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Troubadours and Trouvères

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The troubadours and trouvères were medieval poet-musicians who created one of the first repertories of vernacular song to be written down. Their legacy is vast, existing today in many dozens of late medieval manuscripts that contain thousands of poems and hundreds of melodies largely attributed to individual troubadours and trouvères. The study of this repertory is often divided along geographic and linguistic lines. The troubadours, considered the earliest vernacular song composers, resided in the south of what is largely now France, spoke the regional vernacular now known as “Occitan,” and chiefly wrote their texts in the Old Provençal dialect. The trouvères lived in the north of France, writing poetry in Old French. Although the repertories of the troubadours and trouvères appear to have much in common, i.e., themes of love and betrayal, similar poetic genres and even melodies, the songs reflect the considerable differences in politics, religion, and social history between the two contiguous regions. The historical era of the troubadours and trouvères is fairly well defined. Guilhem (b. 1071–d. 1126), seventh count of Poitou and ninth duke of Aquitaine, emerged as the first troubadour. By mid-12th century, troubadour ideals had spread north, spawning the trouvère movement. The troubadour art had reached its high point by the end of the 12th century and suffered a near-fatal blow with the destruction of many Occitan courts, sources of troubadour patronage, during the Albigensian Crusade (c. 1209–1229). At that time many troubadours left to find havens at courts in Italy, Spain, and as far east as Hungary. Meanwhile the trouvères experienced great social change as feudalism waned in the 13th century and gradually more trouvères began leaving the aristocratic courts and estates to work in burgeoning urban centers such as Arras. By the 14th century, as the viable tradition of both the troubadours and the trouvères withered, societies and academies were established to preserve and promote the art. The tradition of published scholarship on the troubadours and trouvères dates back to the 14th century, at least to Dante’s De Eloquentia. Into the 19th century it was largely focused on finding and cataloguing the manuscript sources. Barring unexpected discoveries, the repertory is well established now and scholarship has turned toward evaluating the repertory within its known parameters. Today cogent research on the troubadours and trouvères requires an interdisciplinary approach. Among the philologists, musicologists, paleographers, and historians who are devoted to this repertory, a high degree of specialization and cross-disciplinary cooperation is required.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Because of the cross-disciplinary nature of troubadour and trouvère research, general sources on medieval history, literature, and music are necessary to lay the groundwork for serious study of the repertory. To facilitate finding relevant sources both general and specific, the online resource ARLIMA: Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge can be a good start. Source studies such as McGee 1998 and Seay 1974 help to reveal the performance practices and music analyses contemporaneous with the era. Essays in Van Deusen 1994 help provide a cultural context and musical background for the troubadours and trouvères within their social history. Aubry 1981 and Aubrey 2009 introduce the troubadour and trouvère repertory and its performative essence, and Stevens 1986 stresses the relationship of prosody to melody in the repertory. Switten and Chickering 2001 provides an appealing multimedia, interdisciplinary model for introducing college students and medieval enthusiasts to the troubadours and trouvères.
  8.  
  9. ARLIMA: Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge.
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  11. This is a free online site providing bibliography on medieval authors and texts. In French, it is easy to navigate and provides links to a host of research sites of use to troubadour and trouvère scholarship. Among these are ARTFL, Ménestrel, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Medieval Studies Online (Leeds), and many others.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Aubrey, Elizabeth, ed. Poets and Singers: On Latin and Vernacular Monophonic Song. Music in Medieval Europe. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2009.
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  15. An anthology of twenty-four reprinted articles by prominent scholars arranged around five themes: (1) history and society, (2) women, (3) poetry and music, (4) transmission, and (5) performers. The majority of the articles concern the repertoire of troubadours and trouvères.
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  17. Aubry, Pierre. Trouvères et Troubadours. 2d rev. ed. Les Maîtres de la Musique. Hildesheim, Germany: Georg Olms Verlag, 1981.
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  19. Originally published in 1910, an English translation was published by G. Schirmer in 1914. This is a classic study that treats the troubadours and trouvères as two parts of a single movement, discussing the nature of the movement and the manuscript tradition it generated. Aubry explains various genres and breaks the movement into three periods.
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  21. McGee, Timothy J. The Sound of Medieval Song: Ornamentation and Vocal Style According to the Treatises. Oxford Monographs on Music. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.
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  23. Examines the music notation of medieval manuscripts, drawing upon some fifty medieval theoretical treatises spanning a period from 600–1500. Clues to vocal style and use of ornaments in performance are revealed, suggesting local performance practices and a general affinity to those of the Middle East.
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  25. Seay, Albert. Johannes de Grocheo: Concerning Music (De musica). Colorado Springs: Colorado College Music, 1974.
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  27. The most accessible English translation of De musica (c. 1300) of Grocheo. His De musica is the only significant medieval discussion of secular and instrumental music. Reference is made to specific trouvère songs and genres.
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  29. Stevens, John. Words and Music in the Middle Ages: Song, Narrative, Dance and Drama, 1050–1350. Cambridge Studies in Music. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
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  31. Stevens’s focus is on text, and he explores how text manipulates music and performance in medieval lyric. Of special interest are number symbolism, emotion and meaning in the interpretation of various vernacular genres, and rhythm and genre.
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  33. Switten, Margaret, and Howell Chickering. The Medieval Lyric: A Project Supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities and Mount Holyoke College. 2d ed. South Hadley, MA: Mount Holyoke College, 2001.
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  35. This is an excellent resource for teaching undergraduate classes. Interdisciplinary in its approach, materials include CD recordings with outstanding performances of troubadour and trouvère songs and other medieval lyric repertories, anthologies with music scores, text translations and essays on language, performance, music, poetry and manuscripts.
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  37. van Deusen, Nancy, ed. The Cultural Milieu of the Troubadours and Trouvères. Ottawa, ON: Institute of Medieval Music, 1994.
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  39. Eleven essays on a wide variety of topics concerning the songs of the troubadours and trouvères and the environs they were written in. The essays are by experts in their particular disciplines. Topics include literacy, rhetoric, wordplay, modal rhythm of trouvère melodies, and post-Albigensian Crusade activities.
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  41. Anthologies
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  43. Becoming familiar with the repertory is a necessary first step in research. Anthologies can provide ready access to a representative cross-section or a specific aspect of the repertory, but many do not include any discussion of the music. Glossaries, grammars, and pronunciation guides are useful features found in scholarly anthologies. However, some are aimed at non-specialists, providing only English translations such as Economou 1978 and Bonner 1972. Kehew 2005 and Goldin 1973 provide the original language of the poetry with facing-page English translations. Bec, et al. 1992 and Hill and Bergin 1973 presume that readers have some competence in the original language of the poetry. The vidas of the troubadour poets are included in Goldin 1973 and Bonner 1972; whereas Hill and Bergin 1973 and Economou 1978 also contain the razos. Music notation, which is conspicuously lacking in most anthologies, is treated as an equal component in Rosenberg, et al. 1998. Doss-Quinby, et al. 2001 presents the first comprehensive collection of the neglected repertory of female trouvères.
  44.  
  45. Bec, Pierre, Gérard Gonfroy, and Gérard le Vot. Anthologie des troubadours. 3d ed. Series Bibliothèque médiévale. Paris: Union Générale d’Éditions, 1992.
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  47. First edition in 1979. Presents songs of twenty-six named troubadours arranged chronologically plus anonymous works. Texts are in Old Provençal. No music notation in the edition, but it discusses the music manuscripts. Includes essays on the canso, sirventes, planh, and pastourelle.
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  49. Bonner, Anthony, ed. and trans. Songs of the Troubadours. New York: Schocken, 1972.
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  51. Songs of twenty troubadours are given in English translation only. Poets are listed alphabetically and are introduced with passages from their vidas and useful commentary. The thirty-page introduction to the edition provides background information for the non-specialist. Also contains seven music transcriptions taken from Gennrich, Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours. (See Transcriptions)
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  53. Doss-Quinby, Eglal, Joan Tasker Grimbert, Wendy Pfeffer, and Elizabeth Aubrey, eds. Songs of the Women Trouvères. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.
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  55. This is the first anthology of the works of women trouvères. It contains songs of eight named trouvère women and a selection of anonymous works in the feminine voice. There are seventy-five texts in all and music accompanying eighteen songs and nineteen motets. Music commentary and transcription by Aubrey.
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  57. Economou, George, ed. Proensa: An Anthology of Troubadour Lyric. Selected and translated by Paul Blackburn. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
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  59. This anthology of eighty-nine poems by thirty-nine named troubadours and anonymous ones was created for the English-speaking world. The only text is English with poems metrically altered to fit English syntax. Existing vidas and razos are provided. No critical apparatus provided.
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  61. Goldin, Frederick, ed. and trans. Lyrics of the Troubadours and Trouvères: An Anthology and a History. Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1973.
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  63. English translations on facing pages with the original poetry. Within each repertory, poets are listed chronologically. Contains sixty songs by nineteen troubadours and forty-four songs by eight named and anonymous trouvères. Provides brief guides to pronunciation for each language. Introductions for each poet give translated passages of vidas and information gleaned from their songs.
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  65. Hill, Raymond, and Thomas Bergin. Anthology of the Provençal Troubadours: Texts, Notes, and Vocabulary. 2d rev. ed. 2 vols. Yale Romanic Studies. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973.
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  67. First edition published in 1941. Presents 132 poems by forty-seven troubadours along with forty-two vidas, six razos, and three prose works. Only the commentary introducing each troubadour is in English. A detailed glossary and brief grammar aid the translation of these Old Provençal works. Notes and bibliography are brief.
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  69. Kehew, Robert, ed. Lark in the Morning: The Verses of the Troubadours, a Bilingual Edition. Translated by Ezra Pound, W. D. Snodgrass, and Robert Kehew. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
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  71. The forty-seven songs by twenty-six composers are arranged chronologically. Pound and Snodgrass provide a literary quality to the translations that makes them works of art in their own right. Old Provençal texts are on facing pages. Lacks music and a glossary.
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  73. Rosenberg, Samuel, Margaret Switten, and Gérard Le Vot, eds. Songs of the Troubadours and Trouvères: An Anthology of Poems and Melodies. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities 1740. New York: Garland, 1998.
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  75. An edition of sixty-three songs of twenty-three troubadours, thirty-two anonymous trouvère works and forty-nine works by twenty-six named trouvères. A comprehensive approach covering the history, literature, and music. Full texts are given and melodies provided for over a hundred songs. Includes a CD recording of twelve of the edited songs.
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  77. Courtly Love
  78.  
  79. The theme most identifiable today with troubadour and trouvère poetry is a concept called “courtly love,” a term that was invented, ironically, in the late 19th century. The term represents a code of behavior that remains imprecisely understood to this day. The scholarly essays in Newman 1972 argue effectively that courtly love is illusory. Boase 1977 finds courtly love deeply rooted in Arab traditions, and O’Donoghue 1982 claims to trace its origins all the way back to Antiquity. Andreas 1969 laid down rules for loving in his De amore that were widely acknowledged in the songs of troubadours and trouvères. The earliest retrospective studies of what we call courtly love today, Le Breviari d’amor and Les Leys d’Amors, are available in critical editions Rickets 1976 and Anglade 1971, respectively. Nelli 1974 sees courtly love as existing outside of traditional Christian mores and rooted in the pagan past. Lazar 1964 also cannot reconcile the sensual nature of courtly love expressed in troubadour poetry with Christian ideals.
  80.  
  81. Andreas, Capellanus. The Art of Courtly Love. Introduction, translation, and notes by John Jay Parry. New York: Norton, 1969.
