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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Almohads (al-muwahhidun) were the followers of the Masmuda Berber Ibn Tumart (d. 524/1130) who claimed to be the Mahdi (the rightly guided one) and started a political and religious movement against the Almoravids (Sanhaja Berbers). The Almoravids were accused of being anthropomorphists and of promoting blindless adherence to Maliki doctrine (taqlid). The Almohad Empire stretched from Tripoli (Libya) to the Atlantic, including al-Andalus (Muslim Spain and Portugal), under the rule of Ibn Tumart’s disciple ʿAbd al-Muʾmin (Zanata Berber) (r. 524/1130–558/1163), who proclaimed himself caliph adopting an Arab genealogy. ʿAbd al-Muʾmin transformed the Berber tribal army, incorporating the Arab tribes (Sulaym, Hilal) defeated at Sétif in 548/1153 during the expansion toward Ifriqiya (Tunisia). He also started the formation of new religious and political elites known as talaba. Abu Yaʿqub Yusuf (r. 558–580/1163–1184) and Abu Yusuf Yaʿqub (r. 580–595/1184–1199) had to face the Almoravid Banu Ghaniya and Ayyubid intervention in North Africa, and a number of internal opponents, while in the Iberian Peninsula they fought both against local independent rulers and the Christians. In the first half of the 7th/13th century, the Muʾminid dynasty was weakened by internal splits, by the loss of major Andalusi towns to the Christians, and by autonomous rule in Tunisia under the Hafsids (descendants of one of Ibn Tumart’s companions). The Marinids (Zanata) entered Marrakesh in 668/1269, putting an end to the Almohad caliphate, while the ʿAbd al-Wadids took control in Algeria. Until recently, studies on the Almohads were scarce and many aspects still largely unexplored, in spite of the pioneering work of I. Goldziher, F. Codera, É. Lévi-Provençal, R. Brunschvig, A. Huici Miranda and D. Urvoy. Since the 1990s there has been a growing interest on Almohad political history and state formation (Y. Benhima, A. Fromherz, M. Ghouirgate, P. Guichard, J.-P. Molénat, M. J. Viguera), doctrine (M. Brett, M. Fletcher, T. Nagel), numismatics (R. Benhsain-Mesmoudi, S. Fontenla, P. Guichard, S. Peña, M. Vega), epigraphy and art (P. Cressier, M. A. Martínez Núñez), intellectual and religious developments (A. Akasoy, M. Aouad, H. Ferhat, M. Fierro, M. Forcada, M. Geoffroy, M. Marín, D. Serrano, S. Stroumsa), internal organization (A. al-ʽAzzawi, H. El Allaoui, M. Benouis, P. Buresi, E. Fricaud), and other issues, such as the origins of the movement in southern Morocco (J.-P. van Staevel and A. Fili). There are still many areas in need of study, such as the Almohad impact on both the Islamic Eastern lands and Christendom. Most of the available scholarship has been published in Arabic, French, and Spanish, with important contributions in German. It is only recently that there is a growing body of studies in English.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. General histories of North Africa include appropriate sections on the Almohads, but the same cannot be said regarding general histories of the Islamic world, where the information provided is scarce and often outdated. This is a problem that more generally affects the treatment of the Islamic West, still scarcely integrated in general discussions concerning the history of Islamic societies.
  8.  
  9. General Histories of the Islamic West
  10.  
  11. General histories of North Africa and al-Andalus include sections on the Almohads offering a basic chronological outline and links with the preceding and subsequent periods. Those listed in this section are useful surveys mostly of a descriptive nature, with Julien 1970 and Laroui 1976 aiming at proposing a postcolonial approach.
  12.  
  13. Abun-Nasr, Jamil. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
  14. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511608100Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. One of the standard manuals for a first approach to North African history.
  16. Abun-Nasr, Jamil. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
  17. Find this resource:
  18. Julien, Charles-André. History of North Africa from the Arab Conquest to 1830. Edited and revised by Roger Le Tourneau, translated by John Petrie, re-edited by C. C. Stewart. New York: Praeger, 1970.
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  20. Originally published in French in 1931, with later revisions, its author was an activist anticolonialist French scholar.
  21. Julien, Charles-André. History of North Africa from the Arab Conquest to 1830. Edited and revised by Roger Le Tourneau, translated by John Petrie, re-edited by C. C. Stewart. New York: Praeger, 1970.
  22. Find this resource:
  23. Laroui, Abdallah. L’histoire du Maghreb, un essai de synthèse. Paris: Maspero, 1976.
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  25. There are several reprints and translations in other languages of this highly influential postcolonial history.
  26. Laroui, Abdallah. L’histoire du Maghreb, un essai de synthèse. Paris: Maspero, 1976.
  27. Find this resource:
  28. Naylor, Philip C. North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
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  30. A recent historical overview that reflects modern American academic interest in the region.
  31. Naylor, Philip C. North Africa: A History from Antiquity to the Present. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Chapters on the Almohads
  34.  
  35. The Almohad period has been treated in more specific works, such as monographs dealing with the history of Sufism, Messianic movements, urban history, or the 11th–12th century Sunni revival. Recent interest in the Almohads’caliphal experience and their contribution to Islamic thought has had a beneficial effect, with more space being devoted to them in general histories of the Islamic world.
  36.  
  37. Buresi, Pascal. “L’empire almohade. Le Maghreb et al-Andalus (1130–1269).” In Les Empires: Antiquité et Moyen Âge; Analyse comparée. Edited by Fréderic Hurlet, 221–237. Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2008.
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  39. A short overview on the construction of the Almohad Empire within a comparative perspective. Buresi’s research has concentrated in the last decade on the study of Almohad administration and political organization.
  40. Buresi, Pascal. “L’empire almohade. Le Maghreb et al-Andalus (1130–1269).” In Les Empires: Antiquité et Moyen Âge; Analyse comparée. Edited by Fréderic Hurlet, 221–237. Rennes, France: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2008.
  41. Find this resource:
  42. Cornell, Vincent. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
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  44. Ibn Tumart’s doctrine and religious trends under the Almohads are discussed within the general framework of the development of Sufism in the Maghreb.
  45. Cornell, Vincent. Realm of the Saint: Power and Authority in Moroccan Sufism. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1998.
  46. Find this resource:
  47. Deverdun, Gaston. Marrakech des origines à 1912. Rabat, Morocco: Editions Techniques Nord Africaines, 1959.
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  49. A classic study on the history of Marrakech not yet superseded, containing a section on the town as the capital of the Almohad Empire.
  50. Deverdun, Gaston. Marrakech des origines à 1912. Rabat, Morocco: Editions Techniques Nord Africaines, 1959.
  51. Find this resource:
  52. Fierro, Maribel. “The Almohads (524–668/1130–1269) and the Ḥafṣids (627–932/1229–1526).” In The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2, The Western Islamic World, Eleventh-Eighteenth Centuries. Edited by M. Fierro, 66–105. General editor, M. Cook. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  54. A short overview on the political and doctrinal history of the Almohads.
  55. Fierro, Maribel. “The Almohads (524–668/1130–1269) and the Ḥafṣids (627–932/1229–1526).” In The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2, The Western Islamic World, Eleventh-Eighteenth Centuries. Edited by M. Fierro, 66–105. General editor, M. Cook. Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. García-Arenal, Mercedes. Messianism and Puritanical Reform: Mahdis of the Muslim West. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006. 157–192.
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  59. Includes a chapter dealing with Ibn Tumart, the founder of the Almohad movement, with an analysis of how to understand his presentation as Mahdi within a broader perspective (pp. 157–192).
  60. García-Arenal, Mercedes. Messianism and Puritanical Reform: Mahdis of the Muslim West. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006. 157–192.
  61. Find this resource:
  62. Guichard, Pierre. “Les Almohades.” In Etats, sociétés et cultures du monde musulman médiéval, Xe-XVe siècle: L’évolution politique et sociale. Edited by J.-C. Garcin, 205–232. Nouvelle Clio. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995.
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  64. A useful overview of the political, social, and economic history of the Almohads by a leading French scholar on the history of the Islamic West.
  65. Guichard, Pierre. “Les Almohades.” In Etats, sociétés et cultures du monde musulman médiéval, Xe-XVe siècle: L’évolution politique et sociale. Edited by J.-C. Garcin, 205–232. Nouvelle Clio. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1995.
  66. Find this resource:
  67. ʿInān, M. ʿA. A. Dawlat al-islām fī l-Andalus: ʿAṣr al-murābiṭīn wa-l-muwaḥḥidīn fī l-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus. 2 vols. Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat al-Khanji, 1965.
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  69. The standard study on the political history of the Almohads in Arabic.
  70. ʿInān, M. ʿA. A. Dawlat al-islām fī l-Andalus: ʿAṣr al-murābiṭīn wa-l-muwaḥḥidīn fī l-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus. 2 vols. Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat al-Khanji, 1965.
  71. Find this resource:
  72. Nagel, Tilman. Im Offenkundigen das Verborgene: Die Heilszusage des sunnitischen Islams. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2002.
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  74. Ibn Tumart’s theological and legal thought is analyzed within the framework of the developments taking place in Sunnism during the 10th–12th centuries.
  75. Nagel, Tilman. Im Offenkundigen das Verborgene: Die Heilszusage des sunnitischen Islams. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2002.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Viguera, María Jesús, coord. El retroceso territorial de al-Andalus: Almorávides y almohades, Siglos XI al XIII. Historia de España 8.2. Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1997.
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  79. The standard study on Almohad al-Andalus (Muslim Spain and Portugal) in Spanish. It contains a comprehensive bibliography and a study of the different sources available for the Almohad period.
  80. Viguera, María Jesús, coord. El retroceso territorial de al-Andalus: Almorávides y almohades, Siglos XI al XIII. Historia de España 8.2. Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1997.
  81. Find this resource:
  82. Specific Studies on the Almohads
  83.  
  84. Historiography on the Almohads has been hampered in the past by several factors. During both colonial and postcolonial times in North Africa, their “heterodox” specificities (i.e., Tumart’s Mahdism, imposition of a creed to the population under Almohad rule) reduced or at least subdued the appeal caused by their political and cultural achievements (unification of the Maghreb and al-Andalus, development of philosophy and science), with some exceptions, such as E. Lévi-Provençal’s contributions consisting mostly in an edition and analysis of Almohad sources. In the case of the history of al-Andalus, both the Almoravid and Almohad periods were understood in terms of fanaticism and foreign rule, and therefore of scarce interest if compared to the Umayyad period and the Nasrid kingdom. A turning point was the publication of the monographs on the political history of the Almohad period written by the Spanish historian A. Huici Miranda (Huici Miranda 1956–1957) and the French historian R. Le Tourneau (Le Tourneau 1969). Since the mid-1990s there has been a flourishing interest in the Almohad period, mostly as an outcome of the renovation in the study of the premodern Islamic West that took place in France, Morocco, and Spain.
  85.  
  86. Ávila, María Luisa, and Maribel Fierro, ed. Estudios onomástico-biográficos de al-Andalus. Vols 9–10, Biografías almohades. Madrid: CSIC, 1999–2000.
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  88. These two collective volumes contain sixteen studies dealing with different issues related to Almohad history, the common thread being the use of materials from the biographical dictionaries. It includes a prosopography of the scholars who lived under the Almohads by Jesús Zanón and Mayte Penelas, and two studies dealing with the “sciences of the Ancients” by Miquel Forcada.
  89. Ávila, María Luisa, and Maribel Fierro, ed. Estudios onomástico-biográficos de al-Andalus. Vols 9–10, Biografías almohades. Madrid: CSIC, 1999–2000.
  90. Find this resource:
  91. Cressier, Patrice, Maribel Fierro, and Luis Molina, eds. Los almohades: Problemas y perspectivas. Madrid: CSIC/Casa de Velázquez, 2005.
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  93. Collective volume containing a total of thirty-eight contributions divided into three sections: (1) Art, Epigraphy, Numismatics; (2) Political and Military Organization; (3) Doctrinal and Intellectual Developments, and Religious Practices. It offers new perspectives and updated bibliographical references.
  94. Cressier, Patrice, Maribel Fierro, and Luis Molina, eds. Los almohades: Problemas y perspectivas. Madrid: CSIC/Casa de Velázquez, 2005.
