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The Caribbean (Atlantic History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Caribbean includes the arc of islands in the Caribbean Sea but also the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana) on the mainland of South America and Belize in Central America. The region has been dominated by outsiders. Christopher Columbus arrived in 1492, and he and his successors effectively destroyed the Amerindian population. In addition to the Spanish, there have been English, French, Dutch, and American colonies in the region. For the colonizers, sugar and slavery were crucial to the Caribbean. Outside of Brazil, the Caribbean imported more African slaves than anywhere else in the Americas. This has had lasting effects, as the culture of the Caribbean has been largely dominated by the presence of Africans and their descendants. This helps to explain the large number of revolts against slavery in the Caribbean, including the one successful slave revolt in the Americas, in Haiti. Slave resistance was also significant in the abolition of slavery. In the aftermath of emancipation, the Caribbean witnessed the introduction of new people into the society, largely dominated by indentured laborers from India. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ideas of race consciousness were prominent in the region. However, the major developments in the region in the last century were the coming of independence for many of the former colonies and the Cuban Revolution. For a relatively small region, the Caribbean’s historical impact has therefore been immense.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The best general treatment of the Caribbean is Knight 1990. Heuman 2006 provides a useful brief history of the region. Richardson 1992 deals primarily with the geography and environment of the Caribbean. The large collection of essays in Beckles and Shepherd 1991 and Beckles and Shepherd 1993 cover both the slave and the post-emancipation periods. There are also relevant essays on slavery in the Caribbean in Heuman and Walvin 2003; on gender in Shepherd, et al. 1995; and on the aftermath of emancipation in Moore and Wilmot 1998.
  8.  
  9. Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd, eds. Caribbean Slave Society and Economy: A Student Reader. New York: New Press, 1991.
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  11. Wide-ranging collection of essays on slavery in the Caribbean.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Beckles, Hilary, and Verene Shepherd, eds. Caribbean Freedom: Economy and Society to the Present. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 1993.
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  15. Very useful collection of essays on the aftermath of emancipation, including coverage of important developments in the 20th century.
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  17. Heuman, Gad. The Caribbean. London: Hodder Arnold, 2006.
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  19. A useful brief history of the region.
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  21. Heuman, Gad, and James Walvin. The Slavery Reader. London: Routledge: 2003.
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  23. Includes significant essays on slavery in the Caribbean.
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  25. Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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  27. The best general textbook on the Caribbean. Especially good on the 20th-century Caribbean.
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  29. Moore, Brian, and Swithin Wilmot. Before and After 1865: Education, Politics, and Regionalism in the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 1998.
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  31. Has helpful essays on the aftermath of emancipation, with coverage of developments in the 20th century, including the West Indian Federation and Caribbean Integration.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Richardson, Bonham. The Caribbean in the Wider World, 1492–1992: A Regional Geography. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  35. A helpful survey of Caribbean history, focusing on the environment, the economy, and migration.
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  37. Shepherd, Verene, Bridget Brereton, and Barbara Bailey, eds. Engendering History: Caribbean Women in Historical Perspective. New York: St. Martin’s, 1995.
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  39. Contains important essays on women during slavery and after emancipation in the Caribbean.
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  41. Bibliographies and Reference Resources
  42.  
  43. There are several helpful bibliographies on the Caribbean. Comitas 1977 is a very useful guide for material published between 1900 and 1975. The annual bibliographic survey on slavery in the journal Slavery and Abolition (Thurston 2009) contains significant material on the Caribbean. Mitchell 2009 covers English-language publications from 1492. The Digital Library of the Caribbean is an important and growing resource of online materials across the Caribbean. The John Carter Brown Library has a very useful online checklist of its holdings on Saint-Domingue and the Haitian Revolution.
  44.  
  45. Comitas, Lambros. The Complete Caribbeana, 1900–1975: A Bibliographic Guide to the Scholarly Literature. 4 vols. Millwood, NY: KTO, 1977.
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  47. Particularly good on anthropological literature but limited to publications up to 1975.
  48. Find this resource:
  49. Digital Library of the Caribbean.
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  51. A particularly good resource for digital material on Cuba and Haiti as well as other parts of the Caribbean.
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  53. John Carter Brown Library. A Checklist of John Carter Brown Library Holdings Relating to Saint-Domingue and the Haitian Revolution, 1735 to 1834.
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  55. A very useful listing of the significant collection on Saint-Domingue and the Haitian Revolution in the John Carter Brown Library, housed at Brown University.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Mitchell, Don. Mitchell’s West Indian Bibliography: From 1492 to the Present. 2009.
