Oliver Cromwell (Military History)

Introduction

Oliver Cromwell was born on 25 April 1599 and died on 3 September 1658. As a member of Parliament representing Huntington from 1628–1629 and Cambridge from 1640–1642, Cromwell rose from relatively modest political obscurity to command the New Model Army (NMA) and serve as Lord Protector (de facto monarch) in the Interregnum of 1649–1660. From a middling gentry family, Cromwell gained attention commanding a troop of cavalry in the parliamentary Eastern Association Army despite little prior military experience. The First English Civil War (1642–1646) ended with Cromwell as a lieutenant-general of horse in the NMA, which had been formed in 1645 with the amalgamation of Parliament’s three main armies. He commanded the parliamentary forces that crushed the invading pro-Royalist Scottish Engager army at the Battle of Preston (1648), effectively ending the Second Civil War. In 1649–1650, he commanded the expedition to Ireland to confront an alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English Royalists. The Irish campaign resulted in the ultimate subjugation of Ireland to English rule, but the brutal siege and massacres at Drogheda and Wexford created tremendous controversy and long-lasting animosity. With the final outbreak of civil war in 1650 as the Scottish Covenanter Army sided with the Royalists, Cromwell commanded the invading force that finally defeated the Scots and Royalists at Worcester in September 1653. Politically, Cromwell dominated British politics, first as a leading figure in the “Rump” Parliament of 1649–1653, then as a member of the English Commonwealth Council of State, and finally as Lord Protector. Angered at the failure of Parliament to address elections and the religious settlement, Cromwell led the coup d’état that dissolved the “Rump” in April 1653. In December 1653, Major-General John Lambert produced the Instrument of Government, the constitution that established the Protectorate. Cromwell assumed the chief executive position as Lord Protector, but later refused the title of king. In essence, rule by the NMA evolved as the Protectorate leaders attempted to impose stricter political and religious control. But, after Cromwell’s death by natural causes in September 1658, his successor and son, Richard Cromwell, could not hold together the various factions; by early 1660, the monarchy returned with the Restoration under King Charles II. Though a deeply religious man, who believed that God guided his actions (or “Providentialism,” whereby God actively directs worldly events and activities through selected persons), Cromwell cannot be clearly identified with any one sect or branch of Protestantism. He seems to have been mainly associated with Puritanism, and he advocated the need for the country’s “godly reformation.” Though vilified after the Restoration, his aggressive foreign, mercantile trade, and colonial policies established the dynamics for the rise of the British Empire. In the 19th century, the “Whiggish” historians championed Cromwell and his role in the inevitable evolution from feudal monarchy to the modern constitutional democracy. Thus, while excoriated after the Restoration as an evil military dictator and religious fanatic, Cromwell has emerged as a positive figure in modern times.

Journals

A lively debate continues through the media of academic journals as to the impact of Cromwell on the British Civil Wars and English Revolution of the 17th century. Three journals in particular—the English Historical Review, the Journal of British Studies (JBS), and Albion—typically provide the most extensive commentary. However, many more broadly based historical journals occasionally also address issues relating to Cromwell or the period. The Historical Journal addresses not only British history but also topics in European and World history. History Today and Past and Present are more focused on a broader general audience and deal with various social, economic, and cultural issues, while the Journal of Military History and War and Society address military and strategic affairs, typically from a historical analysis viewpoint (though not focused on Britain or any one area per se).

Albion.
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Published quarterly by Appalachian State University from 1969 to 2005 as a journal of the North American Conference on British Studies (NACBS), Albion merged in 2005 with the other NACBS journal, the Journal of British Studies (JBS).
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The English Historical Review (EHR).
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Published six times annually by Oxford Journals (Oxford University) since the late 19th century, the EHR is the oldest historical journal in the English language. Entries include scholarly articles, book and historiography reviews, and short essays. Ideal for academics and postgraduate and undergraduate research.
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Historical Journal.
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Published by Cambridge University Press, The Historical Journal addresses multiple aspects of British, European, and world history. The Historical Journal is traditionally a publishing venue for younger scholars seeking to establish themselves, as well as for established historians.
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History Today.
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Although essentially a popular history journal published since 1951, the monthly History Today does present useful articles crafted by noted historians and scholars. While aimed more at a general audience, the publication provides useful context to the military and political history of the Civil Wars and Cromwellian periods.
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Journal of British Studies (JBS).
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In 2005, JBS merged with Albion, and it now continues under the same title. JBS concentrates on general British history and culture and presents articles, book reviews, and commentary. Especially strong in political, military, and constitutional history, many entries focus on the Cromwellian period. Published quarterly by the University of Chicago Press.
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Journal of Military History (JMH).
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Published quarterly for the Society for Military History by the Virginia Military Institute, the JMH addresses all aspects of military history through both articles and book reviews. Although not focused on any particular aspect of military history, British and Cromwellian period articles appear frequently. JMH also provides an extensive review of new works and historiography.
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Past and Present (P&P).
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Although more focused on social history, belying its Marxist roots at its foundation in 1952, there are nonetheless useful articles on the Cromwellian era, particularly in terms of social relations, reasons for choosing either the Royalist or Parliamentarian side, impact of the Civil Wars, English Republic and Protectorate periods.
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War & Society (W&S).
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Published three times per year by Maney Publishing since the 1980s on behalf of the University of New South Wales, W&S addresses issues in military history and warfare in general from the perspective of the interplay between warfare and societies. Some aspects of tactical, operational, strategic, and doctrinal articles are also included.
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Calendars of State Papers and State Journals

Calendars of the various state and official papers of the period provide extensive and valuable resources for understanding the context within which Cromwell operated, both politically and militarily. Mostly generated in the mid-19th century, the calendars provide guides to the various official papers. For shorter documents, the calendars typically include the text of the actual document. The Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers Preserved in the Bodleian Library provides an index to the state papers collected by the Earl of Clarendon held at the Bodleian Library, Oxford. The Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, 1574–1660 provides a useful look at emerging British imperialism in the Cromwellian era, particularly in the West Indies. The Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts Relating to English Affairs, Venetian Series highlights the correspondence to and from the Venetian ambassador to England and provides a useful, nonpartisan perspective. The Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, Commonwealth is the seminal source for official governmental documents during the Commonwealth period. The Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reign of Charles I, 1625–1649 is the primary index to Crown documents during the First and Second Civil Wars as Cromwell rose in stature. For research into Cromwell’s Irish expedition of 1649–1650 as well as how Ireland influenced Commonwealth decision making, the Calendar of State Papers Relating to Ireland, 1647–1660 provides a useful research source. Similarly, the Calendar of State Papers Relating to Scotland provides insight into Cromwell’s Scottish invasion of 1650–1651 and affairs in the Northern Kingdom during the Protectorate period. The Journal of the House of Commons is the ultimate primary source for all the activities, votes, and debates in Parliament throughout the entire Civil Wars and Commonwealth period.