  95. Find this resource:
  96. Fierro, Maribel. The Almohad Revolution: Politics and Religion in the Islamic West during the Twelfth–Thirteenth Centuries. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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  98. Collection of fourteen articles dealing with political and religious authority and legitimacy, law, coins, genealogy, and forced conversion. Connections are established between the Almohads, the Fatimids and Alphonso X the Wise.
  99. Fierro, Maribel. The Almohad Revolution: Politics and Religion in the Islamic West during the Twelfth–Thirteenth Centuries. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2012.
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  101. Fromherz, Allen James. The Almohads: the Rise of an Islamic Empire. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
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  103. Focuses on the origins and development of the Almohad Empire, paying special attention to the Berber tribal milieu.
  104. Fromherz, Allen James. The Almohads: the Rise of an Islamic Empire. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
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  106. Ghouirgate, Mehdi. L’ordre almohade (1120–1269): Une nouvelle lecture anthropologique. Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 2014.
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  108. An insightful exploration of Almohad political and religious rituals: serment of allegiance, official banquets, clothing, punishments, itinerancy, the court, death with references to Almoravid precedents.
  109. Ghouirgate, Mehdi. L’ordre almohade (1120–1269): Une nouvelle lecture anthropologique. Toulouse, France: Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 2014.
  110. Find this resource:
  111. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. Historia política del imperio almohade. 2 vols. Tetouan, Morocco: Instituto General Franco de Estudios e Investigación Hispano-Arabe, 1956–1957.
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  113. The classic study on Almohad political history based on the primary sources and not yet superseded. Reprinted, with preliminary study, by E. Molina López and V. Oltra, 2 vols (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2000). There is an Arabic translation by ʿAbd al-Waḥid Akmir, al-Taʼrīkh al-siyāsī li-l-imbrāṭūriyya al-muwaḥḥidiyya, Rabat: al-Zaman, 2004.
  114. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. Historia política del imperio almohade. 2 vols. Tetouan, Morocco: Instituto General Franco de Estudios e Investigación Hispano-Arabe, 1956–1957.
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  116. “Ideología y propaganda almohades.” Al-Qanṭara 18.2 (1997): 295–490.
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  118. Includes seven studies by T. Nagel, M. Fletcher, E. Fricaud, J.-P. Molénat, M. A. Martínez Núñez, S. Fontenla, and M. Alvira Cabrer dealing with theology, Ibn Tumart’s teachers, forced conversion, epigraphy, numismatics and the Almohad defeat at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.
  119. “Ideología y propaganda almohades.” Al-Qanṭara 18.2 (1997): 295–490.
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  121. Shatzmiller, Maya. “al-Muwaḥḥidūn.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2d ed. Vol. 7. Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, 801–807. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1993.
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  123. Concise and useful overview. Available online by subscription.
  124. Shatzmiller, Maya. “al-Muwaḥḥidūn.” In Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2d ed. Vol. 7. Edited by P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C. E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, and W. P. Heinrichs, 801–807. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1993.
  125. Find this resource:
  126. Tourneau, Roger Le. The Almohad Movement in North Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.
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  128. Originally a series of lectures on the rise, development, and fall of the Almohad Empire, and for a long time the only extant monograph in English.
  129. Tourneau, Roger Le. The Almohad Movement in North Africa in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969.
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  131. Sources
  132.  
  133. Analyses of the sources written on the Almohads and during the Almohad period can be found in the works cited under Specific Studies on the Almohads. Almohad narrative accounts on the origins of the movement and on the period of state formation heavily determine our present understanding, with some critical attempts at interpreting the context in which such accounts were produced. The study of the Almohad chancery letters has been especially productive in recent decades, shedding light on many hitherto unexplored aspects of Almohad governance.
  134.  
  135. al-ʿAzzawi, Ahmad. Rasāʾil muwaḥḥdiyya: Majmūʿa jadīda. 2 vols. Kenitra (al-Qunaytira), Morocco: Jamiat Ibn Tufayl, Kulliyat al-Adab wa-l-ʿUlum al-Insaniyya, 1995–2001.
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  137. A new compilation of official Almohad letters completing that by É. Lévi-Provençal (Trente-sept lettres officielles almohades [Rabat, 1941]; Hespèris XXVIII [1941], pp. 1–78 ; Un recueil de lettres officielles almohades. Étude diplomatique, analyse et commentaire historique [Paris, 1942]). These and other letters have been studied by a team directed by P. Burési within the European Research Council project Imperial government and authority in Medieval Western Islam (IGAMWI).
  138. al-ʿAzzawi, Ahmad. Rasāʾil muwaḥḥdiyya: Majmūʿa jadīda. 2 vols. Kenitra (al-Qunaytira), Morocco: Jamiat Ibn Tufayl, Kulliyat al-Adab wa-l-ʿUlum al-Insaniyya, 1995–2001.
  139. Find this resource:
  140. Bombrun, Loïc. “Les Mémoires d’al-Bayḏaq: l’écriture de l’histoire à l’époque almohade.” In La légitimation du pouvoir au Maghreb medieval: De l’orientalisation á l’émancipation politique. Edited by A. Nef and M. É. Voguet, 93–108. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2011.
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  142. The most recent study on a unique and early source dealing with the origins of the Almohad movement.
  143. Bombrun, Loïc. “Les Mémoires d’al-Bayḏaq: l’écriture de l’histoire à l’époque almohade.” In La légitimation du pouvoir au Maghreb medieval: De l’orientalisation á l’émancipation politique. Edited by A. Nef and M. É. Voguet, 93–108. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2011.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Fletcher de Gogorza, Madeleine. “The Naẓm al-Jumān as a Source for Almohad History.” In Taʼrīkh al-Maghrib al-ʽarabī wa-ḥaḍāratuhu: ashghāl. Vol. 1, pp. 193–199. Tunis, Tunisia: al-Jamiʽa al-Tunisiyya, Markaz al-Dirasat wa-l-Abhat al-Iqtisadiyya wa-l-Ijtimaʽiyya, 1979.
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  147. A study of Ibn al-Qattan’s historical work, written during the reign of the caliph al-Murtada (646/1248–665/1266). Some fragments were edited and translated by Évariste Lévi-Provençal (Six fragments inédits d’une chronique anonyme du début des Almohades. Paris: Mélanges René Basset, 1925, pp. 1–59); the extant parts were edited by Mahmud ʿAli Makki, first in Tetouan (1964) and then Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1990.
  148. Fletcher de Gogorza, Madeleine. “The Naẓm al-Jumān as a Source for Almohad History.” In Taʼrīkh al-Maghrib al-ʽarabī wa-ḥaḍāratuhu: ashghāl. Vol. 1, pp. 193–199. Tunis, Tunisia: al-Jamiʽa al-Tunisiyya, Markaz al-Dirasat wa-l-Abhat al-Iqtisadiyya wa-l-Ijtimaʽiyya, 1979.
  149. Find this resource:
  150. Gabrieli, Francesco. “Le origini del movimento almohade in una fonte storica dʼOriente.” Arabica 3 (1956): 1–7.
  151. DOI: 10.1163/157005856X00139Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  152. On the earliest non-Almohad source, the Easterner historian Ibn al-Qalanisi (d. 555/1160).
  153. Gabrieli, Francesco. “Le origini del movimento almohade in una fonte storica dʼOriente.” Arabica 3 (1956): 1–7.
  154. Find this resource:
  155. Fricaud, Émile. “Ibn ʽIḏārī al-Marrākušī (m. début XIVe s.), historien marocain du Magrib et d’al-Andalus, bilan d’un siècle et demi de recherches sur al-Bayan al-Mugrib.” PhD diss., l’Université de Lyon 2, 1994.
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  157. Ibn ʿIdhari’s chronicle al-Bayān al-mughrib contains a section on the Almohads. It is a fundamental source for the period, both for the quantity and the quality of the materials it compiles, and also because it allows to grasp the process of “de-almohadization” following the fall of the Almohad empire.
  158. Fricaud, Émile. “Ibn ʽIḏārī al-Marrākušī (m. début XIVe s.), historien marocain du Magrib et d’al-Andalus, bilan d’un siècle et demi de recherches sur al-Bayan al-Mugrib.” PhD diss., l’Université de Lyon 2, 1994.
  159. Find this resource:
  160. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. “La historia y la leyenda en los orígenes del Imperio almohade.” Al-Andalus XIV (1949): 339–376.
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  162. An illuminating study on the legendary materials concerning the origins of the Almohad movement. Reprinted in Historia política del imperio almohade (Tetouan: Instituto General Franco de Estudios e Investigación Hispano-Arabe, 1956–1957). Vol. 2, pp. 581–611.
  163. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. “La historia y la leyenda en los orígenes del Imperio almohade.” Al-Andalus XIV (1949): 339–376.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Laoust, Henri. “Une fetwā dʼIbn Taimiya sur Ibn Tūmart.” Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Arquéologie Orientale 59 (1960): 157–184.
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  167. A crucial text to understand Sunni opposition to Ibn Tumart’s figure and doctrine.
  168. Laoust, Henri. “Une fetwā dʼIbn Taimiya sur Ibn Tūmart.” Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Arquéologie Orientale 59 (1960): 157–184.
  169. Find this resource:
  170. Lévi-Provençal, Évariste. Documents inédits dʼhistoire almohade (Fragments manuscrits du “legajo” 1919 arabe de lʼEscurial). Vol. 1. Paris: Paul Geuthner, Textes Arabes Relatifs à lʼHistoire de lʼOccident Musulman, 1928.
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  172. Edition of early Almohad texts such al-Baydhaq and the Kitāb al-ansāb. Lévi-Provençal was pioneer in the edition and study of Almohad sources.
  173. Lévi-Provençal, Évariste. Documents inédits dʼhistoire almohade (Fragments manuscrits du “legajo” 1919 arabe de lʼEscurial). Vol. 1. Paris: Paul Geuthner, Textes Arabes Relatifs à lʼHistoire de lʼOccident Musulman, 1928.
  174. Find this resource:
  175. Origins of the Movement
  176.  
  177. As for any other revolutionary movement leading to the creation of an empire, it is difficult to disentagle the different layers in the narrative about its origins and characteristics. Pioneering work is being carried out by a French and Moroccan archaelogical team—directed by J.-P. van Staevel and A. Fili—at Ibn Tumart’s birthplace, revealing a more stratified society than previously imagined (see van Staevel and Fili 2006).
  178.  
  179. Ben Hammadi, A. “Encore sur la rencontre entre Gazālī et Ibn Tūmart.” IBLA 156 (1985): 32–39.
  180. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181. In the articles he has devoted to Ibn Tumart’s career, this Tunisian scholar shows a tendency to harmonize the data from different sources. The encounter between Ibn Tumart and his alleged teacher al-Ghazali has been the object of a number of studies, the prevailing view being that such an encounter never took place.
  182. Ben Hammadi, A. “Encore sur la rencontre entre Gazālī et Ibn Tūmart.” IBLA 156 (1985): 32–39.
  183. Find this resource:
  184. Cornell, Vincent J. “Understanding is the Mother of Ability: Responsibility and Action in the Doctrine of Ibn Tūmart.” Studia Islamica 66 (1987): 71–103.
  185. DOI: 10.2307/1595911Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  186. Ibn Tumart’s doctrine as preserved in his professions of faith and his Kitāb has been object of a number of studies, starting with I. Goldziher and continuing with H. Massé, R. Brunschvig, D. Urvoy, and M. Fletcher, “The Almohad Tawḥīd: Theology which relies on Logic,” Numen 38.1 (1991) 110–127.
  187. Cornell, Vincent J. “Understanding is the Mother of Ability: Responsibility and Action in the Doctrine of Ibn Tūmart.” Studia Islamica 66 (1987): 71–103.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Goldziher, Ignaz. “Mohammed ibn Toumert.” In Le Livre de Mohammed ibn Toumert. Edited by D. Luciani. Alger, Algeria: Imprimérie Orientale Pierre Fontana, 1903.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Ignaz Goldziher was pioneer in the study of the religious doctrine of Ibn Tumart, offering here an updated version of his previous studies published in German.
  192. Goldziher, Ignaz. “Mohammed ibn Toumert.” In Le Livre de Mohammed ibn Toumert. Edited by D. Luciani. Alger, Algeria: Imprimérie Orientale Pierre Fontana, 1903.