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  83. Parry’s reliable translation was originally published in 1941. Written during the period 1186–1190, Andreas’s De amore is a debate and series of dialogues promoting the courtly love ideal of the troubadours as ennobling. Andreas lists thirty-one “rules of love” purportedly pronounced at actual courts of love presided over by famous ladies.
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  85. Anglade, Joseph, ed. Les Leys d’Amors: Manuscrit de l’Academie des Jeux Floraux publié par Joseph Anglade. Bibliothèque méridionale. Series 1. Vols. 17–20. New York: Johnson Reprint, 1971.
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  87. Originally published in 1919–1920. Guillem Molinier’s Les leys d’Amors (“Laws of Love”), was written c. 1327 for the Toulouse Consistori del Gay Saber for judging annual song contests. It meant to preserve the art of the Provençal troubadours. Written in verse, there is also a prose version by Joan de Castellnou titled Las flors del gay saber (1356).
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  89. Boase, Roger. The Origin and Meaning of Courtly Love: A Critical Study of European Scholarship. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1977.
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  91. Begins with a detailed chronological survey of courtly love scholarship since the 16th century. Subsequent chapters cover theories and meaning of courtly love. He debunks the suggestion that courtly love was a 19th-century invention and demonstrates that the theory of Arab influence was introduced as early as the 16th century.
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  93. Lazar, Moshé. Amour courtois et “fin’amors” dans la littérature du XIIe siècle. Bibliothèque française et romane. Series C. Vol. 8. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1964.
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  95. Points out varieties of medieval profane love. Constructs categories of amour courtois conjugal (married) love and amour-passion (secret, illicit love). Insists on the essential sensuality of troubadour poetry that was irreconcilable with Christian love. The lover’s humility before the lady is essential to the troubadour courtly love concept.
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  97. Nelli, René. L’Érotique des troubadours. 2 vols. Bibliothèque méridionale. Series 2. Vol. 38. Union Générale d’Éditions, 1974.
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  99. Originally published in 1963. A rather scientific, ethno-sociological analysis of the influence of indigenous folklore and Hispano-Arab literature on the troubadours and their development of the ideology of courtly love and the liberation of women.
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  101. Newman, F. X., ed. The Meaning of Courtly Love: Papers of the First Annual Conference of the Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies. Binghamton: State University of New York Press, 1972.
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  103. Five essays on the concept of courtly love in medieval literature which present a skeptical view of its importance. D. W. Robertson’s “The Concept of Courtly Love as an Impediment to the Understanding of Medieval Texts,” denies its validity altogether. Contributors also include John Benton, W. T. H. Jackson, Charles Singleton, and Theodore Silverstein.
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  105. O’Donoghue, Bernard. The Courtly Love Tradition. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1982.
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  107. The study traces the origins of the concept of courtly love to Roman poets such as Ovid, in a discussion of the poetry of ten troubadours and the narratives, romances and songs of five trouvères. Gives side-by-side English translations of Old Provençal and Old French poetry.
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  109. Rickets, Peter T., ed. “Le Breviari d’Amor” de Matfre Ermengaud, V. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1976.
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  111. This represents Volume 5 of this huge work. Volumes 2 and 3 (published in London, 1989 and 1998); Volume 4 (published in Paris, 2004). Written during the period 1288–1292, the Breviari has 34,500 verses of Old Provençal poetry arranged in octosyllabic rhyming couplets. It aims to reconcile God’s love with the courtly love of the troubadours. It contains over 250 citations of troubadours and trouvères. This edition gives manuscript variants and copious text notes on facing pages.
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  113. Genre
  114.  
  115. Troubadour and trouvère poetry is subdivided into genres in a fairly rigid taxonomy that, for the most part, dates back to the original repertory (understanding that taxonomy and its origins requires identification of generic poetic and musical conventions). In Shapiro 1990, one sees how Dante began the process of generic identification by defining the various traits of Old Provençal lyric. Dronke 1996 and Bec 1977–1978 offer the best introduction, surveying a large sample of medieval literature. Bec 1977–1978 introduces the idea of social register as a factor in generic organization, and Page 1986 complements Bec by bringing music more into the discussion. In Paden 2000 the origins of specific genre are explored, as is the originality of the troubadours.
  116.  
  117. Bec, Pierre. La Lyrique Française au Moyen Âge (XIIe – XIIIe siècles): Contribution a une Typologie des Genres Poétique Médiévaux. 2 vols. Publications du Centre d’Études Supérieures de Civilisation Médiévale de l’Université de Poitiers VI–VII. Paris: J. Picard, 1977–1978.
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  119. Volume 1 begins with an introduction to genre classification, followed by chapters on individual genres. Three social registers are posited: aristocratic, jongleuresque, and folkloric. And their influence on various genres is explored. Volume 2 is an anthology of 158 songs edited and organized by genre. A glossary is appended.
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  121. Dronke, Peter. The Medieval Lyric. 3d ed. Woodbridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1996.
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  123. The first edition was published in 1968. Dronke provides a general survey of all medieval lyric genres including those of the troubadours and trouvères. He examines performative aspects of the lyrics and devotes a chapter each to the troubadour and trouvère alba and dance song genres.
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  125. Paden, William D., ed. Medieval Lyric: Genres in Historical Context. Illinois Medieval Studies. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000.
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  127. A study of lyric genres by fourteen scholars and an examination of the historicity of “genre” in specific cultures. Lyric genres are also examined with regard to rhetoric, music, and the concept of “genre” itself. Six of the articles deal directly with troubadour and trouvère genres.
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  129. Page, Christopher. Voices and Instruments of the Middle Ages: Instrumental Practice and Songs in France 1100–1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
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  131. A study of Occitan, Old French, and Latin lyrics. Page categorizes genres as “high” or “low” register depending on their style, form, music, and mode of performance. Draws on medieval treatises to corroborate his findings.
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  133. Shapiro, Marianne. De vulgari eloquentia: Dante’s Book of Exile. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
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  135. English translation and analysis of Dante’s unfinished treatise, which he began in c. 1303. Dante’s book presents the earliest known criticism of vernacular literature. He examines works of seven troubadours (especially Bertran de Born and Folquet de Marselha) and one trouvère (Thibaut de Champagne). Dante categorizes songs by form, subject, and performative aspects.
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  137. Manuscripts
  138.  
  139. Although the manuscript sources of the troubadours and trouvères have been located and inventoried, they will always be the primary sources of text and music for scholars to consult and will continue to offer considerable potential for further study. A few of the most important manuscripts have been reproduced in facsimile and many others are being scanned and digitized for use online. The two Bibliothèque Sommaire of Jeanroy 1966 and Jeanroy 1974 offer a good starting point for separating and studying the troubadour and trouvère sources. The online site Gallica offers instant access to dozens of French manuscripts. The high-resolution photographic reproductions of the major French manuscripts Chansonnier d’Arras (Jeanroy 1968), Cangé (Beck 1964), and du Roi (Beck 1970), make them as readable as the originals, and they are now all available in reprint editions. The study of du Roi (Spanke 1943) is an excellent complement to Beck’s commentary. Also in reprint is the manuscript BNf 20050 (Meyer and Raynaud 1968) but without commentary.
  140.  
  141. Beck, Jean Baptiste. Le chansonnier Cangé, Manuscrit française no. 846 de la Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris. 2 vols. Corpus Cantilenarum Medii Aevi, ser. 1. New York: Broude, 1964.
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  143. Reprint of 1927 edition. Known as trouvère MS O, it is remarkable for its use of “pre-mensural” notation and its large repertory of 351 trouvère songs. Volume 1 is the manuscript photocopy, and Volume 2 contains notes on versification, scribes, forms, music and poetry, and transcriptions of all the songs.
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  145. Beck, Jean Baptiste. Le Manuscrit du Roi. Fonds française no. 844 de la Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris. 2 vols. Corpus Cantilenarum Medii Aevi. Series 2. New York: Broude, 1970.
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  147. Reprint of 1938 edition. Known as trouvère MS M, this is an important source of 403 trouvère and sixty troubadour songs and also contains fifty motets and instrumental estampes. Some folios are badly mutilated. Beck provides important information on the manuscript and its texts and melodies. Volume 1: manuscript photocopy. Volume 2: layer by layer analysis.
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  149. Gallica. Bibliothèque Numérique de la Bibliothèque Nationale de France.
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  151. Offers access to hundreds of thousands of items from the Bibliothèque Nationale and other associated libraries for free. Among these are many 13th- and 14th-century troubadour and trouvère manuscripts exquisitely scanned. The site is in easy-to-understand French, but maneuvering through it can be difficult.
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  153. Jeanroy, Alfred. Bibliographie Sommaire des Chansonniers Provençaux (Manuscrits et Éditions). Les Classiques Français du moyen Age, Series 2. Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, Éditeur, 1966.
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  155. Originally published in 1916. The first part is an inventory of nearly seventy manuscripts containing troubadour works. Part 2 gives brief summaries of 207 editions of the troubadour repertory including editions of 148 named troubadours and twenty-four editions of anonymous works.
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  157. Jeanroy, Alfred, ed. Le Chansonnier d’Arras. Société des Anciens Textes Français 69. New York: Johnson Reprint, 1968.
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  159. Originally published in 1925. A nineteen-page introduction and excellent photocopy of the chansonnier, fols. 119–160 of MS 657 of the Bibliothèque municipale d’Arras. Introduction describes the manuscript and its repertory of seventy-eight trouvère songs.
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  161. Jeanroy, Alfred. Bibliographie Sommaire des Chansonniers Français du Moyen Âge (Manuscrits et Éditions). Les Classiques Français du moyen Age, Series 2. Paris: Librairie Honoré Champion, Éditeur, 1974.
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  163. Published originally in 1917. Adopts the siglum of Schwann, Die altfranzösischen Liederhanschriften (1886) but also indicates the siglum of Raynaud, G. Raynauds Bibliographie des Altfranzösischen Liedes (see Bibliographies). The catalogue begins with the major chansonniers, then manuscripts with chansonnier collections, and eventually ends with single anonymous pieces. In all thirty-eight manuscripts are inventoried.
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  165. Meyer, P., and G. Raynaud, eds. Le Chansonnier Français de Saint-Germain-des-Prés (Bibl. Nat. fr. 20050). Société des Anciens Textes Français. Vol. 31. New York: Johnson Reprint, 1968.
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  167. Reprint from the 1892 edition (Paris: Librairie de Firmin Didot et Cie). It is one of the four principal sources (MS G) of troubadour melodies. A good, workable photocopy of the entire manuscript. A second volume of transcriptions was never realized.
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  169. Spanke, Hans. “Der Chansonnier du Roi.” Romanishe Forschungen 57 (1943): 38–104.
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  171. Still the most detailed and accurate study of this important trouvère manuscript. Gives a detailed description and analysis of each of the manuscript’s layers. Corrects and expands on earlier studies, especially Jean Beck’s monumental edition of the Chansonnier Cangé (Beck 1964).
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  173. Language
  174.  
  175. Any serious study of the troubadours and trouvères requires some knowledge of the original language of the texts. Since Old Provençal became an accepted literary language by the 13th century, the earliest vernacular grammars, such as the Donatz Proensals (Marshall 1969), the Razos de trobar (Marshall 1972), and the Arte de trovar (Villena 2010), are dedicated to it. Among the contemporary published introductions to the language are those meant basically to facilitate reading the Old Provençal repertory such as Smith and Bergin 1984 and those such as Paden 1998, which are intended also to teach proper diction. The tradition of scholarship in Old French is not quite so venerable as that of Old Provençal, but it continues to flourish. Kibler 1984 offers a comprehensive approach to Old French, covering dialects and offering guides to pronunciation. Thomasset and Ueltschi 2009 provides an essential Old French grammar, and Greimas 1989 has compiled an accurate yet inexpensive reference to Old French in his Dictionnaire.