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  59. A private online bibliography of English-language books on the history and culture of the Caribbean, now in its tenth edition.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Thurston, Thomas. “Slavery: Annual Bibliographical Supplement.” Slavery and Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies 30.4 (2009): 579–659.
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  63. Annual bibliography on slavery, including significant material on the Caribbean. It is published in the December issue each year.
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  65. Journals
  66.  
  67. There are several specialist journals that deal with the Caribbean. The New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids is the oldest, having been published since 1919. The Journal of Caribbean History is based at the University of the West Indies. Caribbean Studies is published by the University of Puerto Rico and has reappeared after a long absence. Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism is an interdisciplinary journal. Other journals that have a wider remit nonetheless devote some attention to the Caribbean. These include Slavery and Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies, the William and Mary Quarterly, and Atlantic Studies.
  68.  
  69. Atlantic Studies.
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  71. Published twice a year in England, this interdisciplinary journal publishes occasional material on the Caribbean.
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  73. Caribbean Studies.
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  75. An interdisciplinary journal published at the University of Puerto Rico. Primarily focused on the Hispanic Caribbean.
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  77. Journal of Caribbean History.
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  79. Published twice a year by the Department of History at the University of the West Indies, this journal focuses mostly on the history of the Anglophone Caribbean.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids.
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  83. This interdisciplinary journal is published in the Netherlands by the Royal Institute of Linguistics and Anthropology. Particularly good on its coverage of publications across the Caribbean.
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  85. Slavery and Abolition: A Journal Slave and Post-Slave Studies.
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  87. A journal devoted to studies of slavery, abolition, and emancipation, with useful Caribbean coverage.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism.
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  91. Publishes historical as well as literary essays; particularly good on contemporary cultural issues.
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  93. William and Mary Quarterly.
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  95. Although the leading journal on early American history, it also has important articles on the Caribbean.
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  97. Amerindians and Europeans
  98.  
  99. The Amerindians of the Caribbean, the Tainos and the Caribs, have been the subject of considerable debate. Rouse 1992 provides the best account of the Tainos, while Hulme 1986 provides an important critique of European views of the Caribs as cannibals. Boucher 1992 adds considerably to our knowledge of the relationship between the European colonizers and the indigenous people of the Caribbean. Watts 1987 reviews this debate and also treats European patterns of settlement. Andrews 1984 provides a useful study of British maritime activities in the early history of the Caribbean. As Beckles 1989 points out, French and British settlers in the region brought with them the system of indentured servitude. Dunn 1972 paints a broader picture of the 17th-century Caribbean, while Menard 2006 revises our view of the beginnings of the sugar revolution in the region.
  100.  
  101. Andrews, Kenneth R. Trade, Plunder, and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480–1630. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
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  103. Provides important material on British seafaring activities in the Spanish Caribbean, with useful material on trade and patterns of settlement.
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  105. Beckles, Hilary M. White Servitude and Black Slavery in Barbados, 1627–1715. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989.
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  107. Provides the best study of white indentured servitude in the 17th-century Caribbean, and discusses instances of combined white and black resistance.
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  109. Boucher, Philip P. Cannibal Encounters: Europeans and Island Caribs, 1492–1763. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
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  111. An important overview of Carib-European relations in the three centuries after Christopher Columbus.
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  113. Dunn, Richard S. Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624–1713. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1972.
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  115. Though an older text, Dunn is still the most useful overview for the 17th-century Anglophone Caribbean. Good for the study of the enslaved as well as of planters in this period.
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  117. Hulme, Peter. Colonial Encounters: Europe and the Native Caribbean, 1492–1797. London: Methuen, 1986.
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  119. Revises the view of the Caribs as cannibals and provides an important analysis of European contact with the Amerindians of the Caribbean.
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  121. Menard, Russell. Sweet Negotiations: Sugar, Slavery, and Plantation Agriculture in Early Barbados. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2006.
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  123. Provides a useful corrective to the standard interpretation of the beginnings of the “sugar revolution” in the 17th-century Caribbean.
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  125. Rouse, Irving. The Tainos: Rise and Decline of the People Who Greeted Columbus. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
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  127. The most useful account of the Tainos of the Caribbean. Makes use of significant archaeological research.
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  129. Watts, David. The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture, and Environmental Change since 1492. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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  131. Discusses European patterns of settlement and is particularly useful on the debate about Caribs and cannibalism.
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  133. Sugar and Slavery
  134.  