  193. Find this resource:
  194. Kisaichi, M. “The Almohad Social-Political System or Hierarchy in the Reign of Ibn Tūmart.” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tokyo Bunko 48 (1990): 81–101.
  195. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  196. The best study to date on the original organization developed by Ibn Tumart and on its Berber tribal context.
  197. Kisaichi, M. “The Almohad Social-Political System or Hierarchy in the Reign of Ibn Tūmart.” Memoirs of the Research Department of the Tokyo Bunko 48 (1990): 81–101.
  198. Find this resource:
  199. Laroui, A. “Sur le mahdisme dʼIbn Tumart.” In Mahdisme: Crise et changement dans lʼhistoire du Maroc; Actes de la table ronde organisée à Marrakech par la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines de Rabat du 11 au 14 Février 1993. Edited by A. Kadduri, 9–13. Rabat, Morocco: Université Mohammed V, 1994.
  200. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  201. An attempt to tone down Ibn Tumart’s Mahdism as charisma, while connecting it with law and theology.
  202. Laroui, A. “Sur le mahdisme dʼIbn Tumart.” In Mahdisme: Crise et changement dans lʼhistoire du Maroc; Actes de la table ronde organisée à Marrakech par la Faculté des Lettres et des Sciences Humaines de Rabat du 11 au 14 Février 1993. Edited by A. Kadduri, 9–13. Rabat, Morocco: Université Mohammed V, 1994.
  203. Find this resource:
  204. al-Najjar, ʿA. M. Al-Mahdī Ibn Tūmart, ḥayātuhu wa-ārāʼuhu wa-thawratuhu al-fikriyya wa-l-ijtimāʽiyya wa-atharuhu bi-l-Maghrib. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1403/1983.
  205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206. One of the monographs in Arabic devoted to the figure of Ibn Tumart, and the only one reviewed in a Western journal (D. Urvoy in Bulletin critique des Annales Islamologiques VI [1989], pp. 56–7). ʿAli al-Idrisi’s Al-Imāma ʿinda Ibn Tūmart: dirāsa muqārana maʿa l-imāmiyya al-ithnà ʿashariyya (Alger: Diwan al-Maṭbūʿa al-Jamiʿiyya, 1991) focuses mostly on Ibn Tumart’s claim to religious and political authority.
  207. al-Najjar, ʿA. M. Al-Mahdī Ibn Tūmart, ḥayātuhu wa-ārāʼuhu wa-thawratuhu al-fikriyya wa-l-ijtimāʽiyya wa-atharuhu bi-l-Maghrib. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1403/1983.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Triki, H., J. Hassar-Benslimane, and A. Touri. Tinmal, l’epopée almohade. Casablanca, Morocco: Fondation ONA, 1992.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Tinmal was the place where Ibn Tumart emigrated to fight against the Almoravids. It became the Mahdi’s burial place, and also that of the Almohad caliphs. The mosque of Tinmal was studied by Christian Ewert and J.-P. Wisshak in Forschungen zur almohadischen Moschee. Vol. 2, Die Moschee von Tinmal (Mainz: Madrider Beiträge 10, 1984).
  212. Triki, H., J. Hassar-Benslimane, and A. Touri. Tinmal, l’epopée almohade. Casablanca, Morocco: Fondation ONA, 1992.
  213. Find this resource:
  214. van Staevel, Jean-Pierre, and Abdallah Fili. “Wa-waṣalnā ʿalā barakat Allāh ilā Īgīlīz: à propos de la localisation d’Īgīlīz-Des-Harga, le ḥiṣn du Mahdī Ibn Tūmart.” Al-Qanṭara 27 (2006): 153–194.
  215. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  216. Localization of Ibn Tumart’s birth-place. The research team to which the authors belong is publishing the results obtained in several archaeological campaigns, shedding new light on the origins of the Almohad movement. Their publications are to be counted among the most important contributions of the early 21st century in the field of Almohad studies.
  217. van Staevel, Jean-Pierre, and Abdallah Fili. “Wa-waṣalnā ʿalā barakat Allāh ilā Īgīlīz: à propos de la localisation d’Īgīlīz-Des-Harga, le ḥiṣn du Mahdī Ibn Tūmart.” Al-Qanṭara 27 (2006): 153–194.
  218. Find this resource:
  219. Foundation of the Caliphate
  220.  
  221. The complex process leading to Ibn Tumart’s succession by a non-Masmuda Berber, the political and military events that resulted in the fall of the Almoravid capital, Marrakesh, and territorial gains in North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, as well as the changes implemented by ʿAbd al-Muʾmin to proclaim himself caliph and establish a dynasty within his family, have been dealt in a number of studies, although more research needs to be done.
  222.  
  223. Barbour, N. “La guerra psicológica de los almohades contra los almorávides.” Boletín de la Asociación Española de Orientalistas 2 (1966): 117–130.
  224. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  225. Analysis of the intense Almohad propagandistic campaign agains the former rulers of the Islamic West, the Almoravids.
  226. Barbour, N. “La guerra psicológica de los almohades contra los almorávides.” Boletín de la Asociación Española de Orientalistas 2 (1966): 117–130.
  227. Find this resource:
  228. Bourouiba, Rachid. Ibn Tumart. Algiers, Algeria: SNED, 1974.
  229. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  230. Along with Bourouiba’s ʿAbd al-Muʿmin, flambeau des Almohades (Algiers: SNED, 1974), provides a very useful narrative account of the founder of the Almohad movement and his successor and first caliph, closely following the available sources.
  231. Bourouiba, Rachid. Ibn Tumart. Algiers, Algeria: SNED, 1974.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Brett, Michael. “The Lamp of the Almohads: Illumination as a Political Idea in Twelfth Century Morocco.” In Ibn Khaldun and the Medieval Maghrib. Edited by M. Brett, 1–27. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate/Variorum, 1999.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. A thought-provoking study on the doctrinal foundations of Almohad conceptions of political and religious authority.
  236. Brett, Michael. “The Lamp of the Almohads: Illumination as a Political Idea in Twelfth Century Morocco.” In Ibn Khaldun and the Medieval Maghrib. Edited by M. Brett, 1–27. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate/Variorum, 1999.
  237. Find this resource:
  238. Dandash, ʿIṣmat ʿAbd al-Laṭif. Al-Andalus fī nihāyat al-murābiṭīn wa-mustahall al-muwaḥḥidīn: ʿAṣr al-ṭawāʾif al-thānī (510–546 H./1116–1151 M.); Taʼrīkh siyāsī wa-ḥaḍāra. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1408/1988.
  239. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  240. Excellent presentation of the materials concerning the end of the Almoravid period and the beginnings of Almohad rule in al-Andalus, previously studied by F. Codera in Decadencia y desaparición de los almorávides en España (Zaragoza: Tip. de Comas Hermanos, 1899).
  241. Dandash, ʿIṣmat ʿAbd al-Laṭif. Al-Andalus fī nihāyat al-murābiṭīn wa-mustahall al-muwaḥḥidīn: ʿAṣr al-ṭawāʾif al-thānī (510–546 H./1116–1151 M.); Taʼrīkh siyāsī wa-ḥaḍāra. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1408/1988.
  242. Find this resource:
  243. Fletcher, Madeleine. “Al-Andalus and North Africa in the Almohad ideology.” In The Legacy of Muslim Spain. Edited by S. Jayyusi, 235–258. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1992.
  244. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  245. Fletcher has written several seminal articles exploring different aspects of the Almohad tribal background and ideology. Her announced monograph on what she calls the “Almohad renaissance” has not yet appeared.
  246. Fletcher, Madeleine. “Al-Andalus and North Africa in the Almohad ideology.” In The Legacy of Muslim Spain. Edited by S. Jayyusi, 235–258. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1992.
  247. Find this resource:
  248. Lévi-Provençal, Évariste. “Ibn Toumert et ʿAbd al-Muʾmin; le ‘fakih du Sus’, et le ‘flambeau des Almohades.’” In Memorial Henri Basset. Vol. 2, pp. 21–37. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1928.
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250. The classical account on the activities of the Mahdi and his successor according to the Arabic sources.
  251. Lévi-Provençal, Évariste. “Ibn Toumert et ʿAbd al-Muʾmin; le ‘fakih du Sus’, et le ‘flambeau des Almohades.’” In Memorial Henri Basset. Vol. 2, pp. 21–37. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1928.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Merad, A. “ʿAbd al-Muʾmin et la conquête d’Afrique du Nord, 1130–1163.” Annales de l’Institut d’Etudes Orientales (Alger) 15 (1957): 110–163.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Detailed analysis of the military campaigns undertaken by the first Almohad caliph, underlying the consequences that the defeat of the Arab tribes at Sétif had in political, military, and cultural terms.
  256. Merad, A. “ʿAbd al-Muʾmin et la conquête d’Afrique du Nord, 1130–1163.” Annales de l’Institut d’Etudes Orientales (Alger) 15 (1957): 110–163.
  257. Find this resource:
  258. Tourneau, Roger Le. “Du mouvement almohade à la dynastie muʾminide: La révolte des frères d’Ibn Tūmart de 1153 à 1156.” In Hommage à G. Marçais. Vol. 2, pp. 111–116. Paris: Imprimérie Oficielle, 1956.
  259. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260. Study of the crucial episode in which ʿAbd al-Muʾmin put an end to the revolt of Ibn Tumart’s brothers and imposed a dynastic solution to the problem of succession of the founder of the Almohad movement.
  261. Tourneau, Roger Le. “Du mouvement almohade à la dynastie muʾminide: La révolte des frères d’Ibn Tūmart de 1153 à 1156.” In Hommage à G. Marçais. Vol. 2, pp. 111–116. Paris: Imprimérie Oficielle, 1956.
  262. Find this resource:
  263. Building Political and Religious Legitimacy
  264.  
  265. The Almohads developed a sophisticated program of political and religious propaganda through different media, such as chancery letters, coins, genealogical claims, and reverence for the alleged Cordoban Uthmanic codex of the Qurʾan. The use of violence was fundamental, especially in the beginnings of the movement. The most salient and striking feature is that the equivalence of God’s order with Almohad rule was put forward in different ways.
  266.  
  267. Acién Almansa, Manuel. “Cerámica y propaganda en época almohade.” Arqueología Medieval 4 (1996): 183–192.
  268. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  269. A pioneering study on the intense Almohad propagandistic investment in a variety of means, including pottery.
  270. Acién Almansa, Manuel. “Cerámica y propaganda en época almohade.” Arqueología Medieval 4 (1996): 183–192.
  271. Find this resource:
  272. Basset, H., and H. Terrasse. Sanctuaires et forteresses almohades. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1932.
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274. A still unsurpassed work on the Almohad fortresses and sanctuaries.
  275. Basset, H., and H. Terrasse. Sanctuaires et forteresses almohades. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1932.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Benhima, Yassir. “Du tamyīz à l’iʽtirāf: Usages et légitimation du massacre au début de l’époque almohade.” Annales Islamologiques 43 (2009): 137–153.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Analysis of the “terror” policies undertaken by the Almohads inside their own rank and file in order to ensure obedience during the early stages of the movement, situating them in their local context.
  280. Benhima, Yassir. “Du tamyīz à l’iʽtirāf: Usages et légitimation du massacre au début de l’époque almohade.” Annales Islamologiques 43 (2009): 137–153.
  281. Find this resource:
  282. Bennison, Amira. “The Almohads and the Qurʾan of ʿUthmān: The Legacy of the Umayyads of Cordoba in Twelfth Century Maghrib.” Al-Masaq 19.2 (2007): 131–154.
  283. DOI: 10.1080/09503110701581951Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  284. A number of studies appeared almost simultaneously analyzing this issue: P. Buresi, “D’une Péninsule à l’autre: Cordoue, ʿUṯmān (644–656) et les Arabes à l’époque almohade (XIIe-XIIe siècle),” Al-Qanṭara 31.1 (2010) 7–29; Travis Zadeh, “From Drops of Blood: Charisma and Political Legitimacy in the translatio of the ʿUthmānic codex of al-Andalus,” Journal of Arabic Literature 39.3 (2008): 321–46.