  176.  
  177. Greimas, A. J. Dictionnaire de l’ancien français jusqu’au milieu du XIVe siècle. Références Larousse. Paris: Librairie Larousse, 1989.
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  179. Definitions are in modern French. Vocabulary is drawn from the Chanson de Roland up to c. 1350, excluding the works of Froissart. Definitions make reference to the source (author/work) in which it is found. Differences in the meaning of words are indicated by separate entries for the same word.
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  181. Kibler, William W. An Introduction to Old French. Introductions to Older Languages 3. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1984.
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  183. For classroom or self-study, this book features lessons laid out in twenty-three chapters that progress in difficulty. Readings include a lai of Marie de France along with other text excerpts from 12th- to 13th-century literature, including some in Anglo-Norman and Picard dialects. Comprehensive guides to phonology and grammar.
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  185. Marshall, J. H., ed. The “Donatz Proensals” of U Faidit. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969.
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  187. The earliest surviving Old Provençal grammar dating from c. 1240. Marshall examines the manuscript sources, proposing a stemma, and comments on function and quality of the work. The critical text contains detailed notes on both the Latin and Old Provençal versions. An extensive glossary is included.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Marshall, J. H., ed. The “Rozos de trobar” of Raimon Vidal and Associated Texts. London: Oxford University Press, 1972.
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  191. Raimon composed the Razos sometime around 1190–1213. The Catalan author promotes Old Provençal as the necessary language for lyric poetry. Provides a grammar for practical application. Associated texts include Doctrina d‘acort, by Terramagnino da Pisa and Regles de trobar and Doctrina de compondre dictats, by Jofre de Foixà.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Paden, William. An Introduction to Old Occitan. Introductions to Older Languages 4. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 1998.
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  195. Written as a textbook laid out in thirty-two chapters of progressive difficulty, each accompanied by a newly edited Occitan reading. Glossary relates Occitan words to counterparts in other romance languages and Latin. Comes with a CD that gives examples of pronunciation and music performances.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Smith, Nathaniel, and Thomas G. Bergin. An Old Provençal Primer. New York: Garland, 1984.
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  199. A textbook for scholars and students wishing to read Old Provençal. Grammar is standardized on the language of late-12th-century troubadours. The nearly 250-page grammar is preceded by an introduction to the history and character of the language and followed by selected readings. Includes an extensive glossary.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Thomasset, Claude, and Karin Ueltschi. Pour lire l’ancien français. 2d ed. Collection 128. Series lettres. Paris: Armand Colin, 2009.
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  203. A small book containing a basic grammar for reading Old French. It includes an introduction to the history of the language. The vocabulary is shown in numerous contexts drawn mainly from late medieval romances.
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  205. Villena, Enrique de Aragón. Arte de trovar. Memoria (Linkgua ediciones). Barcelona: Linkgua Digital, 2010.
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  207. Originally written around 1417–1428, Arte de trovar by Spanish writer, theologian, and poet Enrique Villena, discusses troubadour prosody. A nostalgic look at a defunct art, it attests to the tradition of cultural exchange between Catalonia and southern France.
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  209. Music
  210.  
  211. It is generally accepted that most troubadour and trouvère poems are meant to be sung. So music is integral to understanding the lyrics. Unfortunately, the manuscript evidence is not forthcoming. Of the 2,600 extant troubadour lyrics only about 10 percent are given music notation in the manuscripts. The trouvères are better represented with roughly 1,500 melodies, representing about 50 percent of the repertory. Much of the scholarship on the music has come since the 20th century and only more recently has much been published in English. To get a sense of the scope of the melodies in the repertory or to find melodies for particular poems, consult Mayer-Martin and Keyser 2011. Because most of the troubadour and trouvère repertory is in rhythmically ambiguous notation, providing a rhythmic framework for performance has been a contentious issue. The rhythmic solution provided by Beck 2010 has continued to have support among some musicologists and performers. Aubrey 1996 is the best source for considering all issues relating to performance. Steel 1989 sees a close connection between the musical repertory of the troubadours and that of chant, whereas Falvy 1986 sees troubadour music as an influence on Hispano-Arabic song. Page 1986 is convinced that music is a major factor determining genre. Brothers 1997 and Peraino 2011 examine music’s role in specific genres.
  212.  
  213. Aubrey, Elizabeth. The Music of the Troubadours. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996.
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  215. The first published comprehensive study of the entire repertory of troubadour melodies. Gives historical background, discussion of manuscripts and insight into the poetry. Music is treated by song genre, form, and style. Questions of performance such as rhythm, use of instruments, ornamentation, and musica ficta are also explored.
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  217. Beck, Jean Baptiste. Die Melodien der Troubadours und Trouvères. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2010.
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  219. Reprint of the 1908 edition (Strasbourg: Verlag von Karl J. Trübner). A pioneering study of the music, introducing new principles for determining the rhythm of the original notation. Examines the neumatic notation of the melodies and ligature patterns in conjunction with the rhythmic modes of polyphonic music.
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  221. Brothers, Thomas. Chromatic Beauty in the Late Medieval Chanson: An Interpretation of Manuscript Accidentals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  222. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511585180Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Devotes a chapter to trouvère manuscript O (see Manuscripts). Examines the function of accidentals (musica ficta) as a means of expression with regard to the concept “for the sake of beauty” (causa pulchritudinis) as described in contemporary treatises.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Falvy, Zoltán. Mediterranean Culture and Troubadour Music. Translated by Maria Steiner. Studies in Central and Eastern European Music I. Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1986.
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  227. English translation from original Hungarian. Argues that in the Spanish court of Alfonso X, troubadour song intermingled with cantigas and Near Eastern instrumental music, a point that seems corroborated by the contrafacta of troubadour songs. He analyzes songs of Pierre Vidal and Gaucelm Faidit, who both visited Hungary, and claims that they represent a cross-section of troubadour song style.
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  229. Mayer-Martin, Donna, and Dorothy Keyser. Thematic Catalog of Troubadour and Trouvère Melodies. Thematic Catalogues in Music, no. 18. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon, 2011.
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  231. Originally published in 2000. Incomplete at Mayer-Martin’s death in 2009, the project was expanded and completed by Keyser. It inventories all music manuscripts of the troubadours and trouvères, cross-referenced with the Pillet-Carstens Bibliographie der Troubadours (see Bibliographies), Spanke-Raynaud’s Bibliograpie des Altfranzösischen Liedes (see Bibliographies), and Linker’s A Bibliography of Old French Lyrics (see Bibliographies). Melodic incipits are separated into troubadour and trouvère sections. Each song incipit is identified with its base manuscript, concordances, and contrafacta.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Page, Christopher. Voices and Instruments of the Middle Ages: Instrumental Practice and Songs in France 1100–1300. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
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  235. Examines troubadour and trouvère music focusing on characteristics associated with various genres. Categorizes genres as “high” or “low” register, which is indicative of style and mode of performance. Gives evidence of instrumental (especially string instrument) participation. Contains a detailed examination of literary references to string instruments, especially the vielle.
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  237. Peraino, Judith A. Giving Voice to Love: Song and Self-Expression from the Troubadours to Guillaume de Machaut. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  238. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199757244.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. A study of the monophonic music of the troubadours, trouvères, motets, and Machaut, focusing on the relationships between music and love lyrics. Detailed analyses of poetry and music, transcriptions, manuscript facsimiles, and references to Oxford Web Music online recordings.
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  241. Steel, Matthew. “Influences on the Musical Style of the Troubadours of Twelfth and Thirteenth Century Southern France.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1989.
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  243. Analysis of troubadour melodies attempting to isolate the music from modes of performance, transmission, and notational idiosyncrasies to distill its true nature. Evidence points to the theoretical precepts of church modes as the overriding influence. Melodic style results from each troubadour’s approach to the process of modeling and imitation.
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  245. Transcriptions
  246.  
  247. Transcription of troubadour and trouvère melodies into modern music notation or into rhythm-neutral noteheads without stems is the musical counterpart to translation in the literary anthologies. It provides today’s musicians ready access to the music repertories. Gennrich 1958–1965 and Gennrich 1959 were the first efforts at transcribing the complete corpus of troubadour melodies, and they provide a fairly accurate reading of the manuscripts. These editions were superseded by van der Werf 1984, providing emendations to the Gennrich editions and reestablishing a rhythm-neutral approach to transcription. A transcription less reliable than Gennrich 1958–1965, Gennrich 1959, or van der Werf 1984 is found in the curious edition of Fernández de la Cuesta and Lafont 1977. Not until Tischler 1997 had there been a complete edition of the trouvère melodies. Pitch accurate, Tischler 1997 transcribes the melodies into his peculiar modified modal-rhythms. Both Rosenberg 1981 and van der Werf 1977–1979) had previously provided smaller trouvère anthologies, with each edition strikingly different in its approach to rhythm. In van der Werf 1972, the “declamatory rhythm” approach to transcription was introduced and re-ignited the long-smoldering controversy over rhythmic interpretation.
  248.  
  249. Fernández de la Cuesta, Ismael, and Robert Lafont, eds. Las Cançons dels Trodadors: Opera Omnia. Toulouse, France: Institut d’Estudis Occitans, 1977.
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  251. Introduction and song texts in Provençal, translated into French, Catalan, German, and English. Gives original melodies in a diplomatic reproduction with non-rhythmic modern transcriptions. The original and transcribed melodies are not always reliable readings.
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  253. Gennrich, Friedrich. Der musikalische Nachlass der Troubadours. 3 vols. Summa Musicae Medii Aevi. Darmstadt, Germany: Self-published. 1958–1965.
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  255. Volume 1 is a critical edition of the melodies, Volume 2 is a commentary, Volume 3 is prolegomena. Modern transcription of all possible troubadour melodies expressed in medieval modal rhythms. Volume 2 examines the origin and transmission of the melodies. The Provençal texts are translated only into German. Extensive bibliography.
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  257. Gennrich, Friedrich, ed. Lo Gai Saber: 50 ausgewählte Troubadourlieder. Melodie, Text, Kommentar, Formenlehre, und Glossar. Musikwissenschaftliche Studienbibliothek 18–19. Darmstadt, Germany: Privat, 1959.
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  259. Moves chronologically from Marcabru to Uc de Saint Circ. Bernart is the one most represented here with twelve songs. Melodies transcribed in modal rhythms. Bibliography, historical notes, grammar, and glossary occupy the last half of the edition.
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  261. Rosenberg, Samuel, and Hans Tischler, ed. Chanter m’estuet: Songs of the Trouvères. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981.
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  263. Also published in French as Chansons des trouvères: Chanter m’estuet (Librairie Générale Française, 1995) in collaboration with Marie-Geneviève Grossel who provides modern French translations of the songs. The edition contains eighty-six anonymous trouvère songs and 131 ascribed songs. In all, 151 have melodies transcribed by Tischler into his modified modal rhythms. The edition’s wide variety of genres includes ballettes, aubes, chansons de toile, reverdies, and chansons pieuses. Excellent text notes and glossary are provided.
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  265. Tischler, Hans. Trouvère Lyrics with Melodies: Complete Comparative Edition. 15 vols. Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae. American Institute of Musicology. Neuhausen, Germany: Hännsler Verlag, 1997.
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  267. A transcription of all trouvère lyrics with music. Melodies in modified modal rhythms. Volume 1: editorial practices, trouvère composers, terminology, manuscripts, bibliography and comparison of Tischler’s own peculiar catalogue numbers with Raynaud and Spanke 1980 (see Bibliographies). Supplemental volume (2006) corrects and expands the edition and discusses rhythm as compromise of verse meters with rhythmic modes.
