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Written by a historian, this article deals with Somali migrations, Islam, and politics in southern Somalia.
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Hersi, Abdirahman Ali. “The Arab Factor in Somali History: The Origins and the Development of Arab Enterprise and Cultural Influences in the Somali Peninsula.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1977.
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This unpublished dissertation is a milestone in Somali studies; the author, a historian, draws on information from Muslim sources as well as local historiography. A good account of Somali history, especially since the arrival of Islam.
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Luling, Virginia. Somali Sultanate: The Geledi City-State over 150 Years. London: Haan, 2001.
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Luling, an anthropologist, examines the Geledi sultanate, in the town of Afgooye, near Mogadishu, which existed up to the start of the Italian colonization of southern Somalia. Themes include clan structure and economic, cultural, and agricultural practices.
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Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji. “Arabic Sources on Somalia.” History in Africa 14 (1987): 141–172.
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Written by a historian, this article lists Muslim and Arab sources relating to the Somali. Available online by subscription.
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The Colonial Era
Somali territory was divided into five areas of influence, or colonization, during the scramble for Africa. The northern part mostly went to Britain; Italy occupied the southern and eastern areas; France took the northernmost area along with some Afar territory that is, in the early 21st century, the Republic of Djibouti; Britain took the southernmost part, which would become part of Kenya; and, finally, the western as well as some northern areas were occupied by resurgent Abyssinia (later known as Ethiopia). Thus, the Somalis were divided into five territories under different colonial governments; in the early 21st century, this division of Somali territory is symbolized by the five-pointed star in the Somali flag, each point representing one Somali territory. With division emerged a sentiment of dismemberment in the Somali nationalist psyche, although Somalis seem to have abandoned nationalist sentiments for factionalism based on clan and region. Hess 1966 sketches Italian colonial history in South Somalia; Jardine 1969 describes the disturbances led by Mohamed Abdullah Hassan, the so-called Mad Mullah, after the establishment of colonial regimes in Somali territories. Sheik-ʿAbdi 1993 and McNeil 1902 discuss Mohamed Abdullah Hassan, his war and times. Lewis 2002 provides a discussion of history from the 10th century to the present.
Hess, Robert L. Italian Colonialism in Somalia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966.
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This book details the history of Italian colonialism in southern Somalia, from its beginnings to its end.
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Jardine, Douglas. The Mad Mullah of Somaliland. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969.
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Written by a British colonial administrator, this work is about the disturbances caused by Mohamed Abdulla Hassan, who waged a twenty-one-year rebellion in British Somaliland as well as in areas under Italian control, fighting not only the colonial authorities, but also Somali clans and communities that were allegedly unsympathetic to his cause or that had refused his dictatorial tendencies. Originally published in 1923.
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Lewis, I. M. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. 4th ed. Eastern African Studies. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2002.
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Covers Somali history from the 10th to the early 21st century. Discusses colonial history and the dictatorship of Mohamed Siad Barre as well as the international intervention and events since the 1991 state collapse.
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McNeill, Malcolm. In Pursuit of the “Mad Mullah”: Service and Sport in the Somali Protectorate. London: Pearson, 1902.
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Written by a British officer, this work details some of the campaigns against the Mad Mullah.
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Sheik-ʿAbdi, ʿAbdi. Divine Madness: Mohammed ʿAbdulle Hassan, 1856–1920. London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed, 1993.
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Sheik-ʿAbdi, a Somali, devotes this study to Mohamed Abdullah Hassan, the Mad Mullah.
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Somali Nationalism and the Rise of the Somali Republic
Somali nationalism embodies the idea of Somalis’ right to a nation-state, one based on what Somalis have in common: language, religion, and ethnicity. At times a unifying factor and at times a cause of friction with Somalia’s neighbors, because of the incorporation of Somali territories into their countries, Somali nationalism is still a force, although it seems to have dwindled in the early 21st century, owing to factionalism based on clans. When Somali nationalism means the return of all Somali territories to the motherland, it has been called pan-Somalism or Somali irredentism, depending on one’s perspective or interest, and was the cause of a major and disastrous war with Ethiopia in 1977. Touval 1963 provides a discussion of Somali nationalism and its history, Ahmed 1995 focuses on ethnic and nationalist aspects, Drysdale 1964 explains the roots of Somali nationalism and its territorial claims, and Lytton 1966 deals with the loss of Somali territory to Kenya and the Somali sentiments of the time. See also Lewis 2002 (cited under the Colonial Era).