  285. Bennison, Amira. “The Almohads and the Qurʾan of ʿUthmān: The Legacy of the Umayyads of Cordoba in Twelfth Century Maghrib.” Al-Masaq 19.2 (2007): 131–154.
  286. Find this resource:
  287. Hamès, Constant, “De la chefferie tribale a la dynastie étatique: Généalogie et pouvoir a l’èpoque almohade-ḥafṣide (XIIe-XIVe siècles).” In Al-Ansab: La quête des origines. Edited by P. Bonte, E. Conte, C. Hamès, and A. W. Ould Cheikh, 101–137. Paris: Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991.
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289. Study on the Berber and Arabic genealogies used by both the Almohads and their successors in Tunisia, the Hafsids, analyzing their political use and context.
  290. Hamès, Constant, “De la chefferie tribale a la dynastie étatique: Généalogie et pouvoir a l’èpoque almohade-ḥafṣide (XIIe-XIVe siècles).” In Al-Ansab: La quête des origines. Edited by P. Bonte, E. Conte, C. Hamès, and A. W. Ould Cheikh, 101–137. Paris: Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, 1991.
  291. Find this resource:
  292. Peña, Salvador. “El término de origen coránico amr Allāh (“Disposición de Dios”) y el linguocentrismo trascendente islámico, en torno al siglo XII.” Anaquel de Estudios Arabes 22 (2011): 197–224.
  293. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  294. The association between Almohad rule and God’s disposition or order (amr Allah) is crucial in order to understand Almohad conceptions of political and religious authority. Previous studies on this topic are É. Fricaud’s “Origine de l’utilisation privilégiée du terme amr chez les Muʾminides almohades,” Al-Qanṭara 23 (2002) 93–122; and M. Vega, S. Peña, and M. C. Feria’s El mensaje de las monedas almohades: numismática, traducción y pensamiento (Almagro: Servicio de Publicaciones de Castilla La Mancha, 2002).
  295. Peña, Salvador. “El término de origen coránico amr Allāh (“Disposición de Dios”) y el linguocentrismo trascendente islámico, en torno al siglo XII.” Anaquel de Estudios Arabes 22 (2011): 197–224.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Sedra, Moulay Driss. “La ville de Rabat au VIe/XIIe siècle: Le projet d’une nouvelle capitale de l’empire almohade?” Al-Andalus Magreb 15 (2008): 275–303.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Rabat was the site chosen by ʿAbd al-Muʾmin to gather his army when preparing military campaigns especially aiming at al-Andalus. The Almohad mosque—of huge dimensions—was never finished. Its minaret would have surpassed in height those of the mosque in Marrakesh (Koutubiyya) and Seville (now the tower of the cathedral, the Giralda).
  300. Sedra, Moulay Driss. “La ville de Rabat au VIe/XIIe siècle: Le projet d’une nouvelle capitale de l’empire almohade?” Al-Andalus Magreb 15 (2008): 275–303.
  301. Find this resource:
  302. Viguera, María Jesús. “Ceremonias y símbolos soberanos en al-Andalus: Notas sobre la época almohade.” In Casas y palacios de al-Andalus. Siglos XII y XIII, pp. 105–106. Barcelona: El Legado Andalusí, 1995.
  303. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  304. Study on the ceremonies and symbols adopted by the Almohad caliphs, such as their famous red tent. On the same topic, see M. Ghouirgate’s “Quelques remarques sur le cérémonial califal almohade,” in Le Maghreb, al-Andalus et la Méditerranée occidentale (VIIIe-XIIIe siècles), edited by Philippe Sénac (Toulouse: CNRS-Université de Toulouse-Le Mirail, 2007), pp. 285–307.
  305. Viguera, María Jesús. “Ceremonias y símbolos soberanos en al-Andalus: Notas sobre la época almohade.” In Casas y palacios de al-Andalus. Siglos XII y XIII, pp. 105–106. Barcelona: El Legado Andalusí, 1995.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Political and Military History
  308.  
  309. Certain episodes of Almohad political and military history considered to be especially relevant or illustrative of more general trends have been the subject of specific studies, such as the incorporation of Arab tribes into the originally Berber Almohad army, the resistance offered by the Almoravid Banu Ghaniya (which greatly endangered Almohad rule in North Africa), the employment of Christian mercenaries, the development of a navy, and the practice of jihad in the Iberian Peninsula.
  310.  
  311. Aguilar, Victoria. “La política de ʿAbd al-Muʾmin con los árabes de Ifrīqiya.” In Actas del II Coloquio Hispano-Marroquí de Ciencias Históricas ‘Historia, Ciencia, Sociedad’. Granada, 6–10 noviembre de 1989, pp. 17–30. Madrid: Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 1992.
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313. This is an outcome of V. Aguilar’s unpublished PhD thesis on Almohad tribal politics, Tribus árabes en el Magreb en época almohade (1152–1269), Universidad Complutense Madrid, 1991. Previous works are G. Marçais, Les Arabes en Berbérie du XIe au XIVe siècle, in Recueil des notices et mémoires de la société archéologique du Département de Constantine (1913), and Mustafa Abu Dayf Ahmad, Āthār al-qabāʼil al-ʽarabiyya fī l-ḥāya al-maghribiyya khilāl ʽaṣray al-muwaḥḥidīn wa-Banī Marīn (Wujdah, 1982).
  314. Aguilar, Victoria. “La política de ʿAbd al-Muʾmin con los árabes de Ifrīqiya.” In Actas del II Coloquio Hispano-Marroquí de Ciencias Históricas ‘Historia, Ciencia, Sociedad’. Granada, 6–10 noviembre de 1989, pp. 17–30. Madrid: Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 1992.
  315. Find this resource:
  316. Baadj, Amar. Saladin, the Almohads and the Banu Ghaniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2015.
  317. DOI: 10.1163/9789004298576Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  318. New insight into Saladin’s policies in North Africa during the Almohad period, showing how Qaraqush’s military campaigns were backed by the Ayyubids, who attempted to control the trans-Saharan trade routes because of their need for West African gold.
  319. Baadj, Amar. Saladin, the Almohads and the Banu Ghaniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2015.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Bel, Alfred. Les Banû Ghânya, derniers représentants de l’empire almoravide et leur lutte contre l’empire almohade. Paris: E. Leroux, 1903.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Monograph devoted to the Almoravid Banu Ghaniya, who from their bases in the Balearic islands attempted to recover control over former Almoravid territory. Their military activities in North Africa considerably weakened Almohad power and were decisive in the caliph al-Nasir’s (r. 595/1199–610/1213) decision to grant autonomy to Tunisia, thus helping the rise of the Hafsids.
  324. Bel, Alfred. Les Banû Ghânya, derniers représentants de l’empire almoravide et leur lutte contre l’empire almohade. Paris: E. Leroux, 1903.
  325. Find this resource:
  326. García-Fitz, Francisco. Las Navas de Tolosa. Barcelona: Ariel, 2005.
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328. The most updated monograph on the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (al-ʿIqab/al-ʿUqab) in the year 609/1212, when a Christian army raised by the king of Castille, Alfonso VIII, and other peninsular kings, including Crusader help, defeated the Almohad caliph al-Nasir.
  329. García-Fitz, Francisco. Las Navas de Tolosa. Barcelona: Ariel, 2005.
  330. Find this resource:
  331. García Sanjuán, Alejandro. “Mercenarios cristianos al servicio de los musulmanes en el norte de África durante el siglo XIII.” In La Península Ibérica entre el Mediterráneo y el Atlántico. Siglos XIII-XV. Cádiz, 1–4 de abril de 2003. Edited by Manuel González and Isabel Montes, 435–447. Sevilla-Cádiz, Spain: Diputación de Cádiz, Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales, 2006.
  332. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  333. The employment of Christian soldiers by the North African Muslim dynasties has attracted the attention of many scholars, such as S. Barton, “Traitors to the faith? Christian mercenaries in al-Andalus and the Maghreb, c. 1100–1300.” In R. Collins and A. Goodman (eds.), Medieval Spain: Culture, Conflict and Coexistence (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), pp. 23–62; D. Porrinas in “La actuación de Giraldo Sempavor al mediar el siglo XII: un estudio comparativo,” II Jornadas de Historia Medieval de Extremadura, Ponencias y Comunicaciones (Mérida: Editora Regional de Extremadura, 2005), pp. 179–188; E. Lapiedra in “Christian Participation in Almohad Armies and Personal Guards,” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 2.2 (2010): 235–250.
  334. García Sanjuán, Alejandro. “Mercenarios cristianos al servicio de los musulmanes en el norte de África durante el siglo XIII.” In La Península Ibérica entre el Mediterráneo y el Atlántico. Siglos XIII-XV. Cádiz, 1–4 de abril de 2003. Edited by Manuel González and Isabel Montes, 435–447. Sevilla-Cádiz, Spain: Diputación de Cádiz, Sociedad Española de Estudios Medievales, 2006.
  335. Find this resource:
  336. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. Las grandes batallas de la Reconquista durante las invasiones africanas (almorávides, almohades y benimerines). Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Africanos, 1956.
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338. Includes studies on the battles of Alarcos (Almohad victory over Alfonso VIII, king of Castille) and Las Navas de Tolosa (Almohad defeat). Reprinted with preliminary study by Emilio Molina López and Vicente C. Navarro Oltra (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2000).
  339. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. Las grandes batallas de la Reconquista durante las invasiones africanas (almorávides, almohades y benimerines). Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Africanos, 1956.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Picard, Christophe. L’Océan Atlantique musulman: De la conquête arabe à l’époque almohade: Navigation et mise en valeur des côtes d’al-Andalus et du Maghrib Occidental (Portugal–Espagne–Maroc). Paris: Maisonneuve and Larose/UNESCO, 1997.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. The Almohads paid special attention to maritime warfare and to the development of their fleet, an interest to be linked to the flourishing of coastal towns, such as Bougie, to which a recent monograph has been devoted by D. Valérian, Bougie, port maghrébin, 1067–1510 (École Française de Rome, 2006).
  344. Picard, Christophe. L’Océan Atlantique musulman: De la conquête arabe à l’époque almohade: Navigation et mise en valeur des côtes d’al-Andalus et du Maghrib Occidental (Portugal–Espagne–Maroc). Paris: Maisonneuve and Larose/UNESCO, 1997.
  345. Find this resource:
  346. al-Qarquti, Muʽammar al-Hadi Muhammad. Jihād al-muwaḥḥidīn fī bilād al-Andalus, 541–629 H/1146–1233 M. Bu Zurayʽa, al-Jazaʼir: Dar Huma, 2005.
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348. One among other studies—usually by scholars writing in Arabic—on the Almohad practice of jihad.
  349. al-Qarquti, Muʽammar al-Hadi Muhammad. Jihād al-muwaḥḥidīn fī bilād al-Andalus, 541–629 H/1146–1233 M. Bu Zurayʽa, al-Jazaʼir: Dar Huma, 2005.
  350. Find this resource:
  351. Administration and Diplomacy
  352.  
  353. The Muʾminid caliphs suceeded in imposing a high degree of centralization in their empire, using a variety of means of different provenance, while conducting innovative diplomatic relations with their Christian neighbours. Almohad policies in recruiting and training the men they needed for ruling an empire have been explored regarding the chancery and the judiciary, although more research can be done, for which online resources such as the Prosopografía de los ulemas de al-Andalus (PUA) are extremely useful.
  354.  
  355. Abu Rumayla, Hisham. ʽAlāqāt al-muwaḥḥidīn bi-l-mamālik al-naṣrāniyya wa-l-duwal al-islāmiyya fi l-Andalus. Amman, Jordan: Dar al-Furqan, 1404/1984.
  356. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  357. A study of the relationshps between the Almohads and the Christian kingdoms, on which see also E. Tisserant and G. Wiet, “Une lettre de lʼAlmohade Murtadà au pape Innocent IV,” Hespéris 6 (1926): 27–53; and A. Fromherz, “North Africa and the Twelfth-Century Renaissance: Christian Europe and the Almohad Islamic Empire,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 20.1 (2009): 43–59.
  358. Abu Rumayla, Hisham. ʽAlāqāt al-muwaḥḥidīn bi-l-mamālik al-naṣrāniyya wa-l-duwal al-islāmiyya fi l-Andalus. Amman, Jordan: Dar al-Furqan, 1404/1984.