Calendar of the Clarendon State Papers Preserved in the Bodleian Library. 5 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1869–1970.
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The essential guide to the various state papers maintained and collected by the earl of Clarendon during the Commonwealth and Civil Wars period, and held by the Bodleian Library at Oxford University.
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Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, 1574–1660. London: Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1860.
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The colonial state papers are useful for exploring the beginnings of British imperialism in the West Indies in the later years of the Protectorate.
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Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, Commonwealth. Vols. 1–13. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1860–1947.
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The Commonwealth state papers are an essential source for the Protectorate period, during which Cromwell as Lord Protector functioned as de facto monarch.
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Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, of the Reign of Charles I, 1625–1649. Vols. 18–23. London: Her Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1860–1847.
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The official state papers for the reign of Charles I provide some context for the causes of the Civil Wars and also the rise of Cromwell as a major political figure in Parliament prior to the execution of Charles and the establishment of the English Republic in 1649.
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Calendar of State Papers and Manuscripts Relating to English Affairs, Venetian Series. London: Longmans, 1864.
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Letters from the Venetian ambassador to and from the doge of Venice provide a continental and relatively unbiased perspective on the events, especially during the First Civil War.
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Calendar of State Papers Relating to Ireland, 1647–1660. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1903.
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The official state papers for the period in Ireland are especially helpful on Cromwell’s Irish campaign of 1649–1650.
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Calendar of State Papers Relating to Scotland. London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longman, 1858.
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The state papers relating to Scotland cover the period of the invasion of Scotland by forces under Cromwell in 1650–1651 and his tenure as Lord Protector from 1653 to 1658.
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Parliament of England. Journal of the House of Commons. Vols. 2–7. London, 1803–1813.
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The official records of the proceedings of the House of Commons for the years 1644 to 1658 are pertinent to Cromwell as a soldier and politician.
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Primary Sources, 1640s and 1650s

A number of Cromwell’s contemporaries wrote historical accounts of both the Civil Wars and the Interregnum periods. While the interpretation and analysis reflect the orientation of the writer (Parliamentarian or Royalist), all in general provide the flavor of the periods as well as chronologies of events. Bell 2010 presents the Fairfax family correspondence, which provides the perspective of the other leading Parliamentarian, Sir Thomas Fairfax. Carrington 1659 provides more of an adulation piece rather than an unbiased analysis. Carte 2009 provides the text of original letters and is excellent for primary source research, as is Cary 2010. William Clarke, the secretary of the New Model Army (NMA), recorded in an unbiased and workmanlike way the major discussions, conferences, councils of war, etc. between the later years of the First Civil War and the execution of the king, and the Clarke Papers are the best primary source for the NMA’s strategic and political thought in the period (Clarke 2010). Edward Hyde, later Earl of Clarendon, wrote an extensive history of the Civil Wars from the Royalist viewpoint (Hyde 1992). Rushworth 1701 chronicles the same events as Clarke, but is more influenced by the author’s Parliamentarian interpretation. Thurloe 2010 contains a number of state papers, particularly from the Republic and Commonwealth period, which are excellent research sources. Bulstrode Whitelocke, while serving in the Protectorate government, maintained an extensive diary, which gives a good account of the day-to-day workings and thought patterns of the Cromwellian government (Whitelocke 1999).

Bell, Robert, ed. Memorials of the Civil War: Comprising the Correspondence of the Fairfax Family with the Most Distinguished Personages Engaged in That Memorable Contest. 2 vols. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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Includes many letters from Fairfax to and about Cromwell pertaining to military matters in the 1643–1651 timeframe. Originally published in London in 1849, by Richard Bentley.
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Carrington, Samuel. The History of the Life and Death of His Most Serene Highness Oliver Cromwell, Late Lord Protector. London: Nath. Brook, 1659.
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Published just after Cromwell’s death in 1658, this biography reflects the adulation of Cromwell as Lord Protector just before the Restoration of 1660, when the official version of Cromwell changed dramatically. The original publication is on microfilm and available in most major university libraries.
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Carte, Thomas, ed. A Collection of Original Letters and Papers, Concerning the Affairs of England, From the Year 1641 to 1660. 2 vols. Memphis, TN: General Books, 2009.
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Carte published in the 18th century a number of letters and documents from the Cromwellian period, which are a valuable primary source on Cromwell as statesman and politician. Originally published in London in 1739.
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Cary, Henry, ed. Memorials of the Great Civil War in England from 1646 to 1652. 2 vols. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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Cary includes many letters pertaining to Cromwell relating to military matters in the 1646–1652 time frame, which includes the 1648 Second Civil War, in which Cromwell commanded all northern parliamentary forces, and the 1650–1651 Third Civil War, in which Cromwell commanded the New Model Army. Originally published in London in 1842, by Henry Colburn.
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Clarke, William. The Clarke Papers: Selections from the Papers of William Clarke, Secretary to the Council of the Army, 1647–1649, and to General Monck and the Commanders of the Army in Scotland, 1651–1660. 4 vols. Edited by C. H. Firth. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2010.
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William Clarke, the primary secretary for the New Model Army, maintained his records of the proceedings of the Councils of War and other headquarters papers from the period where Cromwell was in the ascendancy after Naseby in 1645. The original documents, with Firth’s edits, and commentaries were printed in London by the Camden Society between 1891 and 1901.
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Hyde, Edward, Earl of Clarendon. The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England Begun in the Year 1641, by Edward, Earl of Clarendon. 6 vols. Edited by W. Dunn Macray. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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Hyde, as principal secretary to the Stuart monarchs, wrote his history after the Restoration. Although it excoriates Cromwell and all the Parliamentarians, it is nevertheless useful in examining the Royalist perspective on the period and events. Originally published in London, 1717.
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Rushworth, John. Historical Collections: Containing the Principal Matters Which Happened from the Beginning of the Year 1645, to the Death of King Charles the First 1648. London: Richard Chiswell and Thomas Cockerill, 1701.
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Continued in Historical Collections: Containing the Principal Matters Which Happened from the Meeting of the Parliament, November the 3d. 1640 To the End of the Year, 1644 (London: Richard Chiswell and Thomas Cockerill, 1692). Rushworth covers the Civil War years from 1640 to 1649, a period that saw the rise of Cromwell as a military and political giant. Originally published in London, 1701; available in microfilm from major university libraries.
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Thurloe, John. A Collection of the State Papers of John Thurloe, Containing Authentic Memorials of the English Affairs From the Year 1638, to the Restoration of King Charles II. 7 vols. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale ECCO, Print Editions, 2010.
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Thurloe collected many state papers, particularly from the Commonwealth period in the 1650s when Cromwell dominated British military and political affairs. Originally published in London, 1742.
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Whitelocke, Bulstrode. The Diary of Bulstrode Whitelocke, 1605–1675. Edited by Ruth Spalding. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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Whitelocke was one of the few major Commonwealth Parliamentarians to navigate successfully the transition back to monarchy. His various works chronicle Commonwealth and Protectorate era politics. For example, see also his Memorials of the English Affairs From the Beginning of the Reign of Charles the First to the Happy Restoration of King Charles the Second (1853).
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Pamphlets, Newspapers, and Periodicals

Pamphlets, newspapers, and periodicals were used extensively by each side to report their interpretation of the conflict and politics, and to appeal to public opinion. Despite the obvious slant, based on which side they supported, these documents are truly essential in understanding the flow of events. For the researcher, the italicizing of all proper nouns in mid-17th-century printing makes review particularly easy. The collected documents are all available on microfilm in the Donald Wing Papers, available in most large university research libraries.

Donald Wing Papers.
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Examples of useful documents within the Donald Wing Papers include The Faithful Scout; Communicating the Intelligence and Affaires of the Court, to the Rest of the Kingdome; Newes From Westminster, and Other Parts; A Perfect Diurnall of the Passages in Parliament; and The Weekely Accompt of Certain Special and Remarkable Passages From Both Houses of Parliament. The link provided here directs to Yale University’s catalogue of the papers.
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Letters, Speeches, and Writings

The original writings of Cromwell are extensive and are perhaps the most valuable resource for researchers. Wilbur Abbott and Thomas Carlyle published transcribed and edited versions of the speeches and letters of Cromwell, in Cromwell 1903–1907 and Cromwell 1937–1947, respectively.