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  269. van der Werf, Hendrik. The Chansons of the Troubadours and Trouvères: A Study of the Melodies and Their Relation to the Poems. Utrecht, The Netherlands: A. Oosthoek, 1972.
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  271. Valuable introduction discusses manuscripts, written and oral traditions, rhythm and meter, melodic characteristics and the poems. Defends his “declamatory rhythm” theory. Part 2illustrates his theory with melodic transcriptions and analyses of four troubadour and eleven trouvère songs. Song texts translated by F. R. P. Akehurst.
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  273. van der Werf, Hendrik. The Extant Troubadour Melodies: Transcriptions and Essays for Performers and Scholars. Text edited by Gerald Bond. Rochester, NY: self-published, 1984.
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  275. First complete English edition of all the troubadour melodies. Part 1 consists of short essays on written and oral traditions, music notation idiosyncrasies in the four main manuscripts, musical analysis and performance considerations, and the texts. Part 2 consists of the transcription with manuscript variants noted, other text and music editions, and commentary.
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  277. van der Werf, Hendrik, ed. Trouvères Melodien. 2 vols. Monumenta Monodica Medii Aevi, Bd. 11–12. Kassel, Germany: Bärenreiter, 1977–1979.
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  279. First volume contains songs of five trouvères including Gace Brulé. The second volume has songs of six trouvères including Thibaut de Champagne and Adam de la Halle. First stanzas of songs are given and accompanied by an edition of all known melodic versions. Rhythm is determined by text declamation. Includes a detailed critical apparatus.
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  281. Bibliographies
  282.  
  283. Gaining bibliographic control over the vast repertory and published scholarship on the troubadours and trouvères is a daunting concern for researchers. Switten 1995 provides an exceptionally comprehensive introduction to research; though it can be supplemented by Hughes 1980. Despite its age, Pillet 1968 is still the only truly reliable catalogue of the troubadour repertory. Taylor 1977, though limited, lists valuable resources for serious troubadour research. There appear to be more bibliographic options for trouvère research, starting with the Raynaud and Spanke 1980 catalogue, which was greatly supplemented by Linker 1979. Doss-Quinby 1994, like Taylor 1977, is helpful despite its somewhat limited scope. Van den Boogaard 1969 is focused on specific genre that pertain chiefly to the trouvère repertory but include non-lyric genres such as the motet, romance, and jeu.
  284.  
  285. Doss-Quinby, Eglal. The Lyrics of the Trouvères: A Research Guide (1970–1990). Garland Medieval Bibliographies. Vol. 17. New York: Garland, 1994.
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  287. An 825-entry bibliography with annotations. Focuses on works published from 1970–1990 but includes reprints. Does not include studies of non-musical genres such as congés and dits. Items are classified by subject, genre, and author with liberal cross-referencing. Individual trouvères are also identified by their Linker 1979 numbers.
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  289. Hughes, Andrew. Medieval Music: The Sixth Liberal Art. 2d rev. ed. Toronto Medieval Bibliographies 4. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
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  291. First published in 1974. In the sections titled “Vernacular Song in Provence and northern France” and “France: Notre Dame and the Thirteenth-century Motet” are 200 resources for study of poetic and musical works of the troubadours and trouvères.
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  293. Linker, Robert White. A Bibliography of Old French Lyrics. Romance Monographs 31. University, MS: Romance Monographs, 1979.
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  295. Complete and updated reworking of Spanke and Raynaud 1980. Uses new numbering system but also includes Raynaud’s numbers wherever possible. Part 1 is devoted to the manuscripts, listing facsimiles and editions, copious bibliography, and abbreviations. Part 2 is the catalogue, giving the manuscript, bibliographic references, and available melody.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Raynaud, G., and Hans Spanke. G. Raynauds Bibliographie des Altfranzösischen Liedes: Newly edited and completed by Hans Spanke. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1980.
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  299. Contains Raynaud’s original catalogue (1884) and the first Spanke edition (1955). The 1980 editon has added a discography and an index of the chansons compiled by Avner Bahat. Remains a standard catalogue of trouvère works, and in some ways, it has been superseded by Linker 1979. Entries contain manuscript sources, rhyme scheme, genre, musical form, and bibliography.
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  301. Pillet, Alfred. Bibliographie der Troubadours. Edited by Henry Carstens. Schriften der Königsberger Gelehrten Gesellschaft, sondereihe III. New York: Burt Franklin, 1968.
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  303. Reprint of 1933 edition. Remains the main printed reference tool for all troubadour research. Pillet borrowed from and expanded on the classification system in Karl Bartsch, Grundriss zur Geschichte der provenzalischen Literatur (1872). Attempts at updating the catalogue have been few, with the most substantial contribution found in Frank’s Répertoire Métrique (see Troubadours: Poetry).
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  305. Switten, Margaret. Music and Poetry in the Middle Ages: A Guide to Research on French and Occitan Song, 1100–1400. Garland Medieval Bibliographies 19. New York: Garland, 1995.
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  307. Included in this study are not only troubadour and trouvère lyrics but also songs in fixed forms and early motets. The 785-entry annotated bibliography is arranged by subject and type of publication. The annotated discography has 150 entries. The 153-page introduction covers many topics both literary and musical.
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  309. Taylor, Robert A. La littérature Occitane du Moyen Age: Bibliographie Selective et Critique. Toronto Medieval Bibliographies 7. Edited by John Leyerle. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1977.
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  311. Written for use by students and non-specialists in Occitan culture. Most of the 885 entries are accompanied by helpful annotations with cross-references. Meant to be selective by choosing newer sources over the old (pre-1920) in most cases.
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  313. van den Boogaard, Nico. Rondeau et Refrain du XIIe siècle au début du XIVe. Bibliothèque Française et Romane sèrie D, no. 3. Paris: Klincksieck, 1969.
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  315. Essential research tool for the vast repertory of refrains in songs, motets, and narrative genres. Catalogues 1,933 refrains and 198 rondeaux. The study extends through Jean Acart de Hesdin’s La Prise Amoureuse of 1332. Arranged alphabetically by incipit, each refrain is identified by the work in which it appears. Uses Spanke-Raynaud numbers. Identifies manuscripts for each refrain.
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  317. Troubadours
  318.  
  319. The tradition of general scholarship on the troubadours is long and strewn with romanticized and nostalgic accounts of their lives and loves. Much of this falls within the tradition of the troubadour vidas, fanciful biographies attached to various troubadours in the manuscripts. Egan 1984 provides easy access to the vidas, plus some of the razos or “rationales” of individual songs. Modern scholarship has become more positivist and objective, and an excellent example of such scholarship and a place to start general research is Gaunt and Kay 1999. Perhaps not as ambitious in scope as Gaunt and Kay 1999, Akehurst and Davies 1995 nevertheless offers solid scholarship plus an introduction to the repertory of songs. Paterson 1995 provides comprehensive historical and social background to the lives and times of the troubadours. Topsfield 1975 reminds us that troubadour poetry does not represent a unified phenomenon but rather the work of individual poets with varied ideas on common issues. Jeanroy 1974 represents a starting point for modern troubadour scholarship. Keller 1986 offers a wealth of international scholarship to those with some foreign-language skills. The articles and reviews in Tenso represent the best in recent troubadour scholarship.
  320.  
  321. Akehurst, F. R. P., and Judith Davies, eds. A Handbook of the Troubadours. Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, UCLA 26. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  323. An introduction to troubadour song that can serve both students and scholars. Contains a series of articles by various authors on a wide range of issues. Each article is accompanied by a list of works. It does not examine performative issues such as the melodies and sound of the language.
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  325. Egan, Margarita, trans. The Vidas of the Troubadours. Garland Library of Medieval Literature. Vol. 6, Series B. New York: Garland, 1984.
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  327. A generally reliable English translation of the vidas and a few troubadour razos. Follows the text established by Boutiere and Schutz in Biographies des Troubadours. (2d ed., 1973). Discusses the possible authorship and the manuscript sources of these highly imaginative “biographies.” A section is devoted to manuscript facsimiles showing troubadour portraits.
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  329. Gaunt, Simon, and Sarah Kay, eds. The Troubadours: An Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
  330. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511620508Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. A general introduction to the subject in seventeen chapters written by experts in the related disciplines. Examines courtly culture, courtly love (fin’amor), individual troubadours by period, the trobairitz, music, rhetoric, orality, manuscripts and relationship with Old French narrative. Appendixes contain biographies of major troubadours, Occitan terms, and significant bibliography.
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  333. Jeanroy, Alfred. La Poésie lyrique des Troubadours. 2 vols. New York: AMS, 1974.
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  335. Reprint of the 1934 edition. A timeless classic for all troubadour scholars. More than a mere study of lyric poetry, it examines troubadour historiography, language, bibliography, social history, the trobairitz, performance, geography, and biography. It is divided into two parts; the first covers the history of research and the poetry and its dialects, and the second looks at the individual troubadours and the development of the song genres.
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  337. Keller, Hans-Erich, et al., eds. Studia Occitanica in Memoriam Paul Remy: The Troubadours. Vol. 1. Edited by Hans-Erich Keller, et al. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute, 1986.
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  339. A gedenkschrift, this contains thirty articles on diverse troubadour subjects by renowned authorities in the field. Published in their original languages but mostly French, including a few in English, German, and Italian. Only a couple of articles are devoted to music.
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  341. Paterson, Linda M. The World of the Troubadours: Medieval Occitan Study, c. 1100–1300. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  343. First comprehensive study of the world the troubadours lived in. Topics include Occitan identity, chivalry, the nobility, courts, feudalism, towns, women, peasants and the clergy. The book provides a mix of social history and literary studies that is intended to appeal to students and specialists in both disciplines.
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  345. Tenso: Bulletin of the Société Guilhem IX.
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  347. Begun in 1985 and published semi-annually (now annually), this is a peer-reviewed journal with a focus on the troubadours and Occitan culture. It is indexed in Modern Language Association Bibliography, the International Medieval Bibliography, and other international indexes. Substantial, well-documented articles by renowned authorities and aspiring scholars. Critical reviews of books.
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  349. Topsfield, L. T. Troubadours and Love. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1975.
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  351. A study of the language of love in works of eleven troubadours, representing the beginning (Guillaume IX, Jaufre Rudel, and Marcabru) to the end (Guilhem de Monyanhagol, Peire Cardenal, and Guiraut Riquier) of the troubadour era. Characterizes writing styles by vocabulary and contains an index of verse-quotations and chronological table.
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  353. Poetry
  354.  
  355. The troubadours were masters of innovation in the art of poetry. Sophisticated expression through the manipulation of rhyme schemes, versification, and rhetoric is the hallmark of their art. Van Vleck 1991 claims that their poetic virtuosity came from their memories in what was largely an oral tradition. Smith 1976 attributes that virtuosity to the mastery of the repetition of rhetorical figures. Kay 1990 finds the troubadours’ use of rhetoric as primarily a tool for obfuscation, and Gaunt 2008 sees the rhetorical device of irony as a source of veiled humor. Paterson 1975 discovers that the eloquence Dante attributed to the troubadours was a result of gradual stylistic development of five troubadours. Chambers 1985 builds on the work of Frank 1966 to produce a comprehensive study of the entire corpus of troubadour versification. The transition of troubadour poetry from an essentially oral tradition to a literate one in the compilation of songbooks is examined by Galvez 2012.
  356.  
  357. Chambers, Frank M. An Introduction to Old Provençal Versification. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 167. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1985.
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  359. A chronological examination of developing versification practices. Acknowledges the pioneering research published in Frank’s Répertoire métrique (1953 and 1957) as the basis of the study. More accessible than Frank for the uninitiated, because it is in English and generally avoids scholarly jargon, but it lacks Frank’s detail and scope.