  135. The development of African slavery in the Caribbean was closely linked to the rise of sugar in the region. Yet the growth of sugar plantations occurred at different times across the Caribbean. Higman 2005 argues that planters’ agents were generally skilled in running the plantations, contrary to much of the previous historiography. Burnard 2004, an account of the planter Thomas Thistlewood, adds considerably to our knowledge of Jamaican slave society as a whole. Knight 1970 is significant for the author’s discussion of Cuba, while Mintz 1985 provides an important overview of the history of sugar. Brown 2008 deals with the constant problem of death for slaves as well as whites in Jamaican plantation society. The essays in Knight 1997 provide a very good treatment of the demography, economy, and social structure of slavery in the Caribbean. Berlin and Morgan 1991 provides an important discussion of the slaves’ economy. McDonald 1993 is a valuable study of the slave economy that focuses on Jamaica, with good comparative material on Louisiana.
  136.  
  137. Berlin, Ira, and Philip D. Morgan, eds. The Slaves’ Economy: Independent Production by Slaves in the Americas. London: Frank Cass, 1991.
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  139. Several essays in this collection discuss the slaves’ own economy in the Anglophone and Francophone Caribbean in addition to the United States.
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  141. Brown, Vincent. The Reaper’s Garden: Death and Power in the World of Atlantic Slavery. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
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  143. A highly innovative study of the ever-present reality of early death in Jamaica. Deals with the enslaved as well as whites.
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  145. Burnard, Trevor G. Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire: Thomas Thistlewood and His Slaves in the Anglo-Jamaican World. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
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  147. A significant study based on the diaries of a Jamaican planter who was noted for his abuse of his slaves. Helps provide an understanding of Jamaican planter society.
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  149. Higman, B. W. Plantation Jamaica, 1750–1850: Capital and Control in a Colonial Economy. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2005.
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  151. An important corrective to the view that the agents of absentee planters, attorneys, were responsible for the decline of the plantations in Jamaica.
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  153. Knight, Franklin W. Slave Society in Cuba during the Nineteenth Century. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970.
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  155. Despite its age, this is still a useful study of slavery in Cuba. Argues that slavery in Cuba was little different from slavery in other parts of the Caribbean, despite the presence of the Catholic Church.
  156. Find this resource:
  157. Knight, Franklin W., ed. General History of the Caribbean. Vol. 3, The Slave Societies of the Caribbean. London: UNESCO/Palgrave Macmillan, 1997.
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  159. Discusses slavery in the Caribbean. Particularly good coverage on demography, social structure, and economy of slavery across the region.
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  161. McDonald, Roderick A. The Economy and Material Culture of Slaves: Goods and Chattels on the Sugar Plantations of Jamaica and Louisiana. Baton Rouge: Louisiana University Press, 1993.
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  163. Provides a carefully researched and very useful study of the slave economy in Jamaica. Has good comparative material on Louisiana.
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  165. Mintz, Sidney W. Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York: Viking, 1985.
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  167. Provides a significant overview of the history and development of sugar.
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  169. Slave Resistance
  170.  
  171. Slaves resisted slavery in a variety of ways. Among the most prominent forms of resistance were running away and rebellions. The best overview of slave resistance in the Anglophone Caribbean remains Craton 1982. Running away includes petit marronage, referring to enslaved people who ran away for a relatively short time, and grand marronage, referring to those who sought to run away permanently. Heuman 1986 deals primarily with petit marronage but also has essays on the Maroons and grand marronage. Two studies of the Maroons are particularly outstanding: Bilby 2005 on the Jamaican Maroons and Price 1990 on the Surinamese Maroons. Slave rebellions and conspiracies were a frequent occurrence in the Caribbean. Gaspar 1985 deals with a major conspiracy in early 18th-century Antigua, while Childs 2006 discusses the Aponte Rebellion in Cuba, a rebellion closely linked to the Haitian Revolution. The 19th-century rebellions in the Anglophone Caribbean are dealt with by da Costa 1997 and Turner 1982.
  172.  
  173. Bilby, Kenneth M. True-Born Maroons. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2005.
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  175. Uses oral narratives as well as historical evidence. This is the most insightful study of the Jamaican Maroons.
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  177. Childs, Matt D. The 1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
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  179. Discusses the Aponte conspiracy in Cuba and explores the links between this conspiracy and the slave rebellion in Haiti.
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  181. Craton, Michael. Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982.
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  183. Although somewhat dated, this is still the best overview of slave resistance in the Anglophone Caribbean.