  359. Find this resource:
  360. Benouis, El Mostafa. “Le système juridico-judiciaire almohade en al-Andalus et au Maghreb 542–668/1147–1269.” PhD diss., Université Lyon 2, 2002.
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362. A study on Almohad judicature, including a detailed prosopography. The other extant monograph, Musāhama fī dirāsat al-nuẓūm bi-l-gharb al-islāmī. Khuṭṭat al-qaḍāʼ bi-l-Maghrib fī l-dawla al-muwaḥḥidiyya, by Muḥammad al-Maghrawi (Université Muhammad V, 1987), is also an unpublished PhD thesis.
  363. Benouis, El Mostafa. “Le système juridico-judiciaire almohade en al-Andalus et au Maghreb 542–668/1147–1269.” PhD diss., Université Lyon 2, 2002.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Buresi, Pascal. “Traduttore, traditore, à propos d’une correspondance arabe-latine entre l’Empire almohade et la cité de Pise (début XIIIe siècle).” In Special Issue: Les relations diplomatique entre le monde musulman et l’Occident latin (XIIe-XVIe siècle). Edited by Denise Aigle and Pascal Buresi. Oriente Moderno 88.2 (2008): 297–309.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. The rich correspondence between the Almohads and different Christian polities such as Pisa is being newly analyzed in this and other articles, such as P. Buresi’s “Les plaintes de 1’archevêque: chronique des premiers échanges épistolaires entre Pise et le gouverneur almohade de Tunis (1182),” in Documentos y manuscritos árabes del occidente musulmán medieval, edited by Nuria Martínez de Castilla (Madrid: CSIC, 2010), pp. 87–120.
  368. Buresi, Pascal. “Traduttore, traditore, à propos d’une correspondance arabe-latine entre l’Empire almohade et la cité de Pise (début XIIIe siècle).” In Special Issue: Les relations diplomatique entre le monde musulman et l’Occident latin (XIIe-XVIe siècle). Edited by Denise Aigle and Pascal Buresi. Oriente Moderno 88.2 (2008): 297–309.
  369. Find this resource:
  370. Buresi, Pascal, and Hicham El Allaoui. Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate (1224–1269). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  371. DOI: 10.1163/9789004239715Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372. A study of Almohad administrative practices based on literary documents (“nominations”) preserved in ms. 4752 of the Royal Library in Rabat. P. Buresi directs the European Research Council project Imperial Government and Authority in Medieval Western Islam (IGAMWI). There is a French version (Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2013).
  373. Buresi, Pascal, and Hicham El Allaoui. Governing the Empire: Provincial Administration in the Almohad Caliphate (1224–1269). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  374. Find this resource:
  375. Hopkins, J. F. P. “The Almohade Hierarchy.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16 (1954): 91–112.
  376. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00143502Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  377. This study on the Almohad shaykhs (descendants of Ibn Tumart’s early followers) and the Muʾminid family was incorporated into a later work by the same author, Medieval Muslim Government in Barbary until the sixth Century of the Hijra (London: Luzac, 1958). J. F. P. Hopkins also wrote the entry on Ibn Tumart in the second edition the Encyclopaedia of Islam.
  378. Hopkins, J. F. P. “The Almohade Hierarchy.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16 (1954): 91–112.
  379. Find this resource:
  380. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. “La participación de los grandes jeques en el gobierno del imperio almohade.” Tamuda 6 (1958): 239–275.
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382. The role played by the shaykhs belonging to the Berber tribes who had joined the Almohad movement in the early period is here analyzed, highlighting their tensions with the Muʾminid dynasty.
  383. Huici Miranda, Ambrosio. “La participación de los grandes jeques en el gobierno del imperio almohade.” Tamuda 6 (1958): 239–275.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Khalaf Allah, Ibtisam Marʾi. Al-ʽAlāqāt bayna l-khilāfa al-muwaḥhìdiyya wa-l-Mashriq al-islāmī: 1130–1529/564–936. Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Maʽarif, 1985.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. The study focuses on both the Almohads and the Hafsids. Previous studies are Gaudefroy-Demombynes’s “Une lettre de Saladin au calife almohade,” in Mélanges René Basset (Paris: E. Leroux, 1925), Vol. 1, pp. 279–304; and Claude Cahen’s “Deux petites textes exigeant enquête sur les relations entre Almohades et Orientaux,” in Études d’Orientalisme dédiées à la memoire de Lévi-Provençal (Paris: G. P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1962), Vol. 1, pp. 79–85.
  388. Khalaf Allah, Ibtisam Marʾi. Al-ʽAlāqāt bayna l-khilāfa al-muwaḥhìdiyya wa-l-Mashriq al-islāmī: 1130–1529/564–936. Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Maʽarif, 1985.
  389. Find this resource:
  390. Sabbane, Abdel Latif. Le gouvernment et l’administration de la dynastie almohade (12–13 ss.). PhD diss., Université Paris I, 1999.
  391. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  392. A useful overview on the political and administrative Almohad system.
  393. Sabbane, Abdel Latif. Le gouvernment et l’administration de la dynastie almohade (12–13 ss.). PhD diss., Université Paris I, 1999.
  394. Find this resource:
  395. Society, Economy, and Numismatics
  396.  
  397. Administrative centralization allowed for fiscal control, although its extent and implications for economic development are still in need of further research. New social hierarchies were formed in relation with Almohad legal, religious, and cultural policies. The intriguing forms used in coins (such as the square dirhams) point again to the pervasive obsession to signal that a new era had begun.
  398.  
  399. ʿAbd al-Raḥim, Shaʿban. Al-maskūkāt al-muwaḥḥidiyya fī taʼrīkh al-Maghrib al-wasīṭ. Rabat, Morocco: Université Muhammad V, 1995–1996.
  400. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  401. On the minting of Almohad coins. A previous and still valid study is A. Bel’s “Contribution à lʼétude des dirhems de lʼépoque almohade,” Hespéris 16 (1933): 1–68.
  402. ʿAbd al-Raḥim, Shaʿban. Al-maskūkāt al-muwaḥḥidiyya fī taʼrīkh al-Maghrib al-wasīṭ. Rabat, Morocco: Université Muhammad V, 1995–1996.
  403. Find this resource:
  404. Bridgman, Rebecca. “Potting Histories: Ceramics, Economy and Society in Almohad al-Andalus.” PhD diss., Southampton University, 2007.
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406. The study of Almohad ceramics has been object of other studies, such as F. Cavilla Sánchez-Molero’s La cerámica almohade de la Isla de Cádiz (Yazirat Qadis) (Cádiz: Servicio de publicaciones de la Universidad de Cádiz, 2005); and E. Fernández Navarro’s Tradición tecnológica de la cerámica de cocina de época almohade-nazarí (Granada: Universidad de Granada, 2008).
  407. Bridgman, Rebecca. “Potting Histories: Ceramics, Economy and Society in Almohad al-Andalus.” PhD diss., Southampton University, 2007.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Bulqatib, Husayn. Jawāʾiḥ wa-awbiʿat Maghrib ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn. Rabat, Morocco: Manshurat al-Zaman (Qadaya taʾrikhiyya, 4), 2001.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Study of the natural disasters and pandemics during the Almohad period.
  412. Bulqatib, Husayn. Jawāʾiḥ wa-awbiʿat Maghrib ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn. Rabat, Morocco: Manshurat al-Zaman (Qadaya taʾrikhiyya, 4), 2001.
  413. Find this resource:
  414. Devisse, Jean. “Routes de commerce et échanges en Afrique Occidentale en relation avec la Méditerranée: Un essai sur le commerce africain médiéval du XIe au XVIe siècle.” Revue d’Histoire Économique et Sociale 50 (1972): 42–73, 357–397.
  415. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  416. The availability of West African gold in the Almohad Empire is discussed here.
  417. Devisse, Jean. “Routes de commerce et échanges en Afrique Occidentale en relation avec la Méditerranée: Un essai sur le commerce africain médiéval du XIe au XVIe siècle.” Revue d’Histoire Économique et Sociale 50 (1972): 42–73, 357–397.
  418. Find this resource:
  419. Ghouirgate, Mehdi. “La gestion des crises de subsistance par les souverains almohades.” In Histoire et nature: Pour une histoire écologique des sociétés méditerranéennes. Edited by François Clément, 255–265. Rennes, France: Presse Universitaire de Rennes, 2011.
  420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421. On the measures taken by the Almohad caliphs and other agents during famines and catastrophic situations, see also Francisco Rodríguez Mañas’s “Charity and deceit: the practice of iṭʽām al-ṭaʽām in Moroccan Sufism,” Studia Islamica 91 (2000): 59–90.
  422. Ghouirgate, Mehdi. “La gestion des crises de subsistance par les souverains almohades.” In Histoire et nature: Pour une histoire écologique des sociétés méditerranéennes. Edited by François Clément, 255–265. Rennes, France: Presse Universitaire de Rennes, 2011.
  423. Find this resource:
  424. al-Maghrawi, Muhammad. Al-muwaḥḥidūn wa-azamat al-mujtamaʿ. Rabat, Morocco: Judhur li-l-nashr, 2006.
  425. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  426. Studies different aspects of Almohad history, such as the use of violence, rebellions against the Almohads, and the treatment of dhimmis.
  427. al-Maghrawi, Muhammad. Al-muwaḥḥidūn wa-azamat al-mujtamaʿ. Rabat, Morocco: Judhur li-l-nashr, 2006.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Maḥmudi, Aḥmad. ʿĀmmat al-Maghrib al-aqṣā fi l-ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidī. Rabat, Morocco: Jamiʿat Mawlay Ismaʿil, Kulliyyat al-Adab wa-l-ʿUlum al-Insaniyya, 2001.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A study on the common people during the Almohad period.
  432. Maḥmudi, Aḥmad. ʿĀmmat al-Maghrib al-aqṣā fi l-ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidī. Rabat, Morocco: Jamiʿat Mawlay Ismaʿil, Kulliyyat al-Adab wa-l-ʿUlum al-Insaniyya, 2001.
  433. Find this resource:
  434. Musa, ʿIzz al-din ʽUmar. Al-Muwaḥḥidūn fī l-gharb al-islāmī tanẓīmātuhum wa-naẓmuhum. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1411/1991.
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436. A pioneering analysis of the administrative and fiscal organization under the Almohads.
  437. Musa, ʿIzz al-din ʽUmar. Al-Muwaḥḥidūn fī l-gharb al-islāmī tanẓīmātuhum wa-naẓmuhum. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1411/1991.
  438. Find this resource:
  439. Prieto Vives, A. “La reforma numismática de los Almohades.” In Miscelánea de Estudios y Textos Arabes, 11–114. Madrid, 1915.
  440. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  441. Almohad coinage shows striking features, such as the general absence of dating and the square form of the silver coins, on which see now C. Bresc’s “L’intriguant ‘carré dans le cercle’: Un exemple de diffusion d’un type monétaire dans le monde musulman du XIIIé siècle,” Annales Islamologiques 45 (2011): 243–254.
  442. Prieto Vives, A. “La reforma numismática de los Almohades.” In Miscelánea de Estudios y Textos Arabes, 11–114. Madrid, 1915.
  443. Find this resource:
  444. The Situation and Treatment of Jews and Christians
  445.  
  446. One of the most shocking aspects of the Almohad movement was the forced conversion of Jews and Christians, and also of Muslims made to adhere to Almohad doctrine through the imposition of Ibn Tumart’s profession of faith. Different approaches have been taken to study Almohad policies toward the non-Almohads, with some scholars following the trend to play down the forced conversion of Jews.
  447.  
  448. Bennison, Amira, and María Angeles Gallego. “Religious Minorities under the Almohads: An Introduction.” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 2.2 (2010): 143–154.
  449. DOI: 10.1080/17546559.2010.495288Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  450. Introduction to a monographic section devoted to religious minorities under the Almohads, including articles by D. Abulafia, A. K. Bennison, D. Corcos, M. Fierro, E. Lapiedra, I. Sánchez, D. Serrano.
  451. Bennison, Amira, and María Angeles Gallego. “Religious Minorities under the Almohads: An Introduction.” Journal of Medieval Iberian Studies 2.2 (2010): 143–154.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Burman, Thomas E. Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs, c. 1050–1200. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.