Cromwell, Oliver. Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches with Elucidations. 4 vols. Edited by Thomas Carlyle. London: Chapman and Hall, 1903–1907.
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Arranged in four volumes and having gone through multiple editions over the years, Carlyle’s compilation of the letters and various speeches of Cromwell is a definitive primary source for all Cromwellian studies and should be the first stop on any researcher’s journey. Also published in New York by Charles Scribner’s Sons.
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Cromwell, Oliver. The Writings and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell. 4 vols. Edited by Wilbur Cortez Abbott. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1937–1947.
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Both Harvard University Press and Oxford University Press have published the four-volume set of Abbott’s compilation of Cromwell’s writings and speeches. As with Thomas Carlyle’s work (Cromwell 1903–1907), Abbott is also a definitive primary source.
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Biographies

There are many biographies of Cromwell, and thus a short list is difficult to propose. However, a broad selection of pro and con biographies from the early 20th century to the current period illustrates the breadth of Cromwell interpretation and analysis. Ashley 1958 is one of the early biographies and is more narrative and less critical, and is thus probably better as a general reader. The selected essays in Ashley 1969 are more valuable as analytical commentaries, and they and the various selected bibliographies provide excellent additional research sources. Bennett 2006 defends the period in a positive light, as opposed to the late-20th-century scholarship that portrayed the period more negatively. Coward 1991 is one of the classic biographies of Cromwell, with analysis of his military and political career. Davis 2001 is concerned with causative reasons for outcomes, and analyzes Cromwell from the perspective of how his actions and decisions led to certain outcomes. Fraser 1973 is highly complementary and sees Cromwell as a founding father of Britain’s later greatness, as does Morley 1901, a highly positive study. Morrill, the best of the late-20th-century Cromwell scholars, provides both an excellent short narrative of Cromwell that is better suited to the general reader (Morrill 2007) and an edited analytical essay collection by several of the best late-20th-century Cromwell scholars (Morrill 1990). Morrill 1990 also examines Cromwell’s background and early career, where the constitutional and religious concepts that later shaped his military and political actions developed.

Ashley, Maurice. The Greatness of Oliver Cromwell. New York: Macmillan, 1958.
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Based on the primary sources of Wilbur Cortez Abbot (see Cromwell 1937–1947, cited under Letters, Speeches, and Writings) and the Earl of Clarendon (a Royalist and harsh critic of Cromwell, see Hyde 1992, under Primary Sources, 1640s and 1650s), Ashley produced one of the first of the modern biographies of Cromwell. Though dated and criticized by subsequent historians, the book nevertheless is a good general history reader of Cromwell’s life and career. It is perhaps better suited to the undergraduate reader.
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Ashley, Maurice, ed. Cromwell. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969.
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A useful edited collection of primary sources.
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Bennett, Martyn. Oliver Cromwell. London: Routledge, 2006.
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Bennett challenges the conventional concepts of the Commonwealth and Protectorate period as negative and argues that Cromwell and his colleagues’ actions were fundamental in shaping modern society, constitutionalism, and polity.
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Coward, Barry. Cromwell. London: Longman, 1991.
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Coward analyzes the political life of Cromwell, with an emphasis on his political goals, aims, and ambitions.
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Davis, J. C. Oliver Cromwell. London: Hodder Arnold, 2001.
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Davis examines Cromwell from the viewpoint of the reasons for and outcomes of his military and political successes and failures, particularly how they affected the evolution of Britain in the mid-17th century.
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Fraser, Antonia. Cromwell: The Lord Protector. New York: Knopf, 1973.
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Fraser argues that the Protectorate under Cromwell restored England’s status and prestige, which had been in decline since the end of Elizabeth I’s reign.
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Morley, John. Oliver Cromwell. New York: Century, 1901.
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Morley views Cromwell as one of history’s greatest men, although he argues that force was his greatest asset and was well used by him, both militarily and politically.
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Morrill, John, ed. Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution. London: Longman, 1990.
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In an edited collection of essays, Morrill and many prominent historians examine the role(s) played by Cromwell in the events and evolution of the English Revolution, made possible by parliamentary victory in the Civil Wars. Morrill’s and Austin Woolrych’s articles are most useful.
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Morrill, John. Oliver Cromwell. Very Interesting People 17. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
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In this volume from the Very Interesting People series, Morrill provides a brief biography of Cromwell based on the New Oxford Dictionary of National Biography entry. See also the actual entry in the DNB under Cromwell, Oliver.
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The British Civil Wars Context

As a result of the conflict between King Charles I and Parliament over issues of constitutionalism, religion, royal revenue, command and control of military forces, and so forth, open civil war broke out in the summer of 1642 when Charles raised the Royal Standard at Nottingham and declared Parliament to be in revolt. There were actually three discreet British Civil Wars, along with separate internal revolts and civil conflicts in Scotland and Ireland. The First Civil War, which saw the rise of Cromwell to military and political prominence, raged mainly in England from 1642 to 1646, resulting in parliamentary victory. Dissatisfied with the settlement of the first conflict, Royalists and their Scottish allies revolted in 1648 and invaded England, resulting in Cromwell and the New Model Army’s resounding victory at Preston. The Scots, particularly unhappy with the religious settlement, again allied with the Royalists, crowned Charles Stuart king of Scotland, and resisted parliamentary domination, leading to Cromwell’s invasion of Scotland in 1650 and the Scottish counter-invasion of England in 1651. Cromwell ended the formal hostilities with a victory over Charles and the allied Scots and Royalists at Worcester in September 1651. This section provides important Journal Articles and Full Monographs related to the British Civil Wars.

Journal Articles

While a scan of the various journals listed in the main Journals section provides many excellent research sources from multiple angles, the pieces in this section are exceptionally valuable for analyzing the scope of the Civil Wars and the reasons for choosing sides and taking up arms. Adamson 1998 and Ohlmeyer 1998 address the Wars of the Three Kingdoms or British Civil Wars debate, which sees the civil strife as a dynamic, though with different causes and objectives, in the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, as opposed to the more traditional English Civil War perspective. Adamson 1998 argues that each region has unique characteristics and disputes the British Civil Wars model, while Ohlmeyer 1998 champions the concept of a pan-British struggle. Gentles 1993 examines the motivation to fight, with a particular emphasis on religion. Russell 1999 argues for a conservative reaction to Charles rather than a radical new polity, and that, gradually, more dramatic concepts emerged. To understand the military events of Cromwell’s military career, it is necessary to comprehend the nature of land warfare in the period. Modern readers and researchers often have difficulty with placing the strategies, tactics, and operational execution in proper context, based on the influence of modern, technological, and informational warfare. Thus, some samples of the dynamics of 17th-century warfare are helpful to both the general reader and the researcher. Edwards 1995 addresses the issue of obtaining suitable horses for the cavalry, artillery, and logistical transportation. Spaulding 1938 analyzes a seminal work by John Cruso, which captured the latest in cavalry doctrine, and which both sides used extensively as a tactical and operational guide.