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  185. da Costa, Emilia Viotti. Crowns of Glory, Tears of Blood: The Demerara Slave Rebellion of 1823. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Explores in detail the Demerara rebellion of 1823. Particularly good on slave leadership of the rebellion.
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  189. Gaspar, David Barry. Bondmen and Rebels: A Study of Master-Slave Relations in Antigua. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985.
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  191. Discusses the Antiguan slave conspiracy of 1736. An early example of combined African and Creole (locally born) participation in a rebellion in the Caribbean.
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  193. Heuman, Gad, ed. Out of the House of Bondage: Runaways, Resistance, and Marronage in Africa and the New World. London: Frank Cass, 1986.
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  195. Contains useful essays on running away in the Caribbean as well as a section on Maroons. Includes a comparison between Jamaican and Surinamese Maroons.
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  197. Price, Richard. Alabi’s World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.
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  199. An innovative and important study of the Surinamese Maroons, exploring their encounters with planters, officials, and missionaries.
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  201. Turner, Mary. Slaves and Missionaries: The Disintegration of Jamaican Slave Society, 1787–1834. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982.
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  203. Deals with the 1831 slave rebellion in Jamaica led by Sam Sharpe. Points out the significance of this rebellion for the abolition of slavery.
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  205. The Haitian Revolution
  206.  
  207. The Haitian Revolution was the one successful slave revolt in the Americas. It also led to the independence of Haiti. Dubois 2004a provides the best overall account of the revolution, while Geggus 1991 is the best short treatment of it. Fick 1990 is good on the early years of the revolution, and Garrigus 2010 documents the growth of the free colored population in the colony. There has been considerable debate about the reasons why the slave armies were able to defeat the French, and Thornton 1991 provides an important explanation in exploring the African military background of the enslaved. The Haitian Revolution had an enormous impact across the Caribbean and the Americas; this is discussed in Dubois 2004b for the French Caribbean, in Geggus 2001 for the Atlantic world, and in Gaspar and Geggus 1997 for the wider Caribbean.
  208.  
  209. Dubois, Laurent. Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2004a.
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  211. The best general account of the Haitian Revolution.
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  213. Dubois, Laurent. A Colony of Citizens: Revolution and Slave Emancipation in the French Caribbean, 1787–1804. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004b.
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  215. Explores the impact of the Haitian Revolution on the French Caribbean. Gives prominence to the role of Victor Hugues.
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  217. Fick, Carolyn E. The Making of Haiti: The Saint Domingue Revolution from Below. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990.
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  219. An important account of the early years of the revolution, emphasizing the role of the enslaved.
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  221. Garrigus, John D. Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
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  223. Concentrates on the role of the free people of color in the colony before the revolution. Discusses their increasing economic and social importance.
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  225. Gaspar, David Barry, and David Patrick Geggus. A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. A useful collection of essays exploring the impact of the French and Haitian revolutions in the wider Caribbean.
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  229. Geggus, David Patrick. “The Haitian Revolution.” In Caribbean Slave Society and Economy: A Student Reader. Edited by Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd, 402–418. New York: New Press, 1991.
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  231. Provides the best brief treatment of the Haitian Revolution.
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  233. Geggus, David Patrick, ed. The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2001.
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  235. An important collection of essays that discuss the impact of the Haitian Revolution. Includes discussion of the revolution’s impact on slave resistance elsewhere in the Americas and on the refugees who fled the colony.
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  237. Thornton, John K. “African Soldiers in the Haitian Revolution.” Journal of Caribbean History 25.1–2 (1991): 58–80.
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  239. Provides an important corrective to the view that yellow fever was the principal cause of the slaves’ military victories over the French. Looks instead at the African military background of the enslaved.
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  241. Economics and Abolition
  242.  
  243. The debate about the causes of the abolition of the slave trade and of slavery, especially in the British Empire, remains unabated. Williams 1944 sought to overturn the prevailing view that British humanitarianism explained the abolition of the slave trade. In turn, that work was critiqued, first by Anstey 1968 and then more seriously by Drescher 1977. Unlike Eric Williams, Seymour Drescher showed that the West Indian economies were expanding rather than declining at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. The essays in Solow and Engerman 1987 seek to address the debate about abolition, while Blackburn 1988 provides an important overview of abolition. Brown 2006 focuses on the significance of the American Revolution as well as on changing attitudes to empire in Britain itself, and Ryden 2009 comes to the partial defense of the Williams thesis.
  244.  