Ahmed, Ali Jimale, ed. The Invention of Somalia. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1995.
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Somalia has often been touted as monolithic in culture and origin, a true nation-state on a continent in which each country contains myriad ethnic groups; however, the essays in this collection present a picture of diversity in the culture and composition of Somalia.
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Drysdale, J. G. The Somali Dispute. New York: Praeger, 1964.
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Written by a career civil servant whose service spans the colonial era to independent Somalia, this is a reference work on Somalia’s borders and Somali territorial claims, in terms of history as well as treaties.
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Lytton, Noel Anthony Scawen [Earl of Lytton]. The Stolen Desert: A Study of Uhuru North East Africa. London: Macdonald, 1966.
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This work explores the enduring problem of division of Somali territories among the different states of the Horn. It comes across as racializing the problem, especially concerning Kenya, as it gives the impression that ethnic differences between Somalis and the Bantu ethnic groups of Kenya would be a source of future conflict in Kenya.
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Touval, Saadia. Somali Nationalism: International Politics and the Drive for Unity in the Horn of Africa. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
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Examines the question of Somali nationalism, its raison d’être and its effects, regionally and internationally.
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Postcolonial History
The postcolonial history of Somalia can be divided into three categories: (1) the civilian years, from 1960 to 1969; (2) the twenty-one-year dictatorship of Mohamed Siad Barre, which exploited superpower rivalry for the sake of its survival, and its wars first with Ethiopia and then its internal opposition; and (3) the state collapse of 1991, after the fall of the dictatorship. Lewis 2002 gives a good view of the modern history of Somalia; Ghalib 1995, an autobiographical essay, provides information on the secretive personality of Siad Barre and the inner workings of his regime. Africa Watch 1990 presents a picture of the brutalities of the dictatorship, detailing the havoc the regime unleashed in the North. Laitin and Samatar 1987 offers an account of the clan politics behind the facade of nation and state in Somalia during the Barre dictatorship. Makinda 1987 is a history of superpower involvement in Somalia and the Horn of Africa. Lefebvre 1991 is also an account of superpower rivalry and the arms transfers to both Somalia and Ethiopia during the Cold War.
Africa Watch. Somalia: A Government at War with Its Own People: Testimonies about the Killings and the Conflict in the North. New York: Africa Watch, 1990.
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This work provides extensive coverage of the depredations of the Barre regime, with an emphasis on the massive massacres committed in the North in 1988, when whole cities were razed, and most of the population was forced to flee toward Ethiopia.
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Ghalib, Jama Mohamed. The Cost of Dictatorship: The Somali Experience. New York: Barber, 1995.
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Ghalib was a career police officer and minister in Barre’s government, until sidelined. This largely autobiographical book provides information on both the character of the dictator Siad Barre and the workings of his secretive regime.
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Laitin, David D., and Said S. Samatar. Somalia: Nation in Search of a State. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1987.
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This text, as the title indicates, deals with the problem of nation and state among Somalis; other topics include the late-20th-century history of Somalia, especially during the Barre era.
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Lefebvre, Jeffrey A. Arms for the Horn: U.S. Security Policy in Ethiopia and Somalia, 1953–1991. Pitt Policy and Institutional Studies. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991.
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This work examines superpower rivalry and the massive amount of military aid given to Somalia and Ethiopia, with disastrous consequences in terms of buttressing undemocratic regimes and arms proliferation in the region.
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Lewis, I. M. A Modern History of the Somali: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa. 4th ed. Eastern Africa Studies. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2002.
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Written by a cultural anthropologist, this text offers a survey of Somali history, particularly the history of the Somali people since colonial times, independence, the Barre regime, war with Ethiopia, and later years of state collapse and international intervention. Also discusses the role of clans in Somali institutions and affairs.
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Makinda, Samuel M. Superpower Diplomacy in the Horn of Africa. New York: St. Martin’s, 1987.
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Looks at superpower rivalry in the Horn and its effects on Somalia and other countries in the region.