Adamson, John. “The English Context of the British Civil Wars.” History Today 48.11 (1998): 23–30.
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Adamson argues that there is no cogent historical argument for giving equal status to occurrences in all three domains, asserting that each kingdom possessed unique political and religious national institutions and largely autonomous government, and that the various civil wars were therefore an internal struggle within each kingdom for control of those distinctive political institutions. Available online.
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Edwards, Peter R. “The Supply of Horses in the Parliamentarian and Royalist Armies in the English Civil War.” Historical Research: The Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research 68.165 (1995): 49–66.
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Edwards highlights the impact of logistics on the conflict’s eventual outcome, particularly the problem of obtaining suitable horses. He addresses the difficulties encountered for both mounted troops (cavalry and dragoons) as well as for those using draft horses (for wagons, baggage and artillery trains, etc.), a supply situation typically faced by Cromwell as a commander.
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Gentles, Ian. “Why Men Fought in the British Civil Wars, 1639–1652.” The History Teacher 26.4 (1993): 407–418.
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Gentles examines the motivation to fight in the Civil Wars and concludes that most infantry soldiers were conscripts, while volunteers dominated the cavalry. Also credited as critical was religious sentiment (fear of unacceptable changes in practice, liturgy, belief system, etc.) as well as morale as a function of effective leadership supported by group loyalty.
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Ohlmeyer, Jane. “The Wars of the Three Kingdoms.” History Today 48.11 (1998): 16–23.
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Ohlmeyer argues for a pan-British struggle that raged in all four regions—England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland—so that the concept of the “Wars of the Three Kingdoms” better describes the mid-17th-century phenomenon than the more traditional “English Civil War,” “English Revolution,” or “Puritan Revolution.”
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Russell, Conrad. “Why Did People Choose Sides in the English Civil War.” Historian 63 (Autumn 1999): 4–10.
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Russell observes that the conflict originated in an attempt by essentially conservative men to force a recalcitrant monarch to accept political compromises, as opposed to radical revolutionaries intent on altering the traditional polity. As it became clear that military defeat would not induce Charles to accept political and constitutional concessions, other motivations emerged, such as religion and localism.
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Spaulding, Thomas M. “Militarie Instructions for the Cavallerie.” Journal of the American Military History Foundation 2.2 (Summer 1938): 105–110.
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Spaulding examines the impact of John Cruso’s seminal work and supplies some samples of the comprehensive textual instructions and diagrams. Despite the centrality of heavy cavalry, few treatises on the organization, training, drill, and tactical employment of cavalry existed in Britain. Cromwell surely used this volume in his cavalry training regimen.
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Full Monographs

Many historians have produced excellent histories of the English Civil Wars. Some are essentially event narratives; others address the dynamics of the conflicts, such as causes, outcomes, logistics, politics, religion, leadership, and military effectiveness. A broad historiographic look provides valuable insight on the nature of the wars, from the general narrative to the highly specific. Ashley 1990 provides a good general narrative reader. Barratt 2007 and Capp 1989 explore the often ignored naval and maritime aspects, particularly in terms of supporting the Parliamentarian cause and in establishing the eventual British maritime and imperial domination. Bennett 1997 looks at the central issues of the struggle and how personalities and events shaped outcomes. Carpenter 2005 analyzes the generalship and military effectiveness of six regional commanders as a causative explanation for ultimate parliamentary victory in the north of England and Scotland. Gardiner 1891–1901 was the first great narrative history of the Civil Wars and is still useful for its broad look at events. Hibbert 1994 examines the battlefield events through a focus on the leading commanders. Kenyon and Ohlmeyer 1998 examines the military aspects of the struggle, addressing not only the narrative chronology viewpoint but also the dynamics of warfare such as strategy and tactics, recruitment, training, leadership, doctrine, morale, and logistics; also see Wanklyn and Jones 2005.

Ashley, Maurice. The English Civil War. Rev. ed. Gloucester, UK: Sutton, 1990.
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Ashley provides an overall narrative of the events of the Civil Wars. Especially appropriate for general readers.
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Barratt, John. Cromwell’s Wars at Sea. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword, 2007.
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Barratt provides a detailed description of the nature of the English Navy in the 1650s, a time of continual naval struggle against the Spanish, Dutch, and occasional resurgent Royalists. Additionally, the period set the foundation for the future Royal Navy and British naval and maritime dominance.
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Bennett, Martyn. The Civil Wars in Britain and Ireland: 1638–1651. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
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Bennett addresses the central issues that drove civil wars and rebellion in all three kingdoms, as well as principal players, events, the nature of the opposing forces, and the outcomes.
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Braddick, Michael. God’s Fury, England’s Fire: A New History of the English Civil Wars. New York: Penguin, 2008.
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Braddick, while acknowledging the overall British nature of the Civil Wars, concentrates on the English experience and synthesizes the scholarship of the past few decades into an in-depth contextual narrative. He especially concentrates on the political, religious, and philosophical strains in the period as precursors to the coming Enlightenment of the 18th century.
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Capp, Bernard S. Cromwell’s Navy: The Fleet and the English Revolution, 1648–1660. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198201151.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Capp examines the use of naval power in the civil wars of 1648 and 1650–1651, which gave a huge advantage to the Parliamentarians in terms of isolating the Royalists from sources of continental aid. Cromwell, as Lord Protector, used the navy to enforce the Navigation Acts dating to 1651 and to launch British imperial adventures in the West Indies in the mid-1650s.
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Carpenter, Stanley D. M. Military Leadership in the British Civil Wars, 1642–1651: “The Genius of This Age.” London: Cass, 2005.
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Carpenter examines the military career and leadership characteristics of several major Royalist, Covenanter, and Parliamentarian commanders in the North of England and Scotland in the three civil wars, using a model of effective military leadership and drawing conclusions as to the reasons for ultimate parliamentary victory.
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Gardiner, Samuel Rawson. History of the Great Civil War, 1642–1649. Vols. 1–4. London: Longmans, 1891–1901.
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Although dated and expressing the conventional “Whiggish” view of British history that stressed the inevitability of the triumph of representative democracy in Britain, Gardner’s work is nevertheless an excellent narrative history of the major events that shaped Cromwell’s military and political career in the 1640s.
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Hibbert, Christopher. Cavaliers and Roundheads: The English at War, 1642–1649. London: HarperCollins, 1994.
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Hibbert provides a narrative history of the first two civil wars, with a concentration on not only events, but also the characters of the leading players. Though more appropriate for general readers, researchers will find the narrative a useful starting point for the historical context.
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Kenyon, J. P., and Jane Ohlmeyer, eds. The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1638–1660. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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Kenyon and Ohlmeyer, early proponents of examining the Civil Wars through the lenses of all three kingdoms, compare and contrast the conflicts in England, Scotland, and Ireland. They address dynamics of recruitment, training, and logistics, as well as the various strategies and tactics of various commanders.
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Wanklyn, Malcolm, and Frank Jones. A Military History of the English Civil War, 1642–1646. Harlow, UK: Longman, 2005.
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Wanklyn and Jones evaluate the events of the First Civil War in England from the military aspect. They concentrate on two central themes—how Parliament won the war and why it ended as it did (and when), with a significant emphasis on the tactics and strategy and resource utilization of each side.
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Worden, Blair. The English Civil Wars, 1640–1660. London: Phoenix, 2009.
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Worden provides a comprehensive narrative of the major events, particularly political, that shaped the Civil War experience between 1640 and 1660. While not providing an in-depth analysis of Cromwell, it does supply a useful narrative history as well as the political context within which Cromwell operated, acted, and reacted.
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The New Model Army as a Military Instrument