  245. Anstey, Roger. “Capitalism and Slavery: A Critique.” Economic History Review, 2d ser., 21.2 (1968): 307–320.
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  247. Provides an early critique of Eric Williams’s thesis (see Williams 1944).
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  249. Blackburn, Robin. The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848. London: Verso, 1988.
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  251. A magisterial comparative overview of abolition for the British, French, and Spanish empires. Stresses the importance of slave agency as well as industrialization in the process of abolition.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Brown, Christopher Leslie. Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Provides a nuanced explanation of British abolition, supporting neither Williams 1944 nor arguments ascribing abolition solely to the role of the abolitionists.
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  257. Drescher, Seymour. Econocide: British Slavery in the Era of Abolition. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1977.
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  259. Argues convincingly against Williams 1944, especially on the grounds of the strength of the West Indian plantation economies.
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  261. Ryden, David Beck. West Indian Slavery and British Abolition, 1783–1807. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  263. Explores the problem of the overproduction of sugar in the West Indian colonies, and thereby supports in part Williams 1944.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Solow, Barbara L., and Stanley L. Engerman. British Capitalism and Caribbean Slavery: The Legacy of Eric Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
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  267. A wide-ranging group of essays that includes supporters as well as critics of Williams 1944.
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  269. Williams, Eric. Capitalism and Slavery. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1944.
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  271. The classic study that sought to explain the abolition of the slave trade and slavery by focusing on the economic plight of the West Indian colonies at the end of the 18th century.
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  273. Women, Slavery, and Emancipation
  274.  
  275. The last two decades have seen a considerable expansion in the study of women during slavery and after emancipation. Bush 1990 provides a useful overview of women during slavery, while Shepherd, et al. 1995 contains important essays on women in slavery and freedom throughout the Caribbean. Although Gaspar and Hine 1996 contains essays on the Americas as a whole, there are several chapters on women during slavery in the wider Caribbean, including Moitt 1996, a useful essay on women’s resistance in the French Caribbean. As Paton 1996 suggests, the harsh treatment of enslaved women was an important element in the debate about emancipation; this is extended in Paton 2004, covering slavery and emancipation. Brereton 1999 focuses on the decision of many freedwomen to leave plantation work after emancipation, while Wilmot 1995 highlights women’s political protests in Jamaica after emancipation.
  276.  
  277. Brereton, Bridget. “Family Strategies, Gender, and the Shift to Wage Labour in the British Caribbean.” In The Colonial Caribbean in Transition: Essays on Postemancipation Social and Cultural History. Edited by Bridget Brereton and Kevin A. Yelvington, 77–107. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1999.
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  279. An important article on women choosing to leave plantation work when possible and to participate instead in the informal economy.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Bush, Barbara. Slave Women in Caribbean Society, 1650–1838. Kingston, Jamaica: Heinemann, 1990.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Provides a very useful overview of women during slavery in the British Caribbean.
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  285. Gaspar, David Barry, and Darlene Clark Hine. More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Contains significant essays on slave women’s resistance across the Caribbean.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Moitt, Bernard. “Slave Women and Resistance in the French Caribbean.” In More Than Chattel: Black Women and Slavery in the Americas. Edited by David Barry Gaspar and Darlene Clark Hine, 239–258. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Provides important evidence of the widespread nature of women’s resistance in the French Caribbean.
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  293. Paton, Diana. “Decency, Dependence, and the Lash: Gender and the British Debate over Slave Emancipation, 1830–1834.” Slavery and Abolition 17.3 (1996): 163–184.
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  295. Focuses on women’s punishments, especially flogging, and their impact on the debate on the abolition of slavery.
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  297. Paton, Diana. No Bond but the Law: Punishment, Race, and Gender in Jamaican State Formation, 1780–1870. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Extends the argument about women and punishment during slavery and after emancipation.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Shepherd, Verene, Bridget Brereton, and Barbara Bailey, eds. Engendering History: Caribbean Women in Historical Perspective. New York: St. Martin’s, 1995.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Contains important essays on women in slavery and in the post-emancipation period across the Caribbean.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Wilmot, Swithin. “‘Females of Abandoned Character’? Women and Protest in Jamaica, 1838–65.” In Engendering History: Caribbean Women in Historical Perspective. Edited by Verene Shepherd, Bridget Brereton, and Barbara Bailey, 279–295. New York: St. Martin’s, 1995.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Focuses on women’s resistance in strikes and riots in post-emancipation Jamaica.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Free People of Color
  310.  