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  361. Frank, Istvan. Répertoire Métrique de la Poésie des Troubadours. 2 vols. Bibliothèque de l’École des Hautes Études. Paris: Honoré Champion, 1966.
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  363. Originally published in 1953. Volume 1 classifies the repertory of each troubadour by rhyme scheme, noting meter and rhyme endings. Provides separate sections for descort and non-lyric works. Volume 2 summarizes each troubadour’s repertory of metrical structures.
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  365. Galvez, Marissa. Songbook: How Lyrics Became Poetry in Medieval Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  366. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226280523.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. A comprehensive study that includes three poetic traditions: the troubadours, the minnesingers, and the Castilian cancioneros of the 14th to 16th centuries. It examines how the compilation of a songbook essentially changes the nature of the oral poetry and creates a corpus of texts that will represent the poetic traditions for future generations. Thus, the songbook is a genre unto itself. Musical manuscripts of the troubadours are discussed without reference to the music itself.
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  369. Gaunt, Simon. The Troubadours and Irony. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  371. Examines the songs of five early troubadours, Marcabru, Bernart Marti, Peire d‘Alvernha, Raimbaut d‘Aurenga, and Giraut de Borneil, finding humor and sexual innuendo in what had been considered serious, confessional love poetry.
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  373. Kay, Sarah. Subjectivity in Troubadour Poetry. Cambridge Studies in French. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  375. A study of the first-person subject position in the rhetoric of troubadour poetry. Kay examines the poetry’s convention and objectivity of first-person perspective. Explores how rhetorical devices such as irony and hyperbole obscure meaning. Chapter topics include gender and status, performance, allegory, and romance appropriations.
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  377. Paterson, Linda M. Troubadours and Eloquence. Oxford: Clarendon, 1975.
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  379. Studies the poetry of Marcabru, Pierre d’Alverne, Giraut de Bornelh, Raimbaut d’Aurenga, and Arnaut Daniel. Each of these poets represent different styles and poetic vocabularies, but they all exhibit the kind of eloquentia about which Dante wrote and admired.
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  381. Smith, Nathaniel. Figures of Repetition in the Old Provençal Lyric: A Study in the Style of the Troubadours. North Carolina Studies in Romance Language and Literature 176. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, Department of Romance Languages, 1976.
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  383. First-time examination of figures of repetition in troubadour lyric. Figures include the words, their roots and sounds, images and ideas as seen against the background of medieval rhetorical traditions and in light of modern criticism. Concludes that troubadour style comes from the mastery of forms of repetition.
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  385. van Vleck, Amelia E. Memory and Re-Creation in Troubadour Lyric. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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  387. Van Vleck questions the concept of “text,” in its modern sense, as appropriate for troubadour song. Manuscript variations suggest there is no “authentic” version of a song and that it was recreated in each performance. Memory’s role is explored as is the concept of mouvance on manuscript variants.
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  389. 12th Century
  390.  
  391. The 12th century marked not only the beginning of the troubadour movement but also its zenith. The movement gained widespread acceptance and refinement over a relatively short time span. Although there were hundreds of troubadours active at this time, relatively few have been singled out for study. Perhaps foremost among them is Bernart de Ventadorn, most thoroughly characterized and analyzed as a poet in Nichols, et al. 1965. Unfortunately this study does not take Bernart’s substantial number of melodies into account. The earliest of the troubadours tend to attract the bulk of attention among scholars. Of the many studies of the first troubadour, William, Bond 1982 is the most rigorous in trying to separate the man from the myth. Marcabru, another early troubadour whose fame rests largely on musically notated songs, has been given a thorough reexamination by Gaunt, et al. 2000. Rounding out the second quarter of the century is Wolf and Rosenstein 1983, providing page-facing text translations and an entire chapter on Jaufre’s music. Wilhelm 1981 deals effectively with the Arnaut’s challenging prosody and music. Mouzet 1965 struggles with the question of how the composer could be so prolific when his vida calls him “the worst singer in the world.” The troubadour Raimbaut, whose vida praised his musical talent, gets ample attention to his poetry in Linskill 1964. Paden, et al. 1986 scrutinize the songs of the bellicose poet Bertran who earned himself a place in Dante’s Inferno.
  392.  
  393. Bond, Gerald A., ed. and trans. The Poetry of William VII, Count of Poitiers, IX Duke of Aquitaine. Garland Library of Medieval Literature. Vol. 4. New York: Garland, 1982.
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  395. First complete English translation and edition. Sexually explicit passages lacking in older editions are restored. Extensive historical and literary documentation and bibliography. Includes photographs of the manuscripts, including the one surviving melodic fragment, plus a brief glossary.
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  397. Gaunt, Simon, Ruth Harvey, and Linda Paterson. Marcabru: A Critical Edition. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell and Brewer, 2000.
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  399. First new edition studying this important early troubadour in 100 years. Edition of the complete corpus with copious notes. Introduction covers history of the period, the poet’s language, analysis of manuscript transmission, and an examination of versification in Marcabru’s time.
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  401. Linskill, Joseph, ed. The Poems of the Troubadour Raimbaut de Vacqueiras. The Hague: Mouton, 1964.
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  403. The first truly scholarly, complete edition of Raimbaut. Text based on all manuscripts and ten poems are edited for the first time. Poems are arranged in chronological order and given English translations. Also translates the three laisses, and the introduction covers Raimbaut’s life, manuscripts, style, and versification.
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  405. Mouzet, Jean, ed. Les Poèmes de Gaucelm Faidit: Troubador du XIIe siècle. Édition critique. Les Classiques d’Oc 2. Paris: A. G. Nizet, 1965.
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  407. First edition of one the most prolific of the late-12th-century troubadours. Faidit’s seventy-five attributed songs are given French translations. The introduction helps clear up the faulty biography found in Faidit’s vida and razos. At 612 pages it lacks a bibliography and adequate glossary.
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  409. Nichols, Stephen, John Glam, and A. Bartlett Giamatti, eds. The Songs of Bernart de Ventadorn: Complete Texts, Translations, Notes, and Glossary. University of North Carolina Studies in the Romance Languages and Literatures 39. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1965.
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  411. Originally published in 1962. Examines Bernart’s vida and razos, and edits forty-five songs with the Old Provençal followed by English prose translations. Text is based on Appel’s 1915 edition. And a substantial glossary and notes to each poem is included, but there is no music.
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  413. Paden, William, Jr., Tilde Sankovitch, and Patricia Stäblein, eds. The Poems of the Troubadour Bertran De Born. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986.
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  415. The forty-six songs are arranged chronologically and subdivided into groups around a fanciful theme. Each song is preceded by information about meter, the music, the razo, bibliography, and variants. The prose English translation and Old Provençal text are on facing pages. Music for his one notated melody is shown in rhythm-less notation in the appendix.
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  417. Wilhelm, James, ed., and trans. The Poetry of Arnaut Daniel. Garland Library of Medieval Literature 3, Series A. New York: Garland, 1981.
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  419. Dante was enamored of Arnaut, a true virtuoso poet. This edition captures the essence of this challenging poetry. The Old Provençal texts are on facing pages with literal prose English translations. There are excellent notes to each poem, and melodies are transcribed by Hendrik van der Werf.
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  421. Wolf, George, and Roy Rosenstein, eds., and trans. The Poetry of Cercamon and Jaufre Rudel. Garland Library of Medieval Literature. Vol. 5, Series A. New York: Garland, 1983.
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  423. Facing-page English translations of the songs. Introductory material contains biography, artistic achievement, and influences. Substantial bibliography and notes to texts can be found, as well as several facsimiles of the manuscripts. Melodies are transcribed by Hendrik van der Werf on pages facing the corresponding manuscript facsimile.
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  425. 13th Century
  426.  
  427. The 13th century marked a turning point in the art and fortunes of the troubadours. Already showing signs of decadence in their poetry by the time of the Albigensian Crusade, the destruction of the Occitan courts sent many into exile or forced them to survive without patronage. In spite of the circumstances, the era produced some of the most prolific troubadours. Guiraut Riquier, the subject of Mölk 1962, is generally considered to be the last and most prolific of the troubadours, who produced 101 poems and forty-eight surviving melodies (nearly 20 percent of the extant music repertory). Switten 1985, in a study of Raimon de Miraval’s forty-five songs, takes special note of his twenty-two melodies, second only in number to Guiraut Riquier. Aston 2010 examines Peirol’s thirty-two songs but provides only facsimiles of the manuscript pages containing his nineteen melodies. Wilhelm 1987 explores the life of an Italian poet Sordello who adopted the Provençal language and left a legacy of forty-three songs without melodies. Rickets 1964 examines the career of Guilhem de Montanhagol, a sometime colleague of Sordello who shared at least one partimen or debate poem with him. Shepard and Chambers 1970 follows the career of the troubadour Aimeric whose vida praises his poetry but notes that he was a bad singer.
  428.  
  429. Aston, S. C. Peirol: Troubadour of Auvergne. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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  431. First published in 1953. Poems are in Old Provençal with prose English translations. Introduction gives Peirol’s vida with no translation. Notes include where to find the music, the base manuscript, the poem’s source of orthography, and variants. Provides an appendix with nineteen photocopies of manuscript folios with music.
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  433. Mölk, Ulrich. Guiraut Riquier: Las Cansos. Texte critique et commentaire. Heidelberg, Germany: Karl Winter Universitatsverlag, 1962.
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  435. For the last and most prolific troubadour, the edition only accommodates the cansos (twenty-seven called “canso” and twenty-seven called “vers”). Other genres such as pastorela, tenso, alba, and descort were projected for an unrealized second volume. Melodies cross-referenced with Gennrich (1958–1965) and Higini Anglès, “Les Melodies del trobador Guiraut Riquier,” Revista dels Etudis universitaris Catalans 11 (1926): 1–78.
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  437. Rickets, Peter T. Poesies de Guilhem de Montanhagol, Troubadour Provençal du XIIIE siècle. Studies and Texts. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1964.
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  439. First new edition of Guilhem in over sixty years. The fourteen Old Provençal poems are given French prose translations. Each song has copious notes, and there is a good glossary and bibliography. Introduction examines Guilhem’s life, works, metrics, and the manuscripts sources. No melodies survive.
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  441. Shepard, W. P., and F. M. Chambers, eds. The Poems of Aimeric de Peguilhan. Northwestern University Humanities Series 24. New York: AMS, 1970.
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  443. Originally published in 1950. Discusses biography, versification, and comparison of Aimeric with other troubadours. Poems are organized alphabetically and translated into English with good critical notes. No mention of Aimeric’s five melodies.
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  445. Wilhelm, James J., ed., and trans. The Poetry of Sordello. Garland Library of Medieval Literature Series A. Vol. 42. New York: Garland, 1987.
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  447. An important Italian troubadour whom Dante mentions in De Eloquentia and Purgatorio. An accurate and readable edition of Sordello’s forty-three poems with emendations to some readings. Introductory essays on Sordello’s life and artistry. Includes vidas. No melodies suvive.
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  449. Switten, Margaret. The ‘Cansos’ of Raimon de Miraval: A Study of Poems and Melodies. Medieval Academy Books, no. 93. Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America, 1985.
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  451. First edition to set poems with their melodies. Raimon has more surviving poems with melodies (twenty-two) than any troubadour except Guiraut Riquier. When two melodies exist, both are shown. Charts show the poetic structure of each stanza. There is a 140-page introduction, and translations are in English prose. Detailed notes and bibliography.
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  453. Trobairitz
  454.  
