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Roman Slavery (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Romans could never escape their slaves. Slaves were always a physical presence: in the city, in the country, in the forum, in every room of their homes. As the empire increased, so did the numbers of slaves. Sometimes Romans were murdered in their homes by their slaves. Sometimes whole Roman armies were slaughtered, but the Romans only took more care. They did not conclude that the system was flawed, since for them it had worked for centuries. Despite the ubiquity of slaves, it is not as easy as might be assumed to find out about their lives. They wrote nothing themselves, and the masters seldom mention them in their own literary creations. However, that is not to say nothing can be discovered. The study of ancient slavery is entering a new and exciting phase. During the 20th century it was largely influenced by modern political concerns, since scholars in the old Eastern Bloc countries were seen to be overemphasizing the element of class conflict in the topic. This in turn often led to perhaps a similar distortion in the other direction on the part of Western scholars, in their underplaying the unpleasant side of the great civilizations of Greece and Rome. Now that the political debates of the past century have entered new phases, the study of slavery in Antiquity can be looked at more dispassionately. Having said that, it is not simply a question of letting the sources speak for themselves, since we have no evidence remaining from any slave from the ancient world. All is written by the masters, which makes the area of Roman slavery different from, say, the history of slavery in Brazil or the United States.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Because the underlying, but often unexpressed, political debates of the 20th century are usually present in many works about Roman slavery, it is useful to be aware of them, or the possibility of their presence, before embarking on the study of this topic. On the other hand, those interested in ancient slavery may wish avoid modern political debates. Any contact with secondary material on slavery inevitably brings one into contact with them, however, so an awareness of their existence is useful.
  8.  
  9. Historiographical Overviews
  10.  
  11. A clear explanatory introduction that has not been surpassed can be found in the postscript of Yavetz 1988, which is a long essay on the modern debates in the study of Roman slavery. Finley 1980 is also an exemplary work, a brief but fascinating and readable look at the influence of modern ideology on the subject; indeed, anything written by Finley on slavery (or on anything else) is worth reading. Brockmeyer 1979 is in German and is less accessible in terms of its treatment as well. It gives an overview of modern discussions but does not really enter into a discussion of the works. The Mainz Academy, an influential body for the study of slavery, has published a huge range of sourcebooks and monographs. It could be said to represent the Western view of slavery, which some reject. Wiedemann 2000 describes its history and defends it against detractors. McKeown 2007 is an excellent introduction to the various modern political approaches to Roman slavery.
  12.  
  13. Brockmeyer, Norbert. 1979. Antike Sklaverei. Darmstadt, West Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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  15. A brief commentary on the main literature on the topic for the newcomer; in German.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Finley, M. I. 1980. Ancient slavery and modern ideology. New York: Viking.
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  19. This is perhaps the most significant book in any language on ancient slavery. It has been reissued with an introduction by Brent Shaw and two further articles by Finley: “Problems of slave society: Some reflections on the debate” and “Slavery and the historians” (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 1988).
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  21. McKeown, Niall. 2007. The invention of ancient slavery? London: Duckworth.
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  23. This brief review of the modern interpretations of mainly Roman slavery is also an accessible introduction to the themes and controversies in the study of Roman slavery.
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  25. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. 2000. Fifty years of research on ancient slavery: The Mainz Academy project. Slavery & Abolition 21.3: 152–158.
  26. DOI: 10.1080/01440390008575325Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. Describes the formation and defends the views of the Mainz Academy passionately.
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  29. Yavetz, Zvi. 1988. Slaves and slavery in ancient Rome. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
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  31. The postscript is an introduction to the historiography of ancient slavery. It is learned, detailed, and above all clear and explanatory and a good starting point for any undergraduate.
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  33. Historical Overviews
  34.  
  35. For readers with not much time, Thébert 1993 is full of analysis and insights, all clearly presented and expressed. Andreau and Descat 2006 is clear and concise. Bradley 1984 and Bradley 1994, on slavery in Roman society, have proved popular with students, offering analysis and anecdote in the right balance to keep readers interested and informed. Hopkins 1978 offers a sociological approach to Roman society, with more analysis than usual from historians of Antiquity. It is an invaluable introduction to slavery in the Roman Empire. Finley 1960 and Finley 1987 contain classic articles about slavery in both Greece and Rome.
  36.  
  37. Andreau, Jean, and Raymond Descat. 2006. Esclave en Grèce et à Rome. Paris: Hachette.
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  39. An overview of slavery in the ancient world. Has chapters on what a slave is, the first forms of slavery, slavery and the economy, and how to leave slavery.
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  41. Bradley, Keith R. 1984. Slaves and masters in the Roman Empire. Brussels: Latomus.
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  43. This is a description of social control in imperial Rome, concise, readable and interesting.
  44. Find this resource:
  45. Bradley, Keith R. 1994 Slavery and society at Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  47. An expanded version of Bradley 1984, both in scope and timeframe, but avoiding duplication of the material. Also engagingly written and attractively organized.
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  49. Finley, M. I., ed. 1960. Slavery in Classical Antiquity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  51. Series of essays by different authors on various aspects of slavery in both Greece and Rome.
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  53. Finley, M. I., ed. 1987. Classical slavery. London: Frank Cass.
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  55. Another set of essays by different authors on various aspects of slavery in both Greece and Rome.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Hopkins, Keith. 1978. Conquerors and slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  59. The book examines how Rome was affected by importing large numbers of slaves into Italy during its imperial expansion. It remains distinctive, and refreshing, because of its sociological approach.