  311. Free people of color have occupied a crucial position in Caribbean slave and post-emancipation societies. One of the earliest anthologies on this group was Cohen and Green 1972. Handler 1974 provides one of the most detailed studies of the free people of color in a Caribbean slave society. Other scholars have emphasized the ways in which the free coloreds differentiated themselves from the views and attitudes of the whites (Heuman 1981, Cox 1984, and Newton 2008). Sio 1987 points out the personal and institutional connections between the worlds of the free and the enslaved. Garrigus 2010 highlights the wealth and prominence of the free coloreds in prerevolutionary Saint-Domingue. Gaspar and Hine 2004 adds considerably to our knowledge of free women of color.
  312.  
  313. Cohen, David W., and Jack P. Greene, eds. Neither Slave nor Free: The Freedmen of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Although an older text, a very useful collection on the free people of color, including essays on a wide range of Caribbean societies.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Cox, Edward L. Free Coloreds in the Slave Societies of St. Kitts and Grenada, 1763–1833. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A very useful comparative study of free coloreds in two Caribbean societies.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Garrigus, John D. Before Haiti: Race and Citizenship in French Saint-Domingue. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Concentrates on the role of the free people of color in Saint-Domingue before the revolution. Discusses their increasing economic and social importance.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Gaspar, David Barry, and Darlene Clark Hine, eds. Beyond Bondage: Free Women of Color in the Americas. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Although dealing with free women of color across the Americas, devotes considerable attention to this group in the Caribbean.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Handler, Jerome S. The Unappropriated People: Freedmen in the Slave Society of Barbados. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A detailed and careful study of the free people of color in Barbadian slave society.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Heuman, Gad J. Between Black and White: Race, Politics, and the Free Coloreds in Jamaica, 1792–1865. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Discusses the Jamaican free people of color during slavery and also after emancipation.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Newton, Melanie J. The Children of Africa in the Colonies: Free People of Color in Barbados in the Age of Emancipation. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2008.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Provides an important treatment of Barbadian free people of color during slavery and after emancipation.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Sio, Arnold A. “Marginality and Free Coloured Identity in Caribbean Slave Society.” Slavery and Abolition 8.2 (1987): 166–182.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Demonstrates the connections between the world of the free coloreds and the world of the enslaved.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Creolization
  346.  
  347. The study of Creole societies and creolization has involved not only historians but also linguists, anthropologists, and sociologists. One of the most influential studies of Creole societies is Brathwaite 1971. Edward Brathwaite believed that the blending of European and African cultures helped to form a unique Creole culture in Jamaica. Mintz and Price 1976 followed suit, stating that the random nature of African arrivals as a result of the Middle Passage meant that a Creole culture had to be created in the Caribbean. Burton 1997 discusses the melding of African and European cultures, focusing on various forms of Afro-Christianity across the Caribbean. Other works have emphasized the importance of the African background of the enslaved in the Caribbean. These have included Alleyne 1988, by a linguist, and Lovejoy and Trotman 2002, by two historians. Northrup 2000 makes it clear that one needs to be careful about notions of cultural continuity between Africa and the Americas. Bolland 2010 argues for understanding creolization as a dialectical process, while the essays in Shepherd and Richards 2002 provide arguments spanning various strands of the debate on creolization.
  348.  
  349. Alleyne, Mervyn C. Roots of Jamaican Culture. London: Pluto, 1988.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Stresses the linguistic continuities between Africa and the Caribbean as well as the African contribution to Jamaican culture.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Bolland, O. Nigel. “Creolization and Creole Societies.” In The Creolization Reader: Studies in Mixed Identities and Cultures. Edited by Robin Cohen and Paola Toninato, 106–122. London: Routledge, 2010.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Maintains that creolization was a dialectical process and that power relations in Caribbean slave societies and post-slave societies need to be taken into account.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Brathwaite, Edward. The Development of Creole Society in Jamaica, 1770–1820. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A classic study of the development of Creole society in Jamaica. Argues for the importance of Creole culture emerging from a combination of European and African cultures.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Burton, Richard D. E. Afro-Creole: Power, Opposition, and Play in the Caribbean. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Focuses on the interaction of African and European cultures, especially in the development of Afro-Christianity.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Lovejoy, Paul, and David Trotman. “Enslaved Africans and Their Expectations of Slave Life in the Americas: Towards a Reconsideration of Models of ‘Creolisation.’” In Questioning Creole: Creolisation Discourses in Caribbean Culture. Edited by Verene A. Shepherd and Glen L. Richards, 67–91. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2002.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Emphasizes the significance of the African background of the enslaved as well as the expectations of Africans about slavery in the New World.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Mintz, Sidney W., and Richard Price. An Anthropological Approach to the Afro-American Past: A Caribbean Perspective. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues, 1976.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. An important early text arguing that the random nature of African arrivals as a result of the Middle Passage made it impossible to re-create African cultures in the Caribbean. Republished as The Birth of African-American Culture: An Anthropological Perspective (Boston: Beacon, 1992).