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State Collapse and Its Consequences
When the Somali state collapsed in 1991, with the overthrow of the dictator Mohamed Siad Barre, the major consequences were twofold: (1) the immediate and unilateral cessation of Somaliland, which had combined with the South (formerly Italian Somalia) in 1960 to form the Somali republic; and (2) enduring conflict and chaos in southern Somalia. From the latter development arose warlordism and piracy in the initial period, and in the later period Islamic fundamentalism. In addition, southern Somalia would see three major military interventions. The first one, ostensibly motivated by the famine of 1992–1993, was led by the United States, although it was later transformed into a UN mandate. The second intervention was that of Ethiopia in 2006, with active but discreet support from the United States. The third is the ongoing African Union mission in Somalia (AMISOM). Adam 1992 discusses the rise of warlordism; Menkhaus 2004 covers the rise of terrorism. Diriye Abdullahi 1995 is about the failed international intervention of 1992–1995; Carroll and Rajagopal 1993 studies the legality of Somaliland’s secession, whereas Adam 1994 takes up the issue of Somaliland as a new state. Bahadur 2011 is a witness account of piracy in Somalia. Elmi 2010 looks at the root causes of the Somali conflict and its consequences. Schofield 2008 examines the other piracy, that is, the plunder of Somali marine resources by fishing fleets from Europe and Asia.
Adam, Hussein M. “Somalia: Militarism, Warlordism or Democracy?” Review of African Political Economy 19.54 (1992): 11–26.
DOI: 10.1080/03056249208703950Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Written by a Somali professor of political science and the founder of the Somali Studies International Association (SSIA), which has organized several international conferences, this article discusses the reasons for both the state collapse and rise of warlordism in Somalia. Available online by subscription.
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Adam, Hussein M. “Formation and Recognition of New States: Somaliland in Contrast to Eritrea.” Review of African Political Economy 21.59 (1994): 21–38.
DOI: 10.1080/03056249408704034Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Compares the claims of statehood of Somaliland after state collapse in Somalia. Available online by subscription.
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Bahadur, Jay. The Pirates of Somalia: Hidden inside Their World. New York: Pantheon, 2011.
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More a travelogue than a study of piracy among Somalis, this book offers some insights into the operating modes of Somali pirates and their effects on the local people.
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Carroll, Anthony J., and B. Rajagopal. “The Case for the Independent Statehood of Somaliland.” American University Journal of International Law and Politics 8.2–3 (1993): 653–681.
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This article covers the legal aspects of Somaliland’s stance as a state separate from Somalia.
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Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed. Fiasco in Somalia: US-UN Intervention. Occasional Papers of the Africa Institute 61. Pretoria, South Africa: Africa Institute of South Africa, 1995.
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Details what went wrong in the international intervention of 1992–1995.
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Elmi, Afyare Abdi. Understanding the Somalia Conflagration: Identity, Political Islam and Peacebuilding. Oxford: Pambazuka, 2010.
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Elmi is a Somali who specializes in international affairs. This work examines the causes of conflict and the rise of militant Islam in Somalia as well as international responses to the conflict and its consequences, regionally and internationally.
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Menkhaus, Ken. Somalia: State Collapse and the Threat of Terrorism. Adelphi Paper 364. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Written by a political scientist, this book studies the aftermath of state collapse in Somalia, such as the lack of security and threat of terrorism.
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Schofield, Clive. “Plundered Waters: Somalia’s Maritime Resource Insecurity.” In Crucible for Survival: Environmental Security and Justice in the Indian Ocean Region. Edited by Timothy Doyle and Melissa Risely, 102–115. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008.
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Schofield, a marine resources specialist, looks at piracy other than that of Somalis ongoing in Somali waters, such as the depletion of Somali marine resources through illegal fishing by European and Asian fleets.
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Economy
Traditionally, the Somali economy has been based on livestock breeding and farming. Of these two sectors, livestock rearing is the dominant activity, owing to the country’s being largely arid, or semidesert. Additionally, because Somalia’s economy is mostly informal, it has always been difficult to gauge its true state. After state collapse, economic activity, freed from all state restraint, instead of declining, picked up in an astonishing way, with the diaspora’s remittances becoming the new engine driving the Somali economy. Jamal 1988 discusses how the Somali economy has been undervalued by formal methods, Lindley 2010 deals with the role of remittances from the Somali diaspora, Mubarak 1996 examines the economic policies of the dictatorship, and de Waal 1993 briefly looks at Somalia’s economy during the Barre regime and after. Besteman and Cassanelli 2003 explores the conflict over resources after state collapse, whereas Little 2003 studies Somalia’s new, unbridled economy.
Besteman, Catherine, and Lee V. Cassanelli, eds. The Struggle for Land in Southern Somalia: The War behind the War. Rev. ed. London: Haan, 2003.
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This edited work explores the rivalry for land ownership and tenure after state collapse in the riverine southern areas more suited to farming than the central and northern areas.
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de Waal, Alex. “The Shadow Economy (Somalia’s Economic Difficulties).” Africa Report 38.2 (1993): 24–28.