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  61. Thébert, Yves. 1993. The slave. In The Romans. Edited by Andrea Giardina, 138–174. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  63. Looks at the position of slaves in ancient society, with particular emphasis on Rome, and asks how such a sophisticated culture could combine its advanced philosophy and politics with slavery.
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  65. Reference Works
  66.  
  67. The Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei (Studies in ancient slavery) project of the Mainzer Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur (Mainz Academy of Sciences and Literature) has a useful website with information on many aspects of ancient slavery. On the Mainz Academy project also see Wiedemann 2000 under Historiographical Overviews. It has been noted that that different nations seem to have different approaches to the study of slavery. This is well illustrated by a comparison of the Mainz Academy’s output with that of its French counterpart, GIREA, another highly active and productive group of scholars; most of GIREA’s website is in French, while the Mainz one also has an English version.
  68.  
  69. GIREA.
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  71. An organization set up to research slavery in Antiquity is GIREA (Groupe International de Recherche sur l’Esclavage dans l’Antiquité), based at the University of Franche-Comté. It organizes regular conferences and publishes the proceedings. Some of its publications are available online.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Heinen, Heinz, ed. 2006–2010. Handwörterbuch der antiken Sklaverei. Stuttgart: Steiner.
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  75. The English title given for this on the Mainz website is The concise dictionary of ancient slavery, but it seems that “concise” refers to the length of the entries rather than the size of the dictionary, which is substantial. It is available on CD-ROM as well as in print.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Bibliographies
  78.  
  79. The Forschungen zur antiken Sklaverei (Studies in ancient slavery) project of the Mainzer Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur (Mainz Academy of Sciences and Literature) has made bibliographies on ancient slavery its preserve. After editions in 1971 and 1983, the 3d edition appeared as Bellen and Heinen 2003. The project itself was initiated by J. Vogt in 1950, continued by H. Bellen from 1986 until 2002, and by H. Heinen since 2002. Diotima is primarily a resource for studies of women and gender but also has sections on slavery.
  80.  
  81. Bellen, Heinz, and Heinz Heinen, eds. 2003. Bibliographie zur antiken Sklaverei. 3d ed. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Steiner.
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  83. A bibliography on ancient slavery containing 10,415 items, with the second volume being the index. It is comprehensive and contains items published all over the world.
  84. Find this resource:
  85. Diotima.
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  87. This is a website for materials for the study of women and gender in the ancient world, but the part of the bibliography on slavery goes beyond just female slaves. It is an easy site to navigate and has much useful material on it.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Sourcebooks
  90.  
  91. Still the only sourcebook on slavery in Antiquity in English is Wiedemann 1981, which has been reprinted many times. The book is arranged thematically, and Greek and Roman writers are dealt with together. Eck and Heinrichs 1993 is a more specialized sourcebook, with translations into German. Shaw 2001 offers far more than its title suggests, since there are also passages about the conditions of agricultural slaves and on gladiators generally, as well as laws about runaways and posters (from papyri) written to help retrieve fugitive slaves. The major part of Yavetz 1988 is a translation of extracts from ancient sources, with notes, about the major slave wars. Chiusi, et al. 1999 is an ongoing publication collecting the legal sources relating to Roman slavery.
  92.  
  93. Chiusi, Tiziana J., Johanna Filip-Fröschl, and J. Michael Rainer, eds. 1999–. Corpus der römischen Rechtsquellen zur antiken Sklaverei. 10 vols. Stuttgart: Steiner.
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  95. A collection of the legal sources about ancient slavery, a product of the Mainz Academy.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Eck, Werner, and Johannes Heinrichs, eds. 1993. Sklaven und Freigelassene in der Gesellschaft der römischen Kaiserzeit. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
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  99. Collection of passages from ancient authors concerning Roman slavery, along the lines of Wiedemann 1981, but with the original text and German translation and only about the Roman imperial period.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Shaw, Brent D. 2001. Spartacus and the slave wars: A brief history with documents. Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s.
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  103. Rich but compact collection of translated extracts focusing on slave wars in the Roman Republic.
  104. Find this resource:
  105. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. 1981. Greek and Roman slavery. London: Croom Helm.
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  107. Compilation of translated extracts from ancient authors on various aspects of Greek and Roman slavery. Helpful introductory comment on each passage.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Yavetz, Zvi. 1988. Slaves and slavery in ancient Rome. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
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  111. Two-thirds of the book consists of extracts relating to slave revolts, including that led by Aristonicus (which is not covered in Shaw 2001).
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  113. Definitions
  114.  
  115. The definition of a “slave” is not as straightforward as one might think, and much has been written on it. Patterson 1982, though not exclusively concerned with ancient slavery, is thorough and exact; see also de Ste. Croix 1988, which deals with the problems of definition clearly. Weiler 2003 is a detailed and informative analysis of the meanings of terms used, but in German.
  116.  
  117. de Ste. Croix, G. E. M. 1988. Slavery and other forms of unfree labour. In Slavery and other forms of unfree labour. Edited by Leonie Archer, 19–32. London: Routledge.
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  119. Precise and careful definition, by a lawyer, of chattel slavery, serfdom, and debt bondage.
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  121. Patterson, Orlando. 1982. Slavery and social death: A comparative study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  123. The book as a whole looks at the institution of slavery from a sociological perspective. Chapter 1, “Introduction: The constituent elements of slavery,” defines what slavery is. Although not exclusively about Antiquity, this discussion is fundamental for anyone wishing to understand Roman slavery.
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  125. Weiler, Ingomar. 