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Northrup, David. “Igbo and Myth Igbo: Culture and Ethnicity in the Atlantic World; 1600–1850.” Slavery and Abolition 21.3 (2000): 1–20.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Argues that Europeans understated African cultural diversity and cautions against simplistic notions of cultural continuity from Africa to the New World.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Shepherd, Verene A., and Glen L. Richards,. eds. Questioning Creole: Creolisation Discourses in Caribbean Culture. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2002.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A useful collection presenting different sides of the argument about creolization in the Caribbean.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Post-Emancipation Societies
  382.  
  383. Emancipation was a complex process. Marshall 1993 ably discusses blacks’ expectations of emancipation for the Anglophone Caribbean, while Bolland 1981 argues that power remained in the hands of the planter class despite the ending of slavery. Heuman 1994 describes the resistance of freed people to the terms of emancipation in exploring the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica. Sheller 2000 looks at the nature of politics and protest in a comparison of Jamaica and Haiti. Moore 1987 discusses post-emancipation society in British Guiana, including the impact of Indian indentured laborers. Holt 1992 provides an overview of the transition from slave to free labor in Jamaica in the century after emancipation, while Scott 1985 and Helg 1995 are important studies of the transition from slave to free labor in Cuba.
  384.  
  385. Bolland, O. Nigel. “Systems of Domination after Slavery: The Control of Land and Labour in the British West Indies after 1838.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 23.4 (1981): 591–619.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Argues that emancipation did not fundamentally change the nature of power in Caribbean slave and post-emancipation societies.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Helg, Aline. Our Rightful Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886–1912. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Deals with the position of freed blacks after emancipation in Cuba, including the 1912 massacre.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Heuman, Gad. “The Killing Time”: The Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1994.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Provides an in-depth examination of the outbreak, causes, and consequences of the Morant Bay Rebellion in Jamaica.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Holt, Thomas C. The Problem of Freedom: Race, Labor, and Politics in Jamaica and Britain, 1832–1938. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Deals with the century after emancipation in Jamaica and the changing relationship between Britain and Jamaica during that period.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Marshall, Woodville. “‘We be wise to many more tings’: Blacks’ Hopes and Expectations of Emancipation.” In Caribbean Freedom: Economy and Society to the Present. Edited by Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd, 64–79. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 1993.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Usefully examines the expectations of freed blacks in the Anglophone Caribbean at the moment of full freedom.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Moore, Brian L. Race, Power, and Social Segmentation in Colonial Society: Guyana after Slavery, 1838–1891. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1987.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Examines post-emancipation British Guiana, looking at the significance of race. Deals with the contribution of Indian indentured laborers in this period.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Scott, Rebecca J. Slave Emancipation in Cuba: The Transition to Free Labor, 1860–1899. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Provides the best study of the transition from slave to free labor in Cuba. Particularly good on the patronato (apprenticeship) system.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Sheller, Mimi. Democracy after Slavery: Black Publics and Peasant Radicalism in Haiti and Jamaica. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2000.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. A particularly useful comparison of post-emancipation politics and protest in Jamaica and Haiti.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Rastafarians and Race Consciousness
  418.  
  419. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the emergence of a distinct form of race consciousness in the Caribbean. Brereton 1993 documents this development for Trinidad, while Smith 2002 focuses on the work of the Trinidadian pan-Africanist John Jacob Thomas. Bryan 1991 discusses some of the same developments in Jamaica. Moore and Johnson 2004 explores black folk beliefs in Jamaica, and Burton 1997 extends this discussion to include voodoo (vodun) in Haiti and Rastafarianism in Jamaica. The most useful introduction to the Rastafarians is Barrett 1977, but Chevannes 1994 provides the most detailed study of this group. The essays in Lewis and Bryan 1988 focus on Marcus Garvey’s impact on the Caribbean.
  420.  