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Written by an activist on African affairs, this article summarizes the state of the Somali economy in the 1980s and the years immediately after state collapse.
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Jamal, Vali. “Somalia: Understanding an Unconventional Economy.” Development and Change 19.2 (1988): 203–265.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7660.1988.tb00301.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Written by an economist, this article looks at Somalia’s economy in the 1980s and suggests that it has been underestimated by formal economic methods.
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Lindley, Anna. The Early Morning Phone Call: Somali Refugees’ Remittances. Studies in Forced Migration 28. New York: Berghahn, 2010.
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Lindley, a development specialist, tells about the role of remittances from the Somali diaspora in the Somali economy and their benefits to struggling Somali families at a time when remittances have come under increasing scrutiny in the so-called war on terror.
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Little, Peter D. Somalia: Economy without State. African Issues. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003.
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Deals with how the Somali economy has adapted to the lack of a functioning state since 1991.
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Mubarak, Jamil Abdalla. From Bad Policy to Chaos in Somalia: How an Economy Fell Apart. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996.
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Written by a Somali economist, this book looks at the economic policies of Somalia since the 1970s as well as the state of the economy a few years after state collapse.
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Society
The core ancient culture of Somali society has been described as pastoralist. However, that does not mean that Somalis did not exercise livelihoods other than herding livestock; Somalis were also active mariners, merchants, and agriculturists whenever the environment permitted such. Lewis, the most prolific ethnographer, in several works (Lewis 1998, Lewis 1999) provides a good general overview of both Somali pastoral institutions and early history. Diriye Abdullahi 2001 offers essays on the history, culture, and customs of the Somali people. Lewis 1994 looks at clan structures and their relation to the politics of dictatorship. Lewis 2008 is an account of modern history, politics, and society, with an emphasis on post-independence. Loughran, et al. 1986 remains the best source on the material culture of Somalis.
Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed. Culture and Customs of Somalia. Culture and Customs of Africa. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
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Written by a linguist, this work treats Somali history, culture, customs, institutions, including handcrafts and artisanship, architecture and nomad housing, camel culture, cuisine, rites of passage, religion, literature, and music.
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Lewis, Ioan M. Blood and Bone: The Call of Kinship in Somali Society. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1994.
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This text examines the structure of Somali society from the clan perspective; it provides insights into the web of clan structures in Somali society and clan politics based on such structures, especially during the regime of Mohamed Siad Barre, and the subsequent destruction of the modern Somali state, which was largely the result of clan politics.
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Lewis, I. M. The Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. Lawrenceville, NJ: Red Sea Press, 1998.
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Originally published in 1955. Lewis discusses the society, culture, and history of the Somalis and related groups.
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Lewis, I. M. A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. IAI Classics in African Anthropology. Oxford: James Currey, 1999.
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Originally published in 1961. Here, the anthropologist Lewis deals with the pastoral culture and institutions of the Somali, particularly in the North.
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Lewis, Ioan. Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
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Still another work by the prolific Lewis; provides an understanding of the culture and history of the Somali people, in so far as they relate to the state of the Somali in the early 21st century. Lewis focuses on nomadism and its influence on Somali politics and institutions. He also covers the secession, unrecognized in the early 21st century, of Somaliland from Somalia in 1991. In addition, addresses the rise of the Islamist movement in Somalia.
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Loughran, Katheryne S., John Loughran, John Johnson, and Said S. Samatar, eds. Somalia in Word and Image. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986.
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This collaborative work provides a good overview of Somali material culture and, with it, some glimpses of Somali history in places such as the Benadir, where Somali and Swahili culture overlap.
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Religion
By all accounts, Islam arrived among Somalis early in its history because of the proximity to Arabia. In return, Somalis contributed to Islamic jurisprudence and were not just passive receivers of influence. For example, ʿUthman ibin ʿAli Zaylaʾi, a Somali from the coastal town of Zeila, authored one of the most referenced books in the Hanafi school of Islam, Tabyīn al-ḥaqāʾiq fi sharḥ Kanz al-daqāʾiq. Moreover, his students extended his legacy when they also wrote jurisprudence, or law, books (Hersi 1977, cited under the Arrival of Islam and the Development of Muslim City-States). These works were all written in Arabic, which Somalis would use for centuries as the language of literacy and religion, just as medieval Europeans used Latin. Somali Islam has always been Sufi Islam (mystical, philosophical, peaceful, and worldly in its outlook) and even left intact some older forms of spirituality, such as spirit possession, commonly called zar, or saar. Lewis 1955 provides a discussion of Sufi Islam among Somalis. Lewis 1969 deals with spirit possession in traditional Somali society.