  454. DOI: 10.1163/9789004247031Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Includes information dealing with Muslim polemical literature against Christianity written under the Almohads.
  456. Burman, Thomas E. Religious Polemic and the Intellectual History of the Mozarabs, c. 1050–1200. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.
  457. Find this resource:
  458. Cenival, P. de. “L’église chrétienne de Marrakech au XIIIe siècle.” Hespèris 7 (1927): 69–83.
  459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  460. The presence of Christian soldiers serving the Almohad caliph al-Maʾmun (r. 624/1227–629/1232) involved the concession of the building of a church in the Almohad capital, Marrakesh, to serve their religious needs. It was destroyed in 1232.
  461. Cenival, P. de. “L’église chrétienne de Marrakech au XIIIe siècle.” Hespèris 7 (1927): 69–83.
  462. Find this resource:
  463. Fierro, Maribel. “A Muslim Land without Jews or Christians: Almohad Policies Regarding the ‘Protected People.’” In Christlicher Norden, Muslimischer Süden: Ansprüche und Wirklichkeiten von Christen, Juden und Muslimen auf der Iberischen Halbinsel im Hoch- und Spätmittelalter. Edited by M. Tischler, and A. Fidora, 231–247. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2011.
  464. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  465. Five factors are explored in order to explain the forced conversion of Christians and Jews under the Almohads: (a) eschatology, (b) Ismaʿili/Fatimid influence, (c) the implementation of the innate religious nature (fitra) of human beings, (d) the conception of Almohad territory as a new Hijaz, and (e) al-Tabari’s doctrine on the expiration of the dhimma status once demography was favourable to the Muslims.
  466. Fierro, Maribel. “A Muslim Land without Jews or Christians: Almohad Policies Regarding the ‘Protected People.’” In Christlicher Norden, Muslimischer Süden: Ansprüche und Wirklichkeiten von Christen, Juden und Muslimen auf der Iberischen Halbinsel im Hoch- und Spätmittelalter. Edited by M. Tischler, and A. Fidora, 231–247. Münster, Germany: Aschendorff Verlag, 2011.
  467. Find this resource:
  468. Mandalá, Giuseppe. “La migrazione degli ebrei del Garbum in Sicilia (1239).” Materia Giudaica: Rivista dell’associazione italiana per lo studio del giudaismo 11.1–2 (2006): 179–199.
  469. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  470. Analysis of the context in which the migration of Jews from the Almohad Empire to Sicily took place. French translation: “La migration des juifs du Garbum en Sicile (1239),” published in L’Italie et le Maghreb à l’heure de l’orientalisme romantique et positiviste (1700–1900) Un savoir en cours de redefinition, edited by B. Grevin (École française de Rome, 2012), pp. 18–48.
  471. Mandalá, Giuseppe. “La migrazione degli ebrei del Garbum in Sicilia (1239).” Materia Giudaica: Rivista dell’associazione italiana per lo studio del giudaismo 11.1–2 (2006): 179–199.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Urvoy, D. et M.-Th. Urvoy. “Ibn Rušd et la ḏimma.” In Recueil dʼarticles offert à Maurice Borrmans par ses collègues et amis. Edited by Maurice Gorrmans, 245–253. Rome: Pontificio Istituto di studi arabi e d’islamistica, 1996.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Ibn Rushd’s (Averroes) treatment of the dhimma status in his legal treatise strictly follows the standard legal tradition, with no mention of the forced conversion that took place under the Almohads.
  476. Urvoy, D. et M.-Th. Urvoy. “Ibn Rušd et la ḏimma.” In Recueil dʼarticles offert à Maurice Borrmans par ses collègues et amis. Edited by Maurice Gorrmans, 245–253. Rome: Pontificio Istituto di studi arabi e d’islamistica, 1996.
  477. Find this resource:
  478. Valle, Carlos del. “The Jews of al-Andalus under Almohad rule.” Iberia Judaica 1 (2009): 49–54.
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480. New data on the religious life of “Islamicized” Jewish communities under the Almohads and the diffusion of Maimonides’s Mishneh Torah.
  481. Valle, Carlos del. “The Jews of al-Andalus under Almohad rule.” Iberia Judaica 1 (2009): 49–54.
  482. Find this resource:
  483. Intellectual, Religious, and Artistic Developments
  484.  
  485. Seminal intellectual developments took place during the Almohad period. It is sufficient to mention that it was then that such original thinkers as Ibn Tufayl and Averroes were active, and that Maimonides and Muhyi al-din Ibn Arabi were trained. Their work and thought are better understood if contextualized in the times in which they lived. That something new and exciting was taking place in Almohad lands moved Christians to seek the new knowledge that was being produced there, be it Ibn Tumart’s profession of faith (translated into Latin) or Averroes’s philosophy.
  486.  
  487. General Works
  488.  
  489. The pioneering works al-Manuni 1950 and Urvoy 1990 provide a framework that facilitates the understanding of the rich intellectual and artistic production of Almohad times, while later studies have focused on specific aspects such as education or the Andalusi context. Information on the works written and transmitted during Almohad times in the territories ruled by them is to be found in Historia de los Autores y Transmisores de al-Andalus (HATA) and Historia de los Autores y Transmisores del Occidente islámico (HATOI) online.
  490.  
  491. al-Manuni, Muhammad. Al-ʿUlūm wa-l-ādāb wa-l-funūn ʿalā ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn. Tetouan, Morocco: Maʿhad Mawlay Hasan, 1950.
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493. An overview of intellectual life under the Almohads. Second edition: Rabat: Dar al-Maghrib li-l-Tabaʼa wa-l-Nashr. See also al-Manuni’s Ḥaḍārat al-muwaḥḥidīn (Bilvidir: al-Dar al-Bayḍaʾ, 1989). Another study on the same topic but centered on Muslim Spain, is Yusuf ʿAli b. Ibrahim al-ʿArini’s Al-Ḥayāt al-ʿilmiyya fī l-Andalus fī ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidīn (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Maṭbuʿat Maktabat al-Malik ʿAbd al-ʿAziz al-ʿAmma, 1416/1995.
  494. al-Manuni, Muhammad. Al-ʿUlūm wa-l-ādāb wa-l-funūn ʿalā ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn. Tetouan, Morocco: Maʿhad Mawlay Hasan, 1950.
  495. Find this resource:
  496. Ṣafiyya, Dib. Al-Tarbiya wa-l-taʿlīm fī l-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus fī ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidīn, 6–7 H /12–13 M. Al-Jazaʾir: Muʾassasat Kunuz al-ḥikma li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 2011.
  497. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  498. The Almohads paid special attention to education.
  499. Ṣafiyya, Dib. Al-Tarbiya wa-l-taʿlīm fī l-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus fī ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidīn, 6–7 H /12–13 M. Al-Jazaʾir: Muʾassasat Kunuz al-ḥikma li-l-Nashr wa-l-Tawziʿ, 2011.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Urvoy, Dominique. Pensers d’al-Andalus: La vie intellectuelle à Cordoue et Sevilla au temps des Empires Berberes (fin XIe siècle - début XIIIe siècle). Toulouse, France: Editions du CNRS, Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1990.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. An analysis of intellectual life in the two most important towns of Almohad al-Andalus, by a leading specialist.
  504. Urvoy, Dominique. Pensers d’al-Andalus: La vie intellectuelle à Cordoue et Sevilla au temps des Empires Berberes (fin XIe siècle - début XIIIe siècle). Toulouse, France: Editions du CNRS, Presses Universitaires du Mirail, 1990.
  505. Find this resource:
  506. Zanón, Jesús. “La vida intelectual en al-Andalus durante la época almohade: Estudio de la “Takmila” de Ibn al-Abbār.” PhD diss., Universidad Complutense, 1991.
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508. A detailed analysis of intellectual trends under the Almohads. Information on the Almohad scholars who were active in al-Andalus can now be found in the volumes of the Biblioteca de al-Andalus, edited by Jorge Lirola and J. M. Puerta Vílchez (Almería: Fundación Ibn Tufayl, 2004–2012). For those of the Maghrib, see Mawsuʿat aʿlām al-Maghrib, edited by Muhammad Hajji, 10 vols. (Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1417/1996).
  509. Zanón, Jesús. “La vida intelectual en al-Andalus durante la época almohade: Estudio de la “Takmila” de Ibn al-Abbār.” PhD diss., Universidad Complutense, 1991.
  510. Find this resource:
  511. Law and Theology
  512.  
  513. Almohad religious policies involved the imposition of a single profession of faith and the dismantling of the Almoravid legal establishment. Originally, the validity of plural legal opinions was seen as challenging the infallibility of the Almohad Mahdi, although Almohadism eventually developed toward a convergence with traditional Sunnism.
  514.  
  515. Aʿrab, S. Mawqif al-muwaḥḥidīn min kutub al-furūʽ wa-ḥaml al-nās ʽalā l-madhhab al-ḥazmī”. Daʽwat al-ḥaqq 249 (2012): 26–30.
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517. A valuable study on Ibn Ḥazm’s influence and standing during the Almohad period, and on Almohad opposition to traditional Malikism.
  518. Aʿrab, S. Mawqif al-muwaḥḥidīn min kutub al-furūʽ wa-ḥaml al-nās ʽalā l-madhhab al-ḥazmī”. Daʽwat al-ḥaqq 249 (2012): 26–30.
  519. Find this resource:
  520. Brunschvig, Robert. “Sur la doctrine du Mahdī Ibn Tumart.” Arabica 2 (1955): 137–149.
  521. DOI: 10.1163/157005855X00220Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  522. One of the best studies on the religious and political doctrine on Ibn Tumart. See also R. Brunschvig’s “Encore sur la doctrine du Mahdī Ibn Tūmart,” Folia Orientalia (1970): 33–40.
  523. Brunschvig, Robert. “Sur la doctrine du Mahdī Ibn Tumart.” Arabica 2 (1955): 137–149.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Brunschvig, Robert. “Averroès juriste.” In Études d’Orientalisme dédiées à la memoire de Lévi-Provençal. Vol. 1, pp. 35–68. Paris: G. P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1962.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. An attempt to contextualize the legal work by Averroes, who served as a judge for the Almohads.
  528. Brunschvig, Robert. “Averroès juriste.” In Études d’Orientalisme dédiées à la memoire de Lévi-Provençal. Vol. 1, pp. 35–68. Paris: G. P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1962.
  529. Find this resource:
  530. Fricaud, Émile. “Les ṭalaba dans la société almohade (le temps d´Averroés).” Al-Qanṭara 18 (1997): 331–388.
  531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  532. The best study to date on the political and religious elites trained by the Almohads to extend and consolidate both their power and their doctrine.
  533. Fricaud, Émile. “Les ṭalaba dans la société almohade (le temps d´Averroés).” Al-Qanṭara 18 (1997): 331–388.
  534. Find this resource:
  535. Geoffroy, Marc. “Lʼalmohadisme théologique dʼAverroès (Ibn Rushd).” Archives dʼHistoire Doctrinale et Littéraire du Moyen Age 66 (1999): 9–47.
  536. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  537. Builds upon the previous work by D. Urvoy: “La pensée almohade dans lʼoeuvre dʼAverroès,” Published in Multiple Averroès: Actes (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1978) pp. 45–53. Geoffroy analyses Averroes’s theological thought within its Almohad context. An important contribution by the same author based on the different versions of Averroes’s Kashf ʽan manāhij al-adilla is included in Cressier, et al. 2005 (cited under Specific Studies on the Almohads).
  538. Geoffroy, Marc. “Lʼalmohadisme théologique dʼAverroès (Ibn Rushd).” Archives dʼHistoire Doctrinale et Littéraire du Moyen Age 66 (1999): 9–47.
  539. Find this resource:
  540. Massé, Henri. “La profession de foi (ʿaqīda) et les guides spirituels (morchida) du mahdi Ibn Toumart.” In Mémorial Henri Basset, 105–121. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1928.
  541. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  542. Edition and French translation of the Almohad profession of faith in its different versions. They were translated into Latin already in Almohad times; see M.-Th. Dʼalverny and G. Vajda, “Marc de Tolède, traducteur dʼIbn Tūmart,” Al-Andalus 16 (1951): 99–140 and259–307; and also Al-Andalus 17 (1952): 1–56.