  421. Barrett, Leonard E. The Rastafarians: The Dreadlocks of Jamaica. Kingston, Jamaica: Sangster’s Book Stores, 1977.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Provides the most useful general introduction to the Rastafarians.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Brereton, Bridget. “The Development of an Identity: The Black Middle Class of Trinidad in the Later Nineteenth Century.” In Caribbean Freedom: Economy and Society to the Present. Edited by Hilary Beckles and Verene Shepherd, 274–283, Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 1993.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Discusses the development of a politicized and race conscious black middle class in Trinidad at the end of the 19th century.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Bryan, Patrick. The Jamaican People, 1880–1902. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1991.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Deals with politics and society at the end of the 19th century. Also focuses on the black intelligentsia in this period.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Burton, Richard D. E. Afro-Creole: Power, Opposition, and Play in the Caribbean. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. A wide-ranging study from slavery to the late 20th century, focusing on the development of Afro-Christianity, voodoo (vodun) in Haiti, and Rastafarianism in Jamaica.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Chevannes, Barry. Rastafari: Roots and Ideology. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1994.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Provides the best detailed study of the Rastafarians.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Lewis, Rupert, and Patrick Bryan, eds. Garvey: His Work and Impact. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 1988.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Contains essays on the background to Marcus Garvey and Garveyism as well as Garvey’s impact on Jamaica and Cuba.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Moore, Brian L., and Michele A. Johnson. Neither Led nor Driven: Contesting British Cultural Imperialism in Jamaica, 1865–1920. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies Press, 2004.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Deals with the ways in which Jamaican blacks opposed the imposition of British cultural values, especially in the area of folk beliefs and folk religions.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Smith, Faith. Creole Recitations: John Jacob Thomas and Colonial Formation in the Late Nineteenth-Century Caribbean. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2002.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Focuses on the life and work of the Trinidadian pan-Africanist John Jacob Thomas and on the intellectual world of the late-19th-century Caribbean.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Labor Protest and Caribbean Revolutions
  454.  
  455. The 1930s witnessed the outbreak of serious labor protests in the Anglophone Caribbean. Bolland 2001 provides the most detailed account of these protests, while Knight 2004 is a useful overview of the decade. The protests led to fundamental constitutional and political changes, ultimately resulting in independence in most of the English-speaking Caribbean. Jamaica and Grenada each subsequently flirted with socialism: Payne 1988 discusses Michael Manley’s government in Jamaica in the 1970s, and Heine 1990 deals with Morris Bishop and the Grenada Revolution of 1979–1983. The most significant development in the Caribbean in the last half of the 20th century was the Cuban Revolution. Pérez-Stable 1993 and Kapcia 2000 provide good overviews of the revolution, and Pérez-Stable 2004 discusses the revolution’s impact on the Caribbean. Meeks 1993 is a useful comparative study of Grenada and Cuba.
  456.  
  457. Bolland, O. Nigel. The Politics of Labour in the British Caribbean: The Social Origins of Authoritarianism and Democracy in the Labour Movement. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle, 2001.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. The most detailed and the best account of the labor protests of the 1930s. Carefully researched and comprehensive.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Heine, Jorge, ed. A Revolution Aborted: The Lessons of Grenada. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A collection of very useful essays on the background and development of the Grenada Revolution.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Kapcia, Antoni. Cuba, Island of Dreams. Oxford: Berg, 2000.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Provides considerable insight into the Cuban Revolution. Particularly good on the crisis in Cuba after the collapse of the Soviet Union.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Knight, Franklin W. “The Caribbean in the 1930s.” In General History of the Caribbean. Vol. 5, The Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. Edited by Bridget Brereton, 42–81. London: UNESCO/Macmillan, 2004.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A good overview of developments across the Caribbean in the 1930s.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Meeks, Brian. Caribbean Revolutions and Revolutionary Theory: An Assessment of Cuba, Nicaragua, and Grenada. London: Macmillan Caribbean, 1993.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Puts the Caribbean revolutions in comparative perspective. Especially good on the Grenada Revolution.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Payne, Anthony J. Politics in Jamaica. London: C. Hurst, 1988.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Provides a very useful treatment of postindependence Jamaica. Good on the “Rodney Riots” of 1968 as well as Jamaica’s links with Cuba in the 1970s.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Pérez-Stable, Marifeli. The Cuban Revolution: Origins, Course, and Legacy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Examines the origins and development of the Cuban Revolution until the early 1990s.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Pérez-Stable, Marifeli. “The Cuban Revolution and Its Impact on the Caribbean.” In General History of the Caribbean. Vol. 5, The Caribbean in the Twentieth Century. Edited by Bridget Brereton, 282–311. London: UNESCO/Macmillan, 2004.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Treats the impact of the Cuban Revolution on the wider Caribbean.
  488. Find this resource:
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