Lewis, I. M. “Sufism in Somaliland: A Study in Tribal Islam.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 17.3 (1955): 581–602.
DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00112479Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article provides a view of Islam as it existed over the centuries among Somalis, that is, in coexistence with the remnants of more ancient and ancestral beliefs. However, in the early 21st century, the tendency in religious views is more puritanical, in large part because of the spread of Wahabism, a conservative movement emanating from Saudi Arabia, as well as homegrown fundamentalists. Yet, it is hard to say whether Sufi Islam is disappearing among Somalis or whether it is in a process of reinventing itself. Available online for purchase or by subscription. Article continues in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 18.1 (1956): 146–160.
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Lewis, I. M. “Spirit Possession in Northern Somaliland.” In Spirit Mediumship and Society in Africa. Edited by John Beattie and John Middleton, 188–219. London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1969.
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Lewis deals with the ancestral practice of spirit possession, zar (variously spelled saar), as it exists among Somalis. In the early 21st century, this ancestral practice is a dying one, mainly because of the spread of Islamic puritanism; again, it is difficult to say whether such practices will disappear altogether, although there is a concerted effort among Somalis to efface all ancestral practices deemed non-Islamic, or even satanic, by fundamentalists.
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Somali Literature
Despite lacking a unified script for their language and choosing, since the arrival of Islam, to write in Arabic, Somalis have cultivated their native language in such a way as to develop poetry that rivals that of any other language, including those with centuries of written literature—so much so, in fact, that the Somalis have been called a nation of bards. In addition to literature, material culture, whether referring to everyday objects or architecture, has unique characteristics as part of Somali culture. Music and drama are also important components of the culture. Andrzejewski and Galaal 1963 details a poetry contest among three well-known Somali poets. Andrzejewski and Lewis 1964 provides an introduction to Somali poetry, whereas Laurence 1993 is an introduction to both Somali poetry and folktales. Mumin 1974 is the only published Somali drama available in English. Aden 1989 discusses the poetry of Somali women.
Aden, Amina H. “Somalia: Women and Words.” Ufahamu 10.3 (1989): 115–142.
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Aden, a historian, deals with Somali poetry among Somali women.
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Andrzejewski, B. W., and Muusa H. I. Galaal. “A Somali Poetic Combat.” Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 2.1 (1963): 15–28.
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Written by two linguists of the Somali language, this work contains poetic combat, or exchanges, between three of the greatest Somali poets: Ali Duuh, Qamaan Bulhan, and Salaan Arrabey. Poetic contests have always existed among Somalis; however, few survive in written form. Article continues in Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 2.2: 93–100 and Journal of African Languages and Linguistics 2.3: 190–205.
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Andrzejewski, B. W., and I. M. Lewis, eds. Somali Poetry: An Introduction. Oxford Library of American Literature. Oxford: Clarendon, 1964.
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This collaborative work between a Somali linguist and the prolific anthropologist and historian of Somalis is a useful early introduction to Somali poetry and its genres.
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Laurence, Margaret, ed. A Tree for Poverty: Somali Poetry and Prose. Toronto: McMaster University Library Press, 1993.
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Originally published in 1953 in Nairobi, Kenya. Laurence, a Canadian who later became an established novelist, provides an introduction to Somali poetry and prose.
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Mumin, Hassan Sheikh. Leopard among the Women: Shabeelnaagood, a Somali Play. Translated by B. W. Andrzejewski. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.
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This work is a translation of a Somali drama by a famous playwright. It is the only Somali play that has been translated into English among the hundreds of plays produced by Somali playwrights, mainly from the 1950s to the 1970s, a most productive period for Somali drama.
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Somali Language
Despite various attempts, no unified or popularly known script for Somali existed for centuries. All that changed in 1972, when the dictatorial regime of Mohamed Siad Barre decided on the Latin script for Somali, overcoming the resistance of those who favored the Arabic script. In the early 21st century, the Somali language is well studied, and there are numerous volumes on learning it; some are more suited for students of linguistics, whereas others are for the general public. There are also numerous bilingual dictionaries. Somali grammar is discussed in Saeed 1999, Bell 1953, and Diriye Abdullahi 1996. Orwin 1995 presents a primer for learning Somali. Zorc and Osman 1993 and Abraham 1968 are some of the existing bilingual dictionaries with Somali and English entries.
Abraham, R. C. Somali-English Dictionary. London: University of London Press, 1968.