  455. Occitan women enjoyed more freedom and rights than women in most of Europe. They could inherit and own property, and they could choose to become a trobairitz, a female troubadour. A few are named in the manuscripts, and although five have their own vidas, several more are mentioned in others. Identifying a trobairitz song can be difficult. Those with attributions are rare. It is assumed that those women participating in debate poems should be considered composers also. Most of the trobairitz studies claim a portion of the songs written in a women’s voice as trobairitz compositions. Bogen 1980, in a pioneering study of trobairitz counted only twenty-three songs; Bec 1995 admitted there were twenty-five; Bruckner, et al. 1995 claim thirty-six; and Rieger 1991, in a monumental study, assumed forty-six. Paden 1989 has proposed that there were even more. Fedorkov and Pfeifer 2013 provides a good introduction to the topic, and Aguilera 2012 offers a detailed view of the cultural milieu of these women composers. Klinck and Rasmussen 2002 gives the broadest view of the topic, covering some 600 years and crossing over many cultural borders.
  456.  
  457. Aguilera, Delphine. Femmes poètes du Moyen-Âge. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2012.
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  459. As a professional singer of medieval song, Aguilera brings a special perspective to her scholarship. She acknowledges the scholarship that proceeded her and proposes to examine the songs on their own merits rather than compare them to other repertories. She examines the origins of the poetry, the vidas and razos, the manuscript traditions, orality, sexuality, and the repertory of chansons de femme—songs in a woman’s voice. The comprehensive bibliography will be useful to novice and veteran scholars of this repertory.
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  461. Bec, Pierre, ed and trans. Chants d’amour des femmes-troubadours: Trobairitz et “chansons de femme.” Series Moyen Âge. Paris: Stock, 1995.
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  463. Bec edits thirty-four songs, including nine chansons de femme of which three are known to be by men. The trobairitz texts are taken from Rieger 1991 and chansons de femme texts from other sources. The orthography is normalized to make translations readily available to Occitan readers.
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  465. Bogen, Meg. The Women Troubadours: An Introduction to the Women Poets of 12th-Century Provence and a Collection of Their Poems. New York: W. W. Norton, 1980.
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  467. Published originally in 1976 by Paddington Press. It is a good introduction to the subject but does not carry the scholarly rigor of the other sources in this section. Occasionally gives unreliable English translations of twenty-three texts.
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  469. Bruckner, Matilda, Laurie Shepard, and Sarah White, eds., and trans. Songs of the Women Troubadours. Garland Library of Medieval Literature. Vol. 97A. New York: Garland, 1995.
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  471. Presents thirty-six songs from known trobairitz, women participating in partimen and anonymous works written in the voice of a woman. Old Provençal texts are translated into English on facing pages. The introduction delves into the world of the trobairitz and examines manuscript sources. No music given.
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  473. Fedorkov, Hanna, and Sandra Pfeifer. Les Trobairitz. Norderstedt, Germany: Grin Verlag, 2013.
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  475. Published in both French and German editions. This short work provides brief introductions to the terms “troubadour,” trobairitz, fin amor, and the song repertory. The focus is on songs of the Comtessa da Dia. Brief conclusions address the reception of the songs in the 13th century and today.
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  477. Klinck, Anne L., and Ann Marie Rasmussen, eds. Medieval Women’s Song: Cross-Cultural Approaches. The Middle Ages Series. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.
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  479. Nine chapters by different authors and wide-ranging topics including the chanson de toile and women troubadours. Explores not only songs attributed to specific women authors but also songs in the female voice, sometimes anonymous, and sometimes by men.
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  481. Paden, William, ed. Voice of the Trobairitz: Perspectives on the Women Troubadours. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989.
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  483. Eleven essays by distinguished scholars and a substantial introduction by Paden. Essay topics explore the limits of the repertoire (1180–1260), its rhetoric and style, the works of individual trobairitz, and the history of scholarship and reception. Conflicting statements among the essays attest to the complexity of the subject.
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  485. Rieger, Angelica. Trobairitz: Der Beitrag der Frau in der altokritanischen höfischen Lyrik. Edition des Gesamtkorpus. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 233. Tübingen, Germany: Max Niemeyer, 1991.
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  487. At 780 pages, this is the most meticulous and comprehensive work on the subject. It greatly expands the repertory to forty-six poems, almost double the traditionally accepted corpus. The inclusion of some is controversial. Texts are given literal translations in German. Contains a systematic examination of the critical literature.
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  489. Genre Studies
  490.  
  491. As discussed under the heading Genre, troubadour poetry, as it was collected and published in manuscripts, developed a widely accepted taxonomy, based on thematic content and form, which has largely been accepted by scholars over the years. Now there is a growing body of scholarship that is reexamining and redefining some of the principal genres of the troubadour repertory. Switten 2007 attempts to develop generic connections between the Latin versus and the early troubadour vers. Sharman 1989 provides new editions of the texts of Bornelh’s cansos or love songs and his sirventes, songs that avoid a love theme and present serious issues, sometimes of topical interest, with satire. Harvey and Paterson 2010 explores the poetry and contexts for the Tenso, a form of debate in which each of the two participating troubadours respond in alternate stanzas, and the partimen, a debate like the tenso in which one of the participants is allowed to choose which side of the question he will defend. Abu-Haydar 2001 tries to lay to rest the notion that troubadour poetry derives from standard genres of Hispano-Arabic literature.
  492.  
  493. Abu-Haydar, J. A. Hispano-Arabic Literature and the Early Provençal Lyrics. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 2001.
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  495. Abu-Haydar’s book is an abnegation of A. R. Nykl’s assertion in Hispano-Arabic Poetry and Its Relations with the Old Provençal Troubadours (1946) that the two repertories are connected. Abu-Haydar claims that Nykl’s scholarship is faulty and demonstrates that romance poetry neither influenced nor was influenced by the muwasha and zajal.
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  497. Harvey, Ruth, and Linda Paterson. The Troubadour Tensos and Partimens: A Critical Edition. 3 vols. Gallica 14. Cambridge, MA: D. S. Brewer, 2010.
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  499. A first-time study of the massive corpus of 160 tensos and partimens involving real speakers. There is groundbreaking information on the medieval Occitan language, contemporary politics, as well as courtly and judicial mores. Insight is offered on issues of gender, sexual relations, and class distinctions. It is laid out in page-facing English prose translations.
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  501. Sharman, Ruth Verity, ed. The Cansos and Sirventes of the Troubadour Giraut de Bornelh: A Critical Edition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
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  503. A meticulous edition of all seventy-seven of Bornelh’s poems, the largest corpus of any troubadour in the 12th century. This is the first new edition since 1910. The study covers Bornelh’s biography, his significance as a troubadour, and his creativity. In addition to cansos and sirventes, a third, hybrid category (of no historical merit) is identified as canso-sirventes. No glossary is provided. Lacks Giraut’s six melodies.
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  505. Switten, Margaret. “Versus and Troubadours around 1100: A Comparative Study of Refrain Technique in the ‘New Song.’” Plainsong and Medieval Music 16.2 (October 2007): 91–143.
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  507. The possible connection between the para-liturgical repertory found in manuscripts at St. Martial of Limoges and the earliest troubadour songs is explored. The St. Martial songs were called “versus” and the troubadour works were called “vers,” suggesting the connection. The most telling aspect of the relationship between the two repertories is their use of refrains. The refrains in the troubadour vers tend to show more variety and subtlety than those in the versus. Numerous songs with their melodies are gathered in a large appendix.
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  509. Trouvères
  510.  
  511. Although trouvère poetry resembles the troubadour repertory in many of its themes, forms, rhetorical tropes, and genres, it has seldom been viewed in the same artist light as troubadour song. Much of this image problem may stem from the movement of trouvères off the aristocratic estates and into the bourgeois culture of teeming cities during the dissolution of the feudal system. The largest community of trouvères resided in Arras, and Butterfield 2002 discusses the participation of the trouvères in the city’s aristocratic literary society known as the Puy d’Arras. She also discusses new genres of the trouvères: borrowed inserted refrains, religious contrafacta, jeux (musical plays) and polyphonic motets. Doss-Quinby 1984 examines the role of borrowed refrains. Epstein 1997 studies the religious contrafacta, especially of Gautier de Coincy. O’Neill 2006 attempts to define a “classic” stage of the grand chant courtois, and female trouvères are given more recognition in a comprehensive edition by Doss-Quinby, et al. 2001. Dragonetti 1979 discusses the musical rhythm of trouvère poetry, and Mölk and Wolfzettel 1972 examines its rhyme and meter. Huot 1987 explores the irony of a literary tradition conceived for oral performance.
  512.  
  513. Butterfield, Ardis. Poetry and Music in Medieval France: From Jean Renart to Guillaume de Machaut. Cambridge Studies in Medieval Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  515. A wide-ranging study of manuscript sources, genres, borrowing, and courtly and popular culture in French songs. Of special interest are chapters on borrowed refrains, religious contrafacta, and the Puy of Arras.
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  517. Doss-Quinby, Eglal. Les Refrains chez les trouvères du XIIe siècle au début du XIVe. American University Studies, Series 2: Romance Languages and Literature 17. New York: Peter Lang, 1984.
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  519. Adapted from the author’s 1982 NYU doctoral thesis. Inspired by Boogaard’s Rondeau et Refrains (1969). She examines a core repertory of 100 of the nearly 2,000 refrains in Boogaard’s catalog, attempting to define “refrain” as a genre and classifying these refrains according to function. She finds a fundamental homogeneity among most refrains.
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  521. Doss-Quinby, Eglal, Joan Tasker Grimbert, Wendy Pfeffer, and Elizabeth Aubrey, eds. Songs of the Women Trouvères. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.
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  523. This is the first anthology of the works of women trouvères. It contains songs of eight named trouvère women and a selection of anonymous works in the feminine voice. There are seventy-five texts in all and music accompanying eighteen songs and nineteen motets.
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  525. Dragonetti, Roger. La Technique poétique des trouvères dans la chanson courtoise: Contribution à l’étude de la rhétorique médiévale. Rijksuniversiteit te Gent, Werken uitgegeven voor de Faculteit van de Letteren en Wijsbegeerte 127. Geneva, Switzerland: Slatkine, 1979.
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  527. Reprint of 1960 edition. This is a study of poetic and musical rhythm that examines the grand chant courtois and the rhetoric of courtly language. Sees conflicts between the poetic rhythm and the musical rhythm and discusses Dante’s description of a poem as music.
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  529. Epstein, Marcia Jenneth, ed. and trans. Prions en chantant: Devotional Songs of the Trouvères. Toronto Medieval Texts and Translations 11. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.
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  531. An edition of devotional songs found in trouvère manuscripts X and V. Meant for scholars and performers, it provides musical settings of some songs for the first time in published form. Opening essays examine manuscript sources, texts, and music. Appendixes provide additional song stanzas and alternative melodies.
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  533. Huot, Sylvia. From Song to Book: The Poetics of Writing in Old French Lyric and Lyrical Narrative. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987.
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  535. The study focuses on the conjoining of oral and written traditions. Lyric genres, which had largely thrived in an oral tradition before being appropriated by written narrative, could lose their eloquence unless they were meant to be performed. Also, the high degree of illustration in many manuscripts implies that they were meant to appeal to an essentially illiterate audience.
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  537. Mölk, Ulrich, and Friedrich Wolfzettel. Répertoire métrique de la poésie lyrique française des origines à 1350. Munich: Fink, 1972.
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  539. Presents the metric structure of all known monophonic songs and motets. Organizes songs by rhyme scheme. Takes note of poetic genres and presence of refrains. Compares similar troubadour structures listed in Frank (1953 and 1957). Music does not figure into the discussion.
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  541. O’Neill, Mary. Courtly Love Songs of Medieval France: Transmission and Style in the Trouvère Repertoire. Oxford Monographs on Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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  543. The first book-length study of the grand chanson courtoise. Addresses musical problems concerning the manuscript tradition and manuscript idiosyncrasies as well as orality’s role, at least in the early repertory. Argues that there is no consistent style for the courtly chanson. Isolates the chansons of Gautier de Dargies.