The founding of the New Model Army (NMA) in early 1645, as an amalgamation of the three main Parliamentarian forces, provided the instrument for Cromwell to emerge as the leading military commander in Britain by the end of the Civil Wars in 1651. It is appropriate to examine the dynamics and characteristics of the NMA as Cromwell’s military instrument. Godfrey Davies (Davies 1931, Davies 1941) and C. H. Firth (Firth 1962) were the forerunners of the modern NMA historians, with both active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Their works are more of the “drum and trumpet” school that dominated earlier military history in that they both concentrated on chronological events, statistics, and narrative facts as opposed to analysis and causative explanations. Nevertheless, any understanding of the NMA as a military instrument necessarily begins with Firth and Davies; two samples of their work (among many articles and monographs available to researchers) are here provided. Modern examinations of the NMA focus more on the nontechnical dynamics and characteristics such as motivation to fight, religion, social background, and so forth. Gentles (Gentles 2001, Gentles 1992), in addition to providing event narratives, addresses leadership issues and argues that religion played a dominant role in the formation and sustainment of the NMA as well as its effectiveness. Kishlansky (Kishlansky 1978, Kishlansky 1983) argues that rather than religious zeal, it was military efficiency and the need for meritocracy that shaped the NMA. Roberts 2009 provides details on the technical dynamics of recruitment, organization, training, logistics, etc. For a contemporary perspective, Sprigge 2009 provides an NMA history as it emerged victorious from the First Civil War, with particular attention to the Naseby engagement.

Davies, Godfrey. “The Army of the Eastern Association, 1644–5.” English Historical Review 46.181 (1931): 88–96.
DOI: 10.1093/ehr/XLVI.CLXXXI.88Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Davies examined the nature and composition of one of the main parliamentary forces of the First Civil War, which formed the nucleus of the NMA of 1645. Cromwell commanded the Eastern Association cavalry. Also recommended: “The Parliamentary Army under the Earl of Essex, 1642–5.” The English Historical Review 49.193 (1934): 32–54.
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Davies, Godfrey. “The Formation of the New Model Army.” The English Historical Review: 56.221 (1941): 103–105.
DOI: 10.1093/ehr/LVI.CCXXI.103Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Davies provides an extract from John Rushworth’s Historical Collections. Though covering only the 1st through the 14th of April 1645, the extract provides a detailed account of the dynamics of reducing old forces and standing up an entirely new force, a process that Cromwell was deeply engaged in.
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Firth, C. H. Cromwell’s Army: A History of the English Soldier during the Civil Wars, the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. London: Methuen, 1962.
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Firth, the greatest of the early historians of the British Army and the Civil Wars era, analyzes the nature of the NMA through the entire Civil Wars and Interregnum period. He concentrates on each military unit in detail as well as providing general characteristics of soldiering at that time.
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Gentles, Ian. The New Model Army in England, Ireland, and Scotland, 1645–1653. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1992.
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Gentles argues that religion played a major role in motivating and inspiring the troops. Additionally, he examines the tactics employed by the major commanders, notably Sir Thomas Fairfax and Cromwell, in defeating the Royalist forces.
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Gentles, Ian. The English Revolution and the Wars in the Three Kingdoms, 1638–1652. Harlow, UK, and New York: Pearson/Longman, 2001.
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Gentles examines the Civil Wars in terms of causes and outcomes. Addressing individual campaigns and engagements as well as the contextual social, political, and economic dynamics, Gentles approaches the wars from the whole of the British Isles perspective as opposed to the more traditional strictly English viewpoint.
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Kishlansky, Mark. “The Case of the Army Truly Stated: The Creation of the New Model Army.” Past & Present 81 (1978): 51–74.
DOI: 10.1093/past/81.1.51Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Kishlansky argues that the traditional view of the NMA as a radical institution imbued with religious and political zeal is flawed, and that the army’s eventual radicalization and its role as the instrument for revolutionary change grew out of frustrations with pay and the notions of honor, rather than religious mission.
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Kishlansky, Mark. The Rise of the New Model Army. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
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Kishlansky argues that the breakdown of parliamentary consensus politics after 1646 brought about the gradual radicalization of the NMA, which had been originally created from standing forces in the interests of military efficiency, not religious propagation. First published 1979.
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Roberts, Keith. Cromwell’s War Machine: The New Model Army 1645–1660. Barnsley, UK: Pen and Sword, 2009.
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Roberts examines the dynamics of the NMA, focusing on recruitment, organization, morale, training, and equipment. Additionally, the work sets the nature of the NMA within the context of warfare in the 17th century.
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Sprigge, Joshua. Anglia Rediviva; Englands Recovery: Being the History of the Motions, Actions, and Successes of the Army under the Immediate Conduct of His Excellency Sr. Thomas Fairfax, Kt., Captain-General of All the Parliaments Forces in England. Memphis, TN: General Books, 2009.
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Sprigge, a contemporary, recounts the early successes of the NMA. Particular attention is paid to the Battle of Naseby in which Cromwell, as cavalry commander, played a pivotal role. Originally published in London in 1647, during the height of the conflict between Parliament and the NMA over pay arrears and demobilization.
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Contemporaries

Any study of Oliver Cromwell necessarily includes an examination of his contemporaries, both allies and opponents. Fellow military officers as well as political allies and colleagues enjoy a wide variety of biographies, which are interesting and valuable to the researcher in understanding the military and political context within which Cromwell rose to power and sustained his dominance. Ashley 1955 addresses several of the subordinate parliamentary commanders that provided the NMA effective leadership. Dawson 1938 examines the career, and the rise and fall, of Major-General John Lambert, Cromwell’s second-in-command through two of the civil wars and heir apparent in the Protectorate. Ludlow 1894, by a political and military associate of Cromwell, provides a firsthand look at events through the author’s extensive memoirs. Rogers 1968 provides portraits of several key military commanders of the period, including Cromwell. The failure of the major parliamentary army to defeat the Royalists led to the creation of the NMA, but Seel 1995 argues that the Earl of Essex set the stage for Cromwell’s later military success. Smith and Toynbee 1977, a general reader, examines several parliamentary and Royalist commanders. Wilson 1985 looks at the career of Sir Thomas Fairfax, who led the NMA to victory and whose resignation in 1650 catapulted Cromwell to overall army command.