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This dictionary, although written before the adoption of a script for the Somali language, is still valuable for learning the meaning of Somali words.
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Bell, C. R. V.. The Somali Language. London and New York: Longmans, Green, 1953.
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Bell was the colonial director of education in British Somaliland. He provides a good description of the Somali language even though he was writing before the adoption of the official Somali script.
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Diriye Abdullahi, Mohamed. Parlons somali. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1996.
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Diriye Abdullahi, a linguist, has geared this book toward speakers of French who want to learn the Somali language; however, the emphasis is more on grammar than a stock of sentences, typical of handbooks for learning a foreign language. The book also contains sections on Somali history, geography, and culture and customs and includes an audiocassette.
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Orwin, Martin. Colloquial Somali: A Complete Language Course. Colloquial Series. London and New York: Routledge, 1995.
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A book for anyone trying to learn Somali. Includes two audiocassettes.
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Saeed, John I. Somali. London Oriental and African Language Library 10. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, 1999.
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Written by a linguist, this work is best suited for linguists and students of linguistics; it offers a description of the grammar of the Somali language.
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Zorc, R. David, and Madina M. Osman. Somali-English Dictionary with English Index. 3d ed. Kensington, MD: Dunwoody, 1993.
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This dictionary has a large number of entries but is not always accurate when it comes to the definitions of Somali words.
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Somali Diaspora
In ancient times, Somalis used to travel to, visit, and trade with coastal towns in Arabia, India, and even the distant Indonesia. In the 19th century, Somali seamen settled in places such as Cardiff, London, and Marseilles. However, in the 1970s came the appearance of large Somali diaspora communities, first in the oil states of Arabia and later, after the collapse of the Somali state in 1991, in Europe and North America. In the early 21st century, there are large Somali diaspora communities in the United States (especially in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Columbus, Ohio), in Toronto, and in London. Smaller communities exist elsewhere, such as the Scandinavian countries, the Netherlands, and South Africa as well as in the oil states of Arabia. These diaspora communities have a visible presence in the Somali country through remittances to families as well as investments in places where there is peace. Another characteristic of the Somali diaspora is the appearance of diaspora writers in either the Somali language or the language of the host country, particularly English. Sheikh and Healy 2009 provides a study of the Somali diaspora communities, their history and role; Kusow and Bjork 2007 likewise offers insight into the Somali diaspora communities; and Hammond 2010 and Horst 2008 examine their remittances. Hammond 2012 looks at a Somali diaspora community and its role in the political affairs of the native country. Menkhaus 2008 explores the different roles of the Somali diaspora.
Hammond, Laura. “Obliged to Give: Remittances and the Maintenance of Transnational Networks between Somalis ‘at Home’ and Abroad.” Bildhaan 10 (2010): 125–151.
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This study of remittances and the Somali diaspora describes Somalia as a “nation kept alive by remittances.”
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Hammond, Laura. “The Absent but Active Constituency: The Role of the Somaliland UK Community in Election Politics.” In Politics from Afar: Transnational Diasporas and Networks. Edited by Terrence Lyons and Peter Mandaville, 157–180. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
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In this work, Hammond focuses on a particular Somali diaspora community and its role in the politics of Somaliland.
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Horst, Cindy. “The Transnational Political Engagements of Refugees: Remittance Sending Practices amongst Somalis in Norway.” Conflict, Security and Development 8.3 (2008): 317–339.
DOI: 10.1080/14678800802323340Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article examines how the Somali diaspora community has an impact on the situation in its country of origin through financial as well as political involvements. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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Kusow, Abdi M., and Stephanie R. Bjork, eds. From Mogadishu to Dixon: The Somali Diaspora in a Global Context. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press, 2007.
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The essays in this text provide a survey of the Somali diaspora, its roles and geographical diversity.
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Menkhaus, K. E. “The Role and Impact of the Somali Diaspora in Peace-Building, Governance and Development.” In Africa’s Finances: The Contribution of Remittances. Edited by Raj Bardouille, Muna Ndulo, and Margaret Grieco, 187–202. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholars, 2008.
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In this study, Menkhaus looks at the different roles the Somali diaspora plays in the Somali territories.
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Sheikh, Hassan, and Sally Healy. Somalia’s Missing Million: The Somali Diaspora and Its Role in Development. Somalia: United Nations Development Programme Somalia, 2009.
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This report examines the migrations, characteristics, political engagements, and trends in the activities of the Somali diaspora communities as well as their contributions to the Somali territories.
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