  543. Massé, Henri. “La profession de foi (ʿaqīda) et les guides spirituels (morchida) du mahdi Ibn Toumart.” In Mémorial Henri Basset, 105–121. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1928.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Urvoy, Dominique. “La pensée d’Ibn Tūmart.” Bulletin d’Études Orientales 27 (1974): 19–44.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Together with Brunschvig’s contributions, the best study to date on Ibn Tumart’s thought.
  548. Urvoy, Dominique. “La pensée d’Ibn Tūmart.” Bulletin d’Études Orientales 27 (1974): 19–44.
  549. Find this resource:
  550. Watt, William Montgomery. “Philosophy and theology under the Almohads.” In Actas del Primer Congreso de Estudios Arabes e Islámicos (Córdoba, 1962), 101–107. Madrid: Comité permanente del Congreso de Estudios Árabes e Islámicos, 1964.
  551. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552. An important attempt at analyzing the sociological aspects of Almohad interest on the development of both theology and philosophy. Also in The Islamic Quarterly 8 (1964): 46–51.
  553. Watt, William Montgomery. “Philosophy and theology under the Almohads.” In Actas del Primer Congreso de Estudios Arabes e Islámicos (Córdoba, 1962), 101–107. Madrid: Comité permanente del Congreso de Estudios Árabes e Islámicos, 1964.
  554. Find this resource:
  555. Philosophy and Mysticism
  556.  
  557. Philosophy reached an unprecedent level of development under the Almohads with such leading figures as Ibn Tufayl and Averroes. Mysticism also flourished, but both philsophers and Sufis were subject to control and sometimes persecution.
  558.  
  559. Akasoy, Anna. Philosophie und Mystik in der späten Almohadenzeit: Die Sizilianischen Fragen des Ibn Sabʿīn. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
  560. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  561. Ibn Sabʿin’s answers to the philosophical questions posed by Frederick II are here analyzed and their historicity denied, contrary to the convincing conclusion reached by G. Mandalà in “Il prologo delle Riposte alle questioni siciliane di Ibn Sabʿin come fonte storica,” published in Actes de la Journée d’étude sur Ibn Sabʿīn (1216/17–1270), Paris EPHE 14 june 2005, Schede Medievali 45 (2007), pp. 25–94.
  562. Akasoy, Anna. Philosophie und Mystik in der späten Almohadenzeit: Die Sizilianischen Fragen des Ibn Sabʿīn. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
  563. Find this resource:
  564. Bazzana, A., N. Bériou, and P. Guichard, ed. Averroès et l’averroïsme: Un itinéraire historique du Haut Atlas à Paris et à Padoue. Actes du Colloque International organisé à Lyon les 4 et 5 octobre dans le cadre du Temps du Maroc. Lyon, France: Presses Universitaries de Lyon, 2005.
  565. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  566. The bibliography on Averroes is inmense, but there have been few attempts at locating his life and works within the political and religious context of his times, as does E. Fricaud here with his study on “Le problème de la disgrace d’Averroès” (pp. 155–189). See also J. Puig’s “Ibn Rušd and the Almohad Context,” in Studies in the History of Culture and Science: A Tribute to Gad Freudenthal, edited by R. Fontaine, R. Glasner, R. Leicht and G. Veltri (Leiden: Brill (2011), pp. 189–208.
  567. Bazzana, A., N. Bériou, and P. Guichard, ed. Averroès et l’averroïsme: Un itinéraire historique du Haut Atlas à Paris et à Padoue. Actes du Colloque International organisé à Lyon les 4 et 5 octobre dans le cadre du Temps du Maroc. Lyon, France: Presses Universitaries de Lyon, 2005.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Bensbaa, Mustapha. “Iḥrāq Kitāb al-Iḥyāʾ li-l-Ghazālī wa-ʿalāqatuhu bi-l-sirāʿ bayna l-murābiṭīn wa-l-muwahḥidīn.” In Multaqā al-dirāsāt al-maghribiyya al-andalusiyya: tayyarāt al-fikriyya al-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus, 357–366. Tetouan, Morocco: Jamiʿat ʿAbd al-Malik al-Saʿdi, Kulliyyat al-Adab wa-l-ʿUlūm al-Insaniyya, 1995.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. The relationship between Ibn Tumart and al-Ghazali has been debated and generally considered to be an invention. Apart from the studies by M. Fletcher and F. Griffel (included in Cressier, et al. 2005, under Specific Studies on the Almohads) see also D. Urvoy’s “Les divergences théologiques entre Ibn Tūmart et Gazālī,” in Mélanges offerts à Mohamed Talbi à lʼoccasion de son 70e anniversaire, Vol. II (La Manouba: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres de la Manouba, 1993), pp. 203–212.
  572. Bensbaa, Mustapha. “Iḥrāq Kitāb al-Iḥyāʾ li-l-Ghazālī wa-ʿalāqatuhu bi-l-sirāʿ bayna l-murābiṭīn wa-l-muwahḥidīn.” In Multaqā al-dirāsāt al-maghribiyya al-andalusiyya: tayyarāt al-fikriyya al-Maghrib wa-l-Andalus, 357–366. Tetouan, Morocco: Jamiʿat ʿAbd al-Malik al-Saʿdi, Kulliyyat al-Adab wa-l-ʿUlūm al-Insaniyya, 1995.
  573. Find this resource:
  574. Chodkiewicz, Michel. Le Sceau des Saints: Prophétie et sainteté dans la doctrine dʼIbn ʿArabī. Paris: Editions Gallimard, Bibliothèque des Sciences Humaines, 1992.
  575. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  576. The famous mystic Muhyi al-din Ibn ʿArabi was born and trained in Almohad al-Andalus (Muslim Spain), and although he lived the major part of his life in the East, the study of his work should include the influences he received during his formative years.
  577. Chodkiewicz, Michel. Le Sceau des Saints: Prophétie et sainteté dans la doctrine dʼIbn ʿArabī. Paris: Editions Gallimard, Bibliothèque des Sciences Humaines, 1992.
  578. Find this resource:
  579. Conrad, L. L., ed. The World of Ibn Ṭufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.
  580. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  581. The philosopher and doctor Ibn Tufayl (d. 581/1185) served the Almohads, and his famous work The Self-Taught Philosopher (Ḥayy b. Yaqẓān) sheds light on the intense debates on the role of reason and the different degrees of understanding that took place during the Almohad period.
  582. Conrad, L. L., ed. The World of Ibn Ṭufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.
  583. Find this resource:
  584. Ferhat, Halima. Le Maghreb aux XIIème et XIIIème siècles: Les siècles de la foi. Casablanca, Morocco: Wallada, 1993.
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586. A collection of essays by Ferhat, one of the leading specialists on religious trends during the Almohad period.
  587. Ferhat, Halima. Le Maghreb aux XIIème et XIIIème siècles: Les siècles de la foi. Casablanca, Morocco: Wallada, 1993.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Literature, Art, and Science
  590.  
  591. The literary production under the Almohads reached unprecedented levels in all the territories of the empire and in all fields, including the “sciences of the ancients.”
  592.  
  593. al-Awsi, H. ʿA. Al-adab al-andalusī fī ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidīn. Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat al-Khanyi, 1975–1976.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. A useful overview of the literary production under the Almohads.
  596. al-Awsi, H. ʿA. Al-adab al-andalusī fī ʿaṣr al-muwaḥḥidīn. Cairo, Egypt: Maktabat al-Khanyi, 1975–1976.
  597. Find this resource:
  598. Dandel, E. “À propos dʼun Coran almohade copié en soixante volumes.” In Numismatique, langues, écritures et arts du livre, spécificité des arts figurés: Afrique du nord antique et médiévale; Actes du VIIe collque international des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, Nice, 21 au 31 octobre 1996. Edited by Serge Lancel, 249–265. Paris: Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques, 1999.
  599. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  600. Almohad Qurʾans show a peculiar square format with dimensions that seems to aim at reaching a wide audience, while more luxurious copies were also made.
  601. Dandel, E. “À propos dʼun Coran almohade copié en soixante volumes.” In Numismatique, langues, écritures et arts du livre, spécificité des arts figurés: Afrique du nord antique et médiévale; Actes du VIIe collque international des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, Nice, 21 au 31 octobre 1996. Edited by Serge Lancel, 249–265. Paris: Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques, 1999.
  602. Find this resource:
  603. Garulo, Teresa. “La poesía de al-Andalus en época almohade.” In Música y poesía: El Legado andalusí, pp. 149–160. Barcelona: Lunwerg, 1995.
  604. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  605. An overview of Andalusi poetry during the Almohad period. A study in Arabic was published by F. S. ʿIsa: Al-Shiʿr al-andalusī fī ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn (Alexandria: al-Hayʾa al-Miṣriyya al-ʿAmma li-l-Kitab, 1979).
  606. Garulo, Teresa. “La poesía de al-Andalus en época almohade.” In Música y poesía: El Legado andalusí, pp. 149–160. Barcelona: Lunwerg, 1995.
  607. Find this resource:
  608. Gomes, R. Varela, and M. Varela Gomes. Palacio Almoada da Alcaçova de Silves:Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, junho a dezembro, 2001. Lisbon, Portugal: Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, 2001.
  609. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  610. A study devoted to the Almohad palace of Silves (Portugal).
  611. Gomes, R. Varela, and M. Varela Gomes. Palacio Almoada da Alcaçova de Silves:Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, junho a dezembro, 2001. Lisbon, Portugal: Museu Nacional de Arqueologia, 2001.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Kurdi, ʿAli Ibrahim. Al-Shiʿr al-ʿarabī bi-l-Maghrib fī ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn: mawḍūʼātuhu wa-maʿānihi. Abu Zaby, UAE: Dar al-Kutub al-Wataniyya, Hayʾat Abu Zaby lil-thaqafa wa-l-turath, al-Majma ʿal-Thaqafi, 2010.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. To be read with M. Attahiri’s monograph Kriegsgedichte zur Zeit der Almohaden (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1992), devoted to jihad poetry.
  616. Kurdi, ʿAli Ibrahim. Al-Shiʿr al-ʿarabī bi-l-Maghrib fī ʿahd al-muwaḥḥidīn: mawḍūʼātuhu wa-maʿānihi. Abu Zaby, UAE: Dar al-Kutub al-Wataniyya, Hayʾat Abu Zaby lil-thaqafa wa-l-turath, al-Majma ʿal-Thaqafi, 2010.
  617. Find this resource:
  618. Marinetto Sánchez, Purificación. “El capitel almohade: importancia y consecuencias.” Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebraicos 48 (1999): 177–229.
  619. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620. The evolution of this architectonic and decorative element had been previously studied by Patrice Cressier and P. Marinetto Sanchez in “Les chapiteaux islamiques de la péninsule Ibérique et du Maroc de la renaissance émirale aux Almohades,” published in Lʼacanthe dans la sculpture architecturale de lʼAntiquité à la Renaissance (Paris, 1993), pp. 211–246.
  621. Marinetto Sánchez, Purificación. “El capitel almohade: importancia y consecuencias.” Miscelánea de Estudios Árabes y Hebraicos 48 (1999): 177–229.
  622. Find this resource:
  623. Martínez Núñez, María Antonia. “El califato almohade: Pensamiento religioso y legitimación del poder a través de los textos epigráficos.” In Ultramare: Mélanges de langue arabe et d´islamologie offerts à Aubert Martin. Association pour la Promotion de l´Histoire et de l´Archéologie Oriantales, Mémoires 3. Edited by F. Bauden, 195–212. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2004.
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625. A study by the leading specialist on Almohad epigraphy.
  626. Martínez Núñez, María Antonia. “El califato almohade: Pensamiento religioso y legitimación del poder a través de los textos epigráficos.” In Ultramare: Mélanges de langue arabe et d´islamologie offerts à Aubert Martin. Association pour la Promotion de l´Histoire et de l´Archéologie Oriantales, Mémoires 3. Edited by F. Bauden, 195–212. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2004.