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  545. Individual Trouvères
  546.  
  547. In the trouvère chansonniers, Thibaut of Champagne, King of Navarre, nearly always holds the place of honor at the beginning, and his songs are followed by those of Gace Brulé, his teacher. This is a sign of respect for Thibaut’s aristocratic bearing as much as it is for the quality of his songs. In most chansonniers the order of appearance of each trouvère is at least partially based on his station in life. A good appraisal of the king’s poetry is found in Brahney 1989. Thibaud’s mentor is given thorough scholarly scrutiny in Rosenberg and Danon 1985. As the corpus of trouvère melodies is significantly larger than that of the troubadours, it is worth noting that many trouvère editions are published by music institutions. This is evident here with Newcombe, et al. 1995, Newcombe 1972, as well as Maillard 1964 and Maillard 1967. Ironically, these are not as effective as the evaluation of melody and its relation to text found in Johnson 1992. Music also commands a significant portion of the edition of Newcombe 1978.
  548.  
  549. Brahney, Kathleen J., ed. The Lyrics of Thibaut de Champagne. Garland Library of Medieval Literature, Series A. Vol. 41. New York: Garland, 1989.
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  551. Edition of the sixty-one song texts based on the manuscript K version. Discusses Thibaud’s repertory with regard to the concept of the “classic” form and style for each of Thibaut’s genre. No melodies are included, but the poetry could be matched with Tischler’s complete edition of the trouvères (1997).
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  553. Johnson, Susan M. The Lyrics of Richard de Semilli: A Critical Edition and Musical Transcription. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies. Vol. 81. Binghamton, NY: Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, 1992.
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  555. First edition with texts and melodies together. Introduction examines previous editions, manuscripts, versification, musical structure, and language. Notes on the text and melodic variants are brief but accurate. Provides a glossary for the unusual words and verb forms in the Old French texts.
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  557. Maillard, Jean. Lais et chansons d’Ernoul de Gastinois. Musical Studies and Documents 15. [n.p.]: American Institute of Musicology, 1964.
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  559. The two lays and four pastourelles are set to their melodies that have modal rhythms applied to them. A brief introduction discusses manuscripts, the poems, Ernoul’s biography, the method of melodic transcription, and the rationale for the edition. No glossary or bibliography is provided.
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  561. Maillard, Jean, ed. Charles d’Anjou, roi-trouvère du XIIIème siècle. Musicological Studies and Documents 18. [n.p.]: American Institute of Musicology, 1967.
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  563. Brother of the French king, Charles became king of Sicily and Naples. He lacked the lyric gifts of Thibaud, king of Navarre, but melody was his strength. With a focus on music, the eight melodies (one song has two melodies) are examined. There is no glossary and scant bibliography.
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  565. Newcombe, Terence H., ed. Les poesies du trouvère Jehan Erart. Textes Littéraire Français. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1972.
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  567. First critical edition of Erart’s twenty or so songs. Grouped by pastourelle and chanson with each song identified by its form and melodic structure. This project was complemented with publication of The Songs of Jehan Erart, 13th Century Trouvère. Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 67 ([n.p.]: American Institute of Musicology, 1975).
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  569. Newcombe, Terence H., ed. Les poésie de Thibaut de Blaison. Textes littéraires Français 253. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1978.
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  571. Critical edition of fifteen songs, nine attributed to Thibaut and six possibly by him. Melodies are provided for eleven songs with modal rhythms applied. Texts are examined for versification and linguistic features. Glossary provided.
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  573. Newcombe, Terence, H. H. Lucas, and Nigel Wilkins, eds. Les Chansons de Gontier de Soignies. Edited by Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 103. American Institute of Musicology. Neuhausen, Germany: Hanssler-Verlag, 1995.
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  575. Edition of the composer’s fifteen songs. Introductory material covers the manuscripts, Gontier’s verse, and musical styles. Music is transcribed in modal rhythms above the poems. Texts and melodies do not necessarily come from the same manuscript.
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  577. Rosenberg, Samuel, and Samuel Danon, eds. The Lyrics and Melodies of Gace Brulé. Music editor, Hendrik van der Werf. Garland Library of Medieval Literature 39. New York: Garland, 1985.
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  579. Edition of the eighty-two songs attributed to Gace with facing page English translations. Sixty-seven are accompanied with melodies edited by van der Werf, with many appearing previously in Werf’s Trouvère-Melodien (1977). Introduction covers Gace’s life, poetry, and influences. No musical variants are noted or discussed.
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  581. Adam de la Halle
  582.  
  583. Adam is by far the best known of the trouvères, due in part to his work outside of the conventional trouvère lyric genres. He is the only trouvère known to have composed polyphonic rondeaux and motets, and he shares with Jean Bodel and Rutebeuf the distinction of being the only named trouvères to write jeux. Adam’s Jeu de Robin et Marion is one of his best-known works in the early 21st century. Compared with many editions of this play, Schwam-Baird 1994 is more scholarly though awkward in its separation of the music from the text. On the other hand, Axton and Stevens 1971 provides a delightfully practical performance edition of the play. Anyone planning to perform the play should first visit the Dscriptorium site Le Jeu de Robin et Marion to see the numerous illuminations depicting the play’s characters in the Aix-en-Provence manuscript. For information on how Adam transformed the lyric pastourelle in this play see Smith 2009 in Pastourelle. Of the two editions of his complete lyric works, Wilkins 1984 is better for the music and Badel 1995 for texts. The edition of the music in Hubbard 1985 compares favorably with that of Marshall 1971 because the former includes Werf’s transcription of the melodies. Maillard 1982 gives a good appraisal of Adam’s music and transcribes many melodies into modern notation.
  584.  
  585. Axton, Richard, and John Stevens, trans. Medieval French Plays. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1971.
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  587. Among the modern English translations of eight medieval plays is Adam’s Jeu de Robin et Marion (Robin and Adam), with the music integrated into the text. For more on this resource see Trouvères: Genre Studies.
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  589. Badel, Pierre-Yves. Adam de la Halle Œuvres complètes. Edited and translated by Lettres gothiques 4543. Paris: Le Livre de Poche, 1995.
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  591. The original texts and their modern French translations appear on facing pages. The music, taken from Coussemaker’s pioneer edition of 1872, is in a separate section in the back. Brief biography, discussions of the manuscripts and literary genres, and a short bibliography precede the edition.
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  593. Le Jeu de Robin et Marion. Bibliothèque Méjanes Ms 166 (Rés Ms 14) Aix-en-Provence.
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  595. This is a production of the online Dscriptorium project to store and distribute digital images from medieval manuscripts. The Aix-en Provence MS is one of three containing Adam’s play. Here titled “Mariage de Robin et de Marote,” it is decorated with 132 colorful though well-worn illuminations depicting scenes and personages of the play.
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  597. Marshall, J. H., ed. The Chansons of Adam de la Halle. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1971.
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  599. A critical edition of the thirty-six chansons based on manuscript P. Examines the language, versification, and manuscript tradition of the songs. Cites similarities of form and melody with other works. Includes tables of verse forms and rhymes and a glossary. Melodies are referenced but not published.
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  601. Maillard, Jean. Adam de la Halle: Perspective musicale. Paris: Editions Honoré Champion, 1982.
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  603. The French text covers Adam’s entire musical output focusing on its relation to his words. Discusses the manuscript sources, gives tables of poetic meters, musical forms, and modal finals. Music is transcribed into modern notation and set in modal rhythm when no rhythm is indicated in the sources.
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  605. Nelson, Deborah Hubbard, ed. The Lyrics and Melodies of Adam de la Halle. Music editor, Hendrik van der Werf. Garland Library of Medieval Literature. Vol. 24, Series A. New York: Garland, 1985.
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  607. First edition of Adam’s thirty-six chansons in English translation. Does not contain the jeux-partis, rondeaux, and motets. Melodies are in in a separate section with no attempt at rhythmic notation. Text and music based almost exclusively on manuscript P. Text and melodic variants appear together in the notes.
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  609. Schwam-Baird, Shira I. Adam de la Halle: Le jeu de Robin et Marion. Music editor, Milton Scheuermann Jr. Garland Library of Medieval Literature. Vol. 94, Series A. New York: Garland, 1994.
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  611. This edition and translation purport to be closest to the original text that exists in three manuscripts. Text and translation are on facing pages, and text variants are listed separately. The music is separated from the text, making it less than an ideal performance edition. Includes the apocryphal Li Jus du Pelerin in the appendix.
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  613. Wilkins, Nigel E. The Lyric Works of Adam de la Halle: Chansons, Jeux-partis, Rondeaux, Motets. Rev. 2d ed. Corpus Mensurabilis Musicae 44. Neuhausen-Stuttgart: Hanssler-Verlag, 1984.
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  615. First edition published in 1967 (Dallas, TX: American Institute of Musicology). Modern transcription of Adam’s compositions with music including the jeux-partis, polyphonic rondeaux and motets—of which six are unattributed. Gives tables of manuscript sources and previous editions of the works.
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  617. Genre Studies
  618.  
  619. Many of the trouvère genres appear to be counterparts of preexisting troubadour genres; yet these counterparts tend to differ in distinct ways. The trouvère jeu-parti (or debate song) descends from the troubadour partimen. Gally 2004 examines the relationship between the two and follows the development of the jeu-parti as poetry in Arras. Stewart 1979 analyzes the substantial number of jeux-partis melodies. Some trouvères took an interest in drama, narrative, and other non-lyric genres. Axton and Stevens 1971 and Symes 2007 look into the development of the dramatic jeu, including plays by Arras’s trouvères Jean Bodel and Adam de la Halle. Doss-Quinby and Rosenberg 2006 provides a comprehensive critical edition of the ballette and its primary source, MS Douce 308. Dell 2008 aims to establish a relationship between genre and the language of feminine desire.
  620.  
  621. Axton, Richard, and John Stevens, trans. Medieval French Plays. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1971.
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  623. Includes English translations of plays by trouvères Jean Bodel, Rutebeuf, and Adam de la Halle. Commentary includes a general introduction on Old French drama and brief introductions to each play, including staging suggestions. Stevens provides music notation for Le Jeu d’Adam and Le Jeu de Robin et de Marion.
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  625. Dell, Helen. Desire by Gender and Genre in Trouvère Song. Gallica 10. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 2008.
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  627. Feminine desire is considered as an aspect of register and genre. The approach is through the understanding of signification in language as put forward by Ferdinand de Saussure, a founder of semiotic theory. Such signification is then interpreted through psychoanalytic theory developed by Jacques Lacan. Genres such as the malmariée and pastourelle most strongly define the distance between masculine and feminine registers, but Dell finds similar results in many trouvère genres.
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  629. Doss-Quinby, Eglal, and Samuel Rosenberg, ed. and trans. The Old French Ballette: Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Douce 308. Music editor, Elizabeth Aubrey. Publications Romanes et Françaises CCXXXIX. Geneva, Switzerland: Librairie Droz, 2006.
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  631. This is a first edition of these ballettes, simple refrain-forms with a role in the development of forms fixes. MS Douce 308 lacks music, but the edition includes twenty-one melodies preserved in other manuscripts. The 162-page introduction examines versification, thematic content, and the manuscript summed up in seventy pages of tables. Old French and English translations appear on facing pages.
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  633. Gally, Michèle. “Parler d’amour au puy d”Arras: Lyrique en jeu. Medievalia 46. Orleans, France: Paradigme, 2004.