Ashley, Maurice. Cromwell’s Generals. New York: St. Martin’s, 1955.
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Ashley provides a biographical sketch of several principal parliamentary major-generals that served under Cromwell, both in his role as NMA commander and as Lord Protector.
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Dawson, William H. Cromwell’s Understudy: The Life and Times of General John Lambert and the Rise and Fall of the Protectorate. London: William Hodge, 1938.
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Dawson examines the military and political career of John Lambert, who rose to become Cromwell’s second-in-command during the Second and Third Civil Wars and served as essentially Cromwell’s “chief of staff” and likely heir during the Protectorate of the 1650s.
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Ludlow, Edmund. Memoirs of Edmund Ludlow: The Lieutenant-General of the Horse in the Army of the Commonwealth of England, 1625–1672. 2 vols. Edited by C. H. Firth. Oxford: Clarendon, 1894.
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Ludlow, a leading NMA commander and stalwart in the Army’s rule during the Protectorate period, left many personal manuscripts. Firth’s edited collection provides useful insight into the minds of the Protectorate’s principal military and political leaders as public opinion increasingly swung back toward Royalism.
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Rogers, H. C. B. Battles and Generals of the Civil Wars, 1642–1651. London: Seeley Service, 1968.
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Although a general reader, the portraits of the various commanders provide a useful narrative biography of Cromwell as a commander, and of many of Cromwell’s contemporaries and opponents as set within the context of events.
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Seel, Graham. “Cromwell’s Trailblazer? Reinterpreting the Earl of Essex.” History Today 45.4 (1995): 22–29.
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Seel points out that the common interpretation of Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex and parliamentary commander-in-chief from 1642 to 1645, has been universally negative. Yet Essex established the conditions whereby Cromwell and Fairfax achieved great military success with the NMA that grew out of the force raised, trained, and molded by Essex.
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Smith, Geoffrey Ridsdill, and Margaret Toynbee. Leaders of the Civil Wars, 1642–1648. Kineton, UK: Roundwood, 1977.
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Portraits of the different commanders provide a narrative biography of Cromwell as commander; Cromwell’s contemporaries and opponents are set within the context of events. A general reader.
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Wilson, John. Fairfax: A Life of Thomas, Lord Fairfax, Captain-General of All the Parliament’s Forces in the English Civil War, Creator and Commander of the New Model Army. London: John Murray, 1985.
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Wilson explores the life and career of Sir Thomas Fairfax, one of the most important of Cromwell’s contemporaries, particularly in the first two civil wars, when he commanded the NMA, the engine of Cromwell’s military greatness and eventual instrument for maintaining political power.
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Opponents

The Royalist war effort is useful for study in terms of understanding Cromwell and his actions in both a political and military context. Thus, samples of historiography on the general nature of the royal forces, Royalist leadership, military organization, recruitment, and so forth are useful. Carlton 1983 examines the reign of Charles I, focusing on the 1630s, during which Charles attempted to rule without a sitting Parliament, resulting in a constitutional crisis that led to civil war. Cust 2007 presents a balanced view of Charles I and incorporates an analysis of the king’s difficulties with Parliament from the perspective of period politics and religious attitudes. Hutton 2003 provides an all-encompassing look at the Royalist war effort, including the social, cultural, and human aspects, as well as data on units and actions. Malcolm 1978 examines the dynamics of and problems in recruiting for the king’s forces. Newman 1983 analyzes the nature of the Royalist officer corps, with particular attention to their social backgrounds. Spencer 2008 provides a biography of Prince Rupert of the Rhine, the king’s nephew and Royalist cavalry commander of the First Civil War. Terry and Terry 1901, a journal article that later became a full-length biography, looks at Alexander Leslie, the Scottish Covenanter commander, who played a seminal role in the First Civil War while allied with Parliament. Young 1974 examines the dynamics and nature of the Royalist forces from many viewpoints, including training, organization, tactical doctrine, and morale.

Carlton, Charles. Charles I: The Personal Monarch. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983.
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Carlton examines the reign of Charles Stuart (Charles I), focusing on the 1630s, when Charles attempted to rule without a sitting Parliament. Disputes between the monarchy and Parliament over royal revenue, the nature of official religious practice, limits on royal authority, and ultimately, over command and control of military forces resulted in civil war by 1642.
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Cust, Richard. Charles I: A Political Life. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman, 2007.
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Cust presents a balanced view of Charles I and incorporates an analysis of the king’s difficulties with Parliament from the perspective of period politics and religious attitudes. Cust contends that more dynamics factored in than simply Charles’s lack of political skills and unwillingness to compromise.
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Hutton, Ronald. The Royalist War Effort, 1642–1646. 2d ed. London: Routledge, 2003.
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Hutton provides an in-depth account of the dynamics of the Royalist forces, with an examination of issues such as attitudes, the motivations to take up arms, the nature of the officers and soldiers, and the nature and histories of the Royalist units.
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Malcolm, Joyce L. “A King in Search of Soldiers: Charles I in 1642.” Historical Journal 21.2 (1978): 251–273.
DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X00000534Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Malcolm examines the patterns of Royalist recruitment. The king relied upon the personal loyalty of the populace to both the monarchy and Royalist landowners. He argues that stripping the localities of the means for self-defense against marauding parliamentary troops inhibited voluntary recruitment, resulting in the failure to raise a mobile force.
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Newman, P. R. “The Royalist Officer Corps 1642–1660: Army Command as a Reflexion of the Social Structure.” Historical Journal 26.4 (1983): 945–958.
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Newman examines the social origins of the more than 1,600 Royalist field or general officers and concludes that they largely derived not from the nobility or the prominent gentry, but rather from the minor gentry and even lower social orders.
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Spencer, Charles. Prince Rupert: The Last Cavalier. London: Phoenix, 2008.
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Spencer provides a biography of Prince Rupert of the Rhine, King Charles I’s nephew and talented Royalist cavalry commander in the First Civil War, known for his bold, aggressive, and sometimes headstrong actions.
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Terry, Stanford, and Elizabeth Terry. “Charles I and Alexander Leslie.” English Historical Review 16.61 (1901): 115–120.
DOI: 10.1093/ehr/XVI.LXI.115Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The Terrys analyze correspondence that indicates that the primary motivation for Leslie lay not in his zeal for the Scottish Covenant, the traditional interpretation. Rather, it lay in the hope of receiving a further command appointment on the Continent through the influence of Charles and Prince Rupert.
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Young, Peter. The Cavalier Army: Its Organisation and Everyday Life. London: Allen & Unwin, 1974.
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Young examines the dynamics of the royal forces with a look at doctrine, tactics, organization, attitudes, procedures, recruitment, command relationships, and other factors that shaped the forces that opposed Cromwell and his parliamentary armies.
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The First Civil War (1642–1646)

Histories of the First Civil War abound. Many older works take the traditional “drum and trumpet” approach that emphasizes events, engagements, technical details of forces, biographies of commanders, and so forth. With rise of the “War and Society” or “New Military History” school in the late 20th century, historians increasingly examined societal, cultural, behavioral, and contextual factors that shaped events and outcomes. But to understand the full scope of the Cromwellian era, researchers must comprehend both the essential narrative as well as the societal context. Simeon Ash, a contemporary and participant in a series of letters to Parliament, chronicled the events in Yorkshire that destroyed royal dominance in that region by the end of 1644 (Ash 1644). Ross 1888 is an early narrative of the seminal Battle of Naseby. Woolrych 1961 examines the three essential battles that determined parliamentary victory in the North and Midlands in the first two civil wars. Young 1967 addresses Edgehill, the initial great battle of the First Civil War, and Cromwell’s first major engagement, as the forces coalesced around Parliament and the king. Young 1970 examines Marston Moor, while Young 1985 looks at Naseby, wherein Cromwell played an essential role as cavalry commander. Young 1974, a comprehensive battle anthology, covers the major military events of all three civil wars, providing the researcher and general reader a comprehensive picture of the essential military events. Stewart 1644 is a primary source account of Marston Moor by a contemporary and participant.