  627. Find this resource:
  628. Sabra, Abdelhamid I. “The Andalusian Revolt against Ptolemaic Astronomy: Averroes and al-Biṭrūjī.” In Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences. Edited by E. Mendelsohn, 133–153. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
  629. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  630. A contribution to the study of the scientific developments that took place under Almohad times. General overviews have been provided by Miquel Forcada in several illuminating studies, included in. Estudios onomástico-biográficos de al-Andalus, Vols 9–10 Biografías almohades, edited by María Luisa Ávila and Maribel Fierro (Madrid: CSIC, 1999–2000); and in Cressier, et al. 2005 (cited under Specific Studies on the Almohads).
  631. Sabra, Abdelhamid I. “The Andalusian Revolt against Ptolemaic Astronomy: Averroes and al-Biṭrūjī.” In Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences. Edited by E. Mendelsohn, 133–153. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Valor Piechotta, Magdalena, J. L. Villar Iglesias, and J. Ramírez del Río, coords. Los almohades: Su patrimonio arquitectónico y arqueológico en el sur de al-Andalus. Seville, Spain: Junta de Anadalucía, 2004.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. An archaelogical and architectonic overview of Almohad constructions in southern Spain. See also Sevilla almohade, edited by M. Valor Piechotta and A. Tahiri (Seville: Fundación El Monte, 1999), focusing on Seville, the Almohad capital of al-Andalus.
  636. Valor Piechotta, Magdalena, J. L. Villar Iglesias, and J. Ramírez del Río, coords. Los almohades: Su patrimonio arquitectónico y arqueológico en el sur de al-Andalus. Seville, Spain: Junta de Anadalucía, 2004.
  637. Find this resource:
  638. The End of the Almohads
  639.  
  640. The collapse of the Almohad Empire went through different stages in its diverse regions, and while important analyses are provided in Lomax 1989 and Martínez Enamorado 2006, among others, further research is needed.
  641.  
  642. Barcelo Torres, Carmen. “Sayyid Abū Zayd: príncipe musulmán, señor cristiano.” Awrāq III (1980): 101–109.
  643. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  644. After the Christian conquest of the Levant in the Iberian Peninsula, the Muʾminid prince Abu Zayd survived as a local lord, eventually converting to Christianity. See also Robert I. Burns’s “Príncipe almohade y converso mudéjar: nueva documentación sobre Abu Zayd,” Sharq al-Andalus 4 (1987): 109–123.
  645. Barcelo Torres, Carmen. “Sayyid Abū Zayd: príncipe musulmán, señor cristiano.” Awrāq III (1980): 101–109.
  646. Find this resource:
  647. El Hadri, M. “Du dynastique au religieux: Contribution de la numismatique à l’histoire de la transition politique entre les Almohades et les Mérinides.” In La légitimation du pouvoir au Maghreb médiéval: De l’orientalisation á l’émancipation politique. Edited by A. Nef and M. E. Voguet, 109–134. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2011.
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649. The transition from Almohad to Marinid rule in Morocco is analyzed through the numismatic record.
  650. El Hadri, M. “Du dynastique au religieux: Contribution de la numismatique à l’histoire de la transition politique entre les Almohades et les Mérinides.” In La légitimation du pouvoir au Maghreb médiéval: De l’orientalisation á l’émancipation politique. Edited by A. Nef and M. E. Voguet, 109–134. Madrid: Casa de Velázquez, 2011.
  651. Find this resource:
  652. al-Ghannay, Marajiʿ ʿAqila. Suqūṭ dawlat al-muwaḥḥidīn. Bengazi, Libya: Qaryunis University, 1988.
  653. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  654. A monographic study on the fall of the Almohad Empire. See also Mina Karmi Blomme’s La chute de l’empire almohade: analyse doctrinale, politique et economique (Lille: Atelier National de reproduction des Thèses, 1998).
  655. al-Ghannay, Marajiʿ ʿAqila. Suqūṭ dawlat al-muwaḥḥidīn. Bengazi, Libya: Qaryunis University, 1988.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Lomax, Derek W. “Heresy and Orthodoxy in the fall of Almohad Spain.” In God and Man in Medieval Spain: Essays in Honour of J.R.L. Highfield. Edited by D. W. Lomax and D. Mackenzie, 37–48. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips, 1989.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. The original “heretical” doctrine of the Almohads is here considered one of the reasons for the disaffection of the Muslim population of the Iberian Peninsula. To consult together with Isabel O’Connor’s “The Fall of the Almohad Empire in the Eyes of Modern Spanish Historians,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 14.2 (2003): 145–162.
  660. Lomax, Derek W. “Heresy and Orthodoxy in the fall of Almohad Spain.” In God and Man in Medieval Spain: Essays in Honour of J.R.L. Highfield. Edited by D. W. Lomax and D. Mackenzie, 37–48. Warminster, UK: Aris & Phillips, 1989.
  661. Find this resource:
  662. Marín, Manuela. “Saʿīd b. Ḥakam (601–680/1205–1282): Una reconsideración biográfica.” In I Jornades de Recerca Històrica de Menorca: La Manūrqa de Saʽīd ibn Ḥakam, pp. 95–113. Ciutadella de Menorca, Spain: Cercle Artístic de Citadella de Menorca, 2006.
  663. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  664. A former fiscal agent of the Almohads, Saʿid b. Ḥakam managed to keep control of one of the Balearic Islands, Menorca, with policies that shed light on the choices available to Muslim rulers confronting Christian advance.
  665. Marín, Manuela. “Saʿīd b. Ḥakam (601–680/1205–1282): Una reconsideración biográfica.” In I Jornades de Recerca Històrica de Menorca: La Manūrqa de Saʽīd ibn Ḥakam, pp. 95–113. Ciutadella de Menorca, Spain: Cercle Artístic de Citadella de Menorca, 2006.
  666. Find this resource:
  667. Martínez Enamorado, Virgilio. “Algunas reflexiones en torno al fin del almohadismo: El siglo XIII en el Islam de Occidente.” In I Jornades de Recerca Històrica de Menorca: La Manūrqa de Saʽīd ibn Ḥakam, 11–28. Ciutadella de Menorca, Spain: Cercle Artístic de Citadella de Menorca, 2006.
  668. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  669. A thought-provoking analysis of the end of the Almohad Empire, building upon the previous work by Roger Le Tourneau: “Sur la disparition de la doctrine almohade,” Studia Islamica 32 (1970): 193–201.
  670. Martínez Enamorado, Virgilio. “Algunas reflexiones en torno al fin del almohadismo: El siglo XIII en el Islam de Occidente.” In I Jornades de Recerca Històrica de Menorca: La Manūrqa de Saʽīd ibn Ḥakam, 11–28. Ciutadella de Menorca, Spain: Cercle Artístic de Citadella de Menorca, 2006.
  671. Find this resource:
  672. Molina López, Emilio. “De nuevo sobre el reconocimiento público del poder politico: La adhesión ʽabbāsí en al-Andalus (siglo XIII).” In Homenaje al profesor José María Fórneas Besteiro. Vol. 2, pp. 793–812. Granada, Spain: Universidad de Granada, 1995.
  673. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  674. A study of the recognition of the Abbasid caliphate on the part of the Andalusi opponents of the Almohads.
  675. Molina López, Emilio. “De nuevo sobre el reconocimiento público del poder politico: La adhesión ʽabbāsí en al-Andalus (siglo XIII).” In Homenaje al profesor José María Fórneas Besteiro. Vol. 2, pp. 793–812. Granada, Spain: Universidad de Granada, 1995.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Watt, William Montgomery. “The Decline of the Almohads: Reflections on the Viability of Religious Movements.” History of Religions 4.1 (1 July 1964): 23–29.
  678. DOI: 10.1086/462492Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. An illuminating analysis of the development and changes undertaken by the Almohad movement, and their bearing on their eventual disappearance.
  680. Watt, William Montgomery. “The Decline of the Almohads: Reflections on the Viability of Religious Movements.” History of Religions 4.1 (1 July 1964): 23–29.
  681. Find this resource:
  682. Almohad Influence in and outside the Islamic World
  683.  
  684. The intellectual vitality and the many innovations that took place under the Almohads did not limit their influence to the lands of the empire under the rule of the post-Almohad dynasties of the Marinids (Morocco), the Abd al-Wadids (central Maghreb) and the Hafsids (Ifriqiya). While the influence of Averroes in Latin Christendom is well known, there is almost no research exploring the Almohad impact in the rest of the Islamic world.
  685.  
  686. Attar, Samar. The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl’s Influence on Modern Western Thought. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2007.
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  688. One of the earliest works written under the Almohads, Ibn Tufayl’s Self-Taught Philosopher, had a lasting influence on European thought. See also G. A. Russell’s “The impact of Philosophus autodidactus: Pockocke, John Locke, and the Society of Friends,” in The “Arabick” Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, edited by G. A. Russell (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994), pp. 224–265.
  689. Attar, Samar. The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl’s Influence on Modern Western Thought. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2007.
  690. Find this resource:
  691. Fierro, Maribel. “Alfonso X ‘the Wise,’ the Last Almohad Caliph?” Medieval Encounters 15 (2009): 175–198.
  692. DOI: 10.1163/157006709X458819Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  693. The religious and intellectual policies developed by Alfonso X the Wise are here suggested to be studied in connection with those of the Almohad caliphs whose former lands in the south of the Iberian Peninsula had been incorporated into the Crown of Castille by Fernando III, Alfonso X’s father.
  694. Fierro, Maribel. “Alfonso X ‘the Wise,’ the Last Almohad Caliph?” Medieval Encounters 15 (2009): 175–198.
  695. Find this resource:
  696. Ghurab, S. “Murshidat Ibn Tūmart wa-atharuhā fī l-tafkīr al-maghribī.” Cahiers de Tunisie 26.103–104 (1978): 107–138.
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  698. A pioneering attempt to trace Ibn Tumart’s doctrinal influence in later periods within the Islamic world.
  699. Ghurab, S. “Murshidat Ibn Tūmart wa-atharuhā fī l-tafkīr al-maghribī.” Cahiers de Tunisie 26.103–104 (1978): 107–138.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Libera, Alain de. “Averroès et l’averroïsme: Un tournant dans la pensée occidentale?” In Construire un monde? Mondialisation, Pluralisme et Universalisme. Edited by Pierre Robert Baduel, 65–86. Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2007.
  702. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. Averroes, like his teacher Ibn Tufayl, served the Almohad caliphs in different capacities. While his legacy in the Islamic world was limited, Averroism came to play a crucial role in the development of Christian and European thought. His influence—and more generally, that of Almohadism—on St. Thomas of Aquinas has been explored by M. Fletcher in a study included in Cressier, et al. 2005 (cited under Specific Studies on the Almohads).
  704. Libera, Alain de. “Averroès et l’averroïsme: Un tournant dans la pensée occidentale?” In Construire un monde? Mondialisation, Pluralisme et Universalisme. Edited by Pierre Robert Baduel, 65–86. Institut de Recherche sur le Maghreb Contemporain. Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 2007.
  705. Find this resource:
  706. Moreau, Ph. “Influencias almohades en la arquitectura cristiana de los territorios de las coronas de Castilla y de Aragón.” In Mélanges María Soledad Carrasco Urgoiti. Edited by Abdeljelil Temimi, 81–102. Zaghouan, Tunisia: Fondation Temimi pour la recherche scientifique et l’information, 1999.
  707. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  708. Almohad artistic influences in Christian architecture are here analyzed.
  709. Moreau, Ph. “Influencias almohades en la arquitectura cristiana de los territorios de las coronas de Castilla y de Aragón.” In Mélanges María Soledad Carrasco Urgoiti. Edited by Abdeljelil Temimi, 81–102. Zaghouan, Tunisia: Fondation Temimi pour la recherche scientifique et l’information, 1999.
  710. Find this resource:
  711. Stroumsa, Sarah. Maimonides in his World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  712. DOI: 10.1515/9781400831326Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  713. Maimonides’s links to Almohad intellectual trends are here discussed. See also Carlos Fraenkel’s “Legislating Truth: Maimonides, the Almohads and the Thirteenth Century Jewish Enlightment,” in Studies in the History of Culture and Science: A Tribute to Gad Freudenthal, edited by Resianne Fontaine, Ruth Glasner, Reimund Leicht, and Giuseppe Veltri (Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Brill (2011): 209–232.
  714. Stroumsa, Sarah. Maimonides in his World: Portrait of a Mediterranean Thinker. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  715. Find this resource:
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