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  635. This is a study of the jeu-parti in Arras. The participants in these debate songs come from many walks of life, from the professional trouvère to lofty members of the nobility. The debates became public at occasional meetings of the local literary society, the Puy d’Arras. The jeu-parti borrows content and technique from other trouvère genres and encourages improvised virtuosity. Poetic mastery is the debater’s goal; winning the debate is never its raison-d’etre.
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  637. Stewart, Michelle. “The Melodic Structure of the Thirteenth Century Jeux-partis.” Acta Musicologica 51.1 (1979): 86–107.
  638. DOI: 10.2307/932178Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. A transcription of the 105 known jeux-partis along with musical and textual analyses to determine stylistic traits of the genre and the 13th-century trouvères involved. Melodies are examined for modality, intervallic structure, phrasing, contour, cadences, and other melodic formulas.
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  641. Symes, Carol. A Common Stage: Theater and Public Life in Medieval Arras. Conjunctions of Religion and Power in the Medieval Past. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007.
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  643. Symes examines the remarkable culture of 13th-century Arras, a city that had become a magnet for drawing trouvères and jongleurs to it, and its penchant for dramatic literature and theatrical performance. The special genre of concern here is the jeu, loosely translated as “play.” She focuses on five jeu: Jean Bodel’s Jeu de saint Nicholas; the anonymous Courtois d’Arras; the anonymous Le garçon et l’aveugle; and Adam de la Halle’s Jeu de Robin et de Marion and Jeu de la feuillée.
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  645. Pastourelle
  646.  
  647. The pastourelle is one of the most distinctive trouvère genres. Its origins are unclear, but attempts have been made to trace it back to classical Antiquity and beyond. Of the ten pastorela that appear in the troubadour corpus, there is only one noteworthy example: Marcabru’s “L’autrier jost una sebissa,” examined in Paden 1988. Zink 1972 shows that the pastourelle’s themes of seduction, lechery, and even rape operate well outside the code of courtly love. Pastourelle refrains are found inserted in chansons, motets, as well as romances. Paden 1987 is the most exhaustive study of pastourelles since Bartsch 2010. He traces the genre’s origins back to ancient cultures. Rivière 1974–1976 also provides important critical texts in facing-page English translations and with extensive notes on individual poems. Smith 2009 discovers how individual composers manipulate the structure and content of the pastourelle.
  648.  
  649. Bartsch, Karl. Romances et Pastourelles Française des XIIe et XIIIe siècles. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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  651. First published in 1870 in German. Also published under the title Altfranzösische Romanzen und Pastourellen. The first exhaustive scholarly study of these trouvère genres, this book examines the manuscripts, gives full texts, and provides the first catalogue of the two genres.
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  653. Paden, William D., ed. and trans. The Medieval Pastourelle. 2 vols. Garland Library of Medieval Literature, Series A. Vol. 34–35. New York: Garland, 1987.
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  655. Examines 210 pastourelles from ancient Chinese beginnings to the late 15th century, with most works from the 12th- to 13th-century trouvères. Most texts are newly edited with facing page English translations. The work attempts to identify the “classical” medieval pastourelle. Extensive bibliography and detailed notes included, including location of melody, for each work.
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  657. Paden, William. “Reading Pastourelles.” Tenso 4.1 (1988): 1–21.
  658. DOI: 10.1353/ten.1988.0000Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. A study of the medieval reception of the pastourelle in the genre’s infancy before its “classical” form had been established. Focuses on Marcabru’s “L’autrier jost una sebissa,” comparing it to John of Garland’s narrative pastourelle and John’s reliance on a Vergilian model.
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  661. Rivière, Jean-Claude. Pastourelles. 3 vols. Textes Littéraires Français. Geneva, Switzerland: Librairie Droz, 1974–1976.
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  663. An edition of 119 12th- to 13th-century Old French pastourelles including forty-three from motets. Organized by manuscript, this version adds and deletes from Bartsch 2010. Discusses the scope of the genre as well as its linguistic and formal features. Has an extensive glossary and seventeen tables organizing the repertory by various criteria.
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  665. Smith, Geri L. The Medieval French Pastourelle Tradition: Poetic Motivations and Generic Transformations. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2009.
  666. DOI: 10.5744/florida/9780813033365.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Explores the pastourelle and its manipulation by three late medieval authors: Adam de la Halle, Jean Froissart, and Christine de Pisan. The first two chapters, “Medieval French Pastourelle,” and “Adam de la Halle’s Jeu de Robin et Marion: Lyric Fantasy Meets Theater” are pertinent. In transferring the lyric pastourelle to the stage, Adam transformed the roles of knight and shepherdess. Extensive notes and bibliography.
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  669. Zink, Michele. La Pastourelle: Poésie et folklore au moyen âge. Paris: Bordas, 1972.
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  671. The most influential study of the genre of its time. Its provocative ideas have fueled a surge in pastourelle research. Compares the shepherdess to the mythic femme sauvage. Devotes a chapter to the role of music and examines social conflict with Christian morality. Melodies of seven pastourelle appended.
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  673. Lyric Insertions
  674.  
  675. French lyric, narrative, and didactic genres, especially in the 13th century, participated in the practice of borrowing and inserting lyric fragments, each seldom exceeding a couplet, into the body of their texts. Often referred to as “refrains,” because of their aphoristic quality and tendency to reappear mostly unchanged in diverse sources, many were shared among the trouvères. Many others seem to be the excised refrains of popular dance songs known as caroles. Van den Boogaard 1969 (cited under Bibliographies) remains the definitive catalogue of the refrain repertory, and Ibos-Augé 2010 is the most comprehensive study of the refrain texts and melodies. From a decidedly small sample, Doss-Quinby 1984 has tried to characterize refrains and categorize them. Haines 2010 takes on the largest single collection of refrains to explain their use in the bestiary Renart le nouvel. Both Boulton 1993 and Huot 1987 confront the widespread practice of inserting lyrics into romance narrative. Saltzstein 2013 reveals the motivation behind inserting borrowed lyrics, and Boogaart 2001 shows the importance Machaut placed on the trouvère tradition of inserted refrains.
  676.  
  677. Boogaart, Jacques. “Encompassing Past and Present: Quotations and Their Function in Machaut’s Motets.” Early Music History: Studies in Medieval and Early Modern Music 20 (2001): 1–86.
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  679. Contrary to scholarly opinion, Machaut borrowed readily from songs of the trouvères. Less obvious than the 13th-century practice of lyric insertions, Machaut’s borrowings were liberally paraphrased and underwent substantial transformation. Boogaart acknowledges the work of previous scholars in uncovering Machaut’s borrowing and adds to the list a number of hitherto unnoticed examples.
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  681. Boulton, Maureen. The Song in the Story: Lyric Insertions in French Narrative Fiction, 1200–1400. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993.
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  683. Lyric insertions can range from complete chansons to refrain fragments inserted into romance narrative, creating a hybrid genre. Lyric insertion function is examined with regard to medieval poetic theory. Lyric insertions are inherently musical. The book also provides handy lists of narrative works containing lyric insertions and those with music notated in the manuscript.
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  685. Doss-Quinby, Eglal. Les Refrains chez les trouvères du XIIe siècle au début du XIVe. American University Studies, Series 2: Romance Languages and Literature 17. New York: Peter Lang, 1984.
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  687. Sampling about 5 percent (100) of the refrains from van den Boogaard’s catalog (1969), the following traits were identified as usual for refrains: short, amorous sentiment, lively, with first-person declarative sentences. She divided them into two categories: 1) repeated refrains as in the rondeaux, pastourelle, and chanson de toile; and 2) cited refrains, irregularly placed usually according to syntax.
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  689. Haines, John. Satire in the Songs of “Renart le Nouvel.” Publications Romanes et Françaises CCXLVII. Geneva, Switzerland: Librairie Droz, 2010.
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  691. Renart le nouvel is the most abundant source of inserted refrains with over sixty examples with notated melodies. The first part of the book examines the manuscript transmission of the work, the significance of the bestiary, the singing animals, the historical context, and use of satire. The second part contains an edition of the refrains with their melodies and concordances in other manuscripts.
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  693. Huot, Sylvia. From Song to Book: The Poetics of Writing in Old French Lyric and Lyrical Narrative. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987.
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  695. This is a study of the early literate tradition of both lyric poetry by itself as found in chansonniers and the insertion of lyrics into narrative and didactic genres found in visually stimulating illuminated manuscripts. The focus is not on the inserted short refrain but on poems and songs of at least a stanza of text. See under Trouvères.
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  697. Ibos-Augé, Anne. Chanter et lire dans le récit medieval: La function des insertions lyriques dans les oeuvres narratives et didactiques d’oil aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles. Varia Musicologica 17. Bern, Switzerland: Peter Lang, 2010.
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  699. This is a comprehensive study of the entire corpus of lyric insertions as found in seventy-five French texts of courtly, devotional, and didactic genres from the 13th century up to 1330. These inserted texts are analyzed for their function and formal role. Melodies, supplied for most insertions through an exhaustive examination of chansonniers, are scrutinized for style and adaptation to the texts. Most information on every insertion is summed up in a series of tables.
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  701. Saltzstein, Jennifer. The Refrain and the Rise of the Vernacular in Medieval French Music and Poetry. Suffolk: Boydell and Brewer, 2013.
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  703. This is a study of 350 intertextual refrains; that is, inserted refrains that appear in at least two different contexts. The aim is to show that composers quoted refrains to attain status as authors and to elevate the status of vernacular literature. The claim is that refrain quotation can be seen within the medieval hermeneutic tradition of auctorites. Special attention is given to Adam de la Halle and Guillaume de Machaut.
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  705. Contrafacta
  706.  
  707. Supplying an existing melody with new texts is an age-old practice that comes out of folk music. The appropriation of existing melodies is a well-documented practice of the Minnesingers, who mainly targeted the repertories of the trouvères and troubadours. Less obvious in their tune borrowing, the troubadours and trouvères were more likely to model new tunes on old ones rather than simply re-using tunes. Epstein 1997 explores the most obvious examples of borrowing trouvère tunes for re-use as devotional songs. Raupach and Raupach 1979 attempts to identify contrafacta that are more subtle, for example, when a troubadour text is translated into Old French so that an audience in the north of France can make sense of it. Marshall 1980 deconstructs a number of troubadour and trouvère songs that share basic traits, trying to separate the models from their contrafacta.
  708.  
  709. Epstein, Marcia Jenneth, ed. and trans. Prions en chantant: Devotional Songs of the Trouvères. Toronto Medieval Texts and Translations 11. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997.
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  711. The largest part of this book is an edition of the sixty-one texts and melodies of the mostly anonymous devotional songs in trouvère manuscripts X and V, which are all contrafacta of popular trouvère songs. The texts are given facing-page translations in English. The melodies are presented both in modern notation and in diplomatic transcription of the original notation. Critical notes identify the source of each of the contrafacts. Additional stanzas and alternative rhythmic versions of the melodies are in an appendix.
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  713. Marshall, J. H. “Pour l’étude des contrafacta dans la poésie des troubadours.” Romania 101 (1980): 289–335.
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  715. Applies procedures for identifying contrafacta and uncovers a significant number of potential borrowings between Old French and Occitan repertories. Looks at melodic modeling and reclaims eight melodies for the troubadour corpus.
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  717. Raupach, Manfred, and Margaret Raupach. Französierte Trobadorlyrik: zur Űberlieferung provenzalischer Lieder in französischen Handschriften. Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie 171. Tübingen, Germany: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1979.
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  719. The study concerns troubadour lyrics inserted into Old French lyric manuscripts or romances such as Guillaume de Dole and Roman de la Violete. Speculates on the transmission of 109 Occitan songs. Assumes northern French developed a liking for these lyrics that subsequently got “Frenchified” by scribes or performers.
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