Ash, Simeon. Continuation of True Intelligence from the Armies in the North, from the 10. Day, to the 27. of This Instant July, 1644. London: Thomas Underhill, 1644.
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This is the first in a series of letters to Parliament in which Ash provides a detailed description of the events in northern England, particularly relating to the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644 and the Siege of York. Cromwell commanded the Eastern Association cavalry in the battle and played a major role in the parliamentary victory. Available in microfilm at most major university libraries.
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Ross, W. G. “The Battle of Naseby.” English Historical Review 3.12 (1888): 668–679.
DOI: 10.1093/ehr/III.XII.668Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The Battle of Naseby has long been accepted as the pivotal military event of the First Civil War. The emergence of Oliver Cromwell and Sir Thomas Fairfax as the ultimate military leaders of the parliamentary effort and the overwhelming destruction of royal military power by the NMA in its first major combat test are legacies long heralded by historians.
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Stewart, William. A Full Relation of the Late Victory Obtained (Through Gods Providence) by the Forces under the Command of Generall Lesly, the Lord Fairfax, and the Earl of Manchester. London, 1644.
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Stewart provides a participant’s perception of the Battle of Marston Moor, in which Cromwell, as commander of the Eastern Association cavalry, played a pivotal role in the parliamentary victory that secured the north of England for Parliament. Available in microfilm at most major university libraries.
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Woolrych, Austin. Battles of the English Civil War: Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston. New York: Macmillan, 1961.
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Woolrych explores three seminal engagements in which Cromwell served as the overall parliamentary commander or a major subordinate commander: Naseby (1645), which secured the Midlands for Parliament; Marston Moor, which ended Royalist control in the north (1644); and Preston (1648), which ended the Second Civil War.
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Young, Peter. Edgehill, 1642: The Campaign and the Battle. Kineton, UK: Roundhead, 1967.
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From his series of campaign and battle narratives, Young describes and analyzes the Battle of Edgehill, the first large-scale engagement of the First Civil War.
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Young, Peter. Marston Moor, 1644: The Campaign and the Battle. Kineton, UK: Roundhead, 1970.
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From his series of campaign and battle narratives, Young describes and analyzes the Battle of Marston Moor, where Cromwell played a dominant role in the parliamentary victory.
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Young, Peter. The English Civil War: A Military History of the Three Civil Wars, 1642–1651. London: Eyre Methuen, 1974.
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Young examines the major military events of the three civil wars throughout Scotland and England.
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Young, Peter. Naseby, 1645:The Campaign and the Battle. London: Century, 1985.
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From his series of campaign and battle narratives, Young describes and analyzes the Battle of Naseby, which finally broke Royalist power and vaulted Cromwell to the upper levels of parliamentary military command.
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The Second and Third Civil Wars and the Irish Campaign (1648–1651)

The outbreak of Royalist revolt sparked the Second Civil War in 1648, when parliamentary forces commanded by Cromwell crushed the rebellion against parliamentary domination at the Battle of Preston in September 1648. Disenchanted with the failure to account for Scottish religious desires in the post-regicide and English Republic period after 1649, many of the Scottish Covenanters joined with Charles Stuart (eventually Charles II) in 1650 in the Third Civil War. Cromwell, in command of the New Model Army (NMA), invaded Scotland, which led eventually to the final defeat of the Royalists and Covenanters at Worcester in 1651. In the interim, to finally crush Irish Catholic resistance to the new polity, Cromwell led a campaign into Ireland. Ashton 1994 covers the entire scope of the 1648 Second Civil War, including not only the events and campaigns, but also the political and constitutional issues and reasons for the renewed outbreak of conflict. Grainger 1997 provides a narrative account of the Third Civil War of 1650–1651, most of which took place in the Scottish Lowlands against the Covenanter Army, which had been parliamentary allies in the First Civil War. Nicoll 2010, by a Scot, is a record of events in Scotland during the Third Civil War as well as the follow-on Commonwealth and Protectorate period as English forces occupied Scotland under the command of George Monck—future Royalist, Duke of Albemarle, and key player in the Stuart Restoration. Reilly 2008 examines Cromwell’s Irish campaign from an Irish perspective, but in a less negative light than is traditionally seen. Simms 1974 views the Irish campaign in light of the context of war in the period and argues that the professionalism of the NMA had fully emerged. Wheeler 1999 examines the Irish Campaign in its entirety, making it the first modern narrative of these events. Wheeler 1992 addresses the issue of logistics in the Third Civil War and Cromwell’s 1650 invasion of Scotland.

Ashton, Robert. Counter-Revolution: The Second Civil War and Its Origins, 1646–8. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
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Ashton examines the origins and events of the Second Civil War, wherein the Scottish Covenanter Army, which had been allied with the English Parliament, invaded England in support of Charles I. This army was defeated at Preston in 1648 by New Model Army forces commanded by Cromwell and John Lambert.
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Grainger, John D. Cromwell Against the Scots: The Last Anglo-Scottish War, 1650–1652. East Linton, Scotland: Tuckwell, 1997.
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Grainger provides a narrative account of the war between England and Scotland, both of which had revolutionary governments by 1650. Geared toward the British political situation in 1997, it nevertheless is a useful narrative of Cromwell’s Scottish campaign.
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Nicoll, John. A Diary of Public Transactions and Other Occurrences, Chiefly in Scotland, From January 1650 to June 1667. Edited by David Laing. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2010.
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Nicoll provides useful information on Scottish affairs during the Third Civil War of 1650–1651 with the NMA invasion led by Cromwell, as well as the virtual martial law government of the realm by English forces under George Monck from 1652 to 1659. The original was published in Edinburgh in 1836, by Constable.
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Reilly, Tom. Cromwell: An Honourable Enemy: The Untold Story of the Cromwellian Invasion of Ireland. Dingle, Ireland: Brandon, 2008.
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Reilly examines Cromwell’s Irish invasion from the Irish perspective. He regards Cromwell as an “honourable enemy,” in contrast to the traditionally negative or controversial opinion of the Irish campaign.
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Simms, J. G. “Cromwell at Drogheda, 1649.” Irish Sword: The Journal of the Military History Society of Ireland 11 (Winter 1974): 212–221.
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Acknowledging that the siege and subsequent brutal treatment of Drogheda is one of the saddest incidents in Irish history, Simms argues that the Irish campaign must be examined in terms of the historical context, particularly the military dynamics of 17th-century warfare. The Drogheda campaign illustrates the growing military competency and professionalism of Cromwell and the NMA.
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Wheeler, James Scott. “The Logistics of the Cromwellian Conquest of Scotland 1650–1651.” War and Society 10.1 (1992): 1–18.
DOI: 10.1179/072924792791199011Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Wheeler examines the nature of the campaign in Scotland in 1650–1651, commanded by Cromwell, where the ability of the English government to supply the army with replacement troops, food, ammunition, horses, clothing, arms, and pay was truly extraordinary, providing the key to military success.
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Wheeler, James Scott. Cromwell in Ireland. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.
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Wheeler provides the first narrative overview in modern historiography of the entire Irish Campaign of 1649–1650, in which Cromwell crushed the Irish rebellion, finally established complete English domination, and made an evil reputation for brutality that persists centuries later.
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Cromwell as Military Commander

Many of the attributes that Cromwell brought to his political career can also be seen in his military endeavors and his rapid rise to ultimate command of the New Model Army (NMA). Numerous biographers have analyzed the nature of Cromwell as a soldier and military commander, with particular attention to his tactical concepts, ability to inspire and motivate, strategic acumen, and organizational ability. Some samples of the historiography are useful in comprehending the reasons for his military success. Baldock 1899 examines the skill of Cromwell in the organization, recruitment, and leadership of a modern military force. Davis 2001 addresses Cromwell’s evolution from a country squire with little military experience to the highest levels of military effectiveness and efficiency. Gillingham 1976 sees Cromwell as a Napoleonic figure: aggressive, disciplined, and able to inject military efficiency into the forces he commanded. Kitson 2007 relates Cromwell’s religious and constitutional concepts to his success in military affairs. Morrill 1990 looks at the nonmilitary experiences that influenced Cromwell’s career and military success.

Baldock, Thomas Stanford. Cromwell as a Solider. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1899.
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Originally designed to improve Victorian British officers’ professional knowledge, and part of a study of strategy and tactics, Baldock’s work emphasizes how Cromwell revolutionized the art of war in the 1640s, particularly in terms of raising, training, and leading a professional, standing army.
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Davis, J. C. Oliver Cromwell. London: Arnold, 2001.
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Davis examines the dynamics of Cromwell’s rapid military rise, such as his tactical ability, willingness to operate as a “team player,” and willingness to learn the technical aspects of combat, as well as the connections between military strategy and national political policy.
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Gillingham, John. Cromwell: Portrait of a Soldier. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976.
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Gillingham investigates three different subject areas: the nature of warfare in mid-17th-century Europe, the state of English society in 1640, and the extent to which Britain was prepared for war in 1642. Gillingham portrays Cromwell as an aggressive commander in the mold of Napoleon, who demanded discipline and training.
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Kitson, Sir Frank. Old Ironsides: The Military Biography of Oliver Cromwell. London: Phoenix, 2007.
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Kitson analyzes the military career of Cromwell with a view to how he used his military successes to further his religious and constitutional notions.
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Morrill, John, ed. Oliver Cromwell and the English Revolution. London: Longman, 1990.
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Morrill sees Cromwell as atypical of the senior commanders in that he was considerably older and had no real previous military experience. His strength lay in his moral authority and his ability to communicate a common purpose to his troops and instill discipline and enthusiasm into his subordinates.
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Cromwell and Religion

Much has been written over the centuries about the influence of Cromwell’s religious beliefs and how religion shaped his military and political attitudes and decisions. Religion clearly influenced his thinking, as it did for many on either side. While traditionally more associated with the Parliamentarians and the religious radicals of the 1650s, more recent studies indicate a high level of religious feeling and motivation among Royalists. Cliffe 1988 examines the influence of Puritanism on the course of the Civil Wars and the Interregnum. Gaunt 2004 studies Cromwell’s religious beliefs and how they shaped his military and political actions and decisions. Gentles 2011 examines Cromwell’s career through the lens of his religion. Paul 1955 addresses Cromwell’s apparent sense of “divine mission” in shaping his actions and decisions. Smith 1991 addresses Cromwell’s religion in terms of how it shaped his career. Solt 1959 looks at Puritanism and other antiestablishment religious attitudes in terms of a motivation to side with or fight for Parliament.

Cliffe, J. T. Puritans in Conflict: The Puritan Gentry during and after the Civil Wars. London: Routledge, 1988.
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Cliffe addresses the Puritan country gentry, a group from which Cromwell derived, and examines their impact on the course of events that shaped the Civil Wars, the English Republic, Cromwell’s Protectorate, and the Restoration period.
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Firth, Charles H. Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans in England. New York: G.P. Putnam, 1900.
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Firth’s examination of the motives and personal views of Cromwell, first published in 1900 and reprinted widely since, began the scholarly trend toward a more balanced evaluation of Cromwell and away from the traditional viewpoint of the Lord Protector as a hard-shelled religious zealot and fanatic.
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Gaunt, Peter. Oliver Cromwell. New York: New York University Press, 2004.
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Aimed at the general reader, Gaunt’s volume makes a balanced assessment of how Cromwell’s religious attitudes and belief that God guided his decisions shaped his actions as a military commander and political leader.
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Gentles, Ian. Oliver Cromwell: God’s Warrior and the English Revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
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Gentles examines Cromwell’s military and political career through the theme of how his religious beliefs and concepts helped shape his decision making and actions.
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Paul, Robert S. The Lord Protector: Religion and Politics in the Life of Oliver Cromwell. London: Lutterworth, 1955.
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Paul sees Cromwell’s strength as his sense of divine mission, though he struggled to reconcile the secular aspects of governing with his religious convictions.
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Smith, David L. Oliver Cromwell: Politics and Religion in the English Revolution, 1640–1658. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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Aimed at the general reader, Smith’s work addresses many aspects of Cromwell’s career, particularly the role that religion played in his attitudes and actions.
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Solt, Leo F. Saints in Arms: Puritanism and Democracy in Cromwell’s Army. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1959.
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Solt examines Puritanism and antiestablishment religion in terms of motivating Britons to choose a side in the Civil Wars; the dynamics of radical religion in motivating the parliamentary forces to fight; and, having achieved military victory, how religious radicals used the military to enforce their religious views during the Interregnum.
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The Republic and Protectorate

Beginning with the execution of King Charles I in 1649 and ending with the Restoration of the Stuart monarchy under Charles II in 1660, Britain evolved through the English Republic of 1649–1653, followed by the Protectorate of 1653–1659. Cromwell dominated the political and military landscape of Britain, first as overall commander of the New Model Army (NMA) following the resignation of Sir Thomas Fairfax in 1650, and then politically as the Lord Protector from the institution of the Protectorate in 1653 until his death in 1658. Several historians have analyzed the political, foreign policy, constitutional, military, and domestic policies and events of the Republic and Protectorate. Hainsworth 1997 looks at the domination of British politics and constitutionalism by the NMA senior officers. Hutton 2000 examines the dynamics of the period politically and militarily. Korr 1975 examines Cromwellian foreign policy as it impacted colonial, maritime, and trade issues. Woolrych 1982 addresses the dismissal of the “Rump” Parliament as instigated by Cromwell and the establishment of the Protectorate with Cromwell as Lord Protector. Worden 1974 analyzes the “Rump” Parliament, first elected prior to the First Civil War as the Long Parliament, but increasingly radical after the purge of moderates in December 1647.

Hainsworth, Roger. The Swordsmen in Power: War and Politics under the English Republic, 1649–1660. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1997.
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Hainsworth examines the dynamics and events of the English Republic and Protectorate period in which Cromwell dominated, first as NMA commander and then as Lord Protector. Opponents accused the army of imposing a military dictatorship, which drove many back toward Royalism and the Restoration of 1660.
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Hutton, Ronald. The British Republic, 1649–1660. 2d ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
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Hutton examines the dynamics of the two post-Stuart periods—the English Republic from the execution of Charles I to the dissolution of the “Rump” Parliament in 1653, and the Protectorate period during which Cromwell served as Lord Protector.
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Korr, Charles P. Cromwell and the New Model Foreign Policy: England’s Policy towards France, 1649–1658. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975.
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Korr addresses Cromwellian foreign policy in the 1650s, an era that saw conflict with Spain over West Indies colonies and with the Dutch over trade, as exemplified by the first of the Navigation Acts.
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Woolrych, Austin. Commonwealth to Protectorate. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982.
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Woolrych focuses on the dissolution of the “Rump” Parliament and the events leading to the establishment of the Protectorate.
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Worden, Blair. The Rump Parliament, 1648–1653. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1974.
DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511560910Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Worden examines the “Rump” Parliament, which acted as both legislature and executive during the English Republic of 1649–1653. Although Cromwell had little political participation while on military campaigns in Scotland and Ireland, he was the leader of the dissolution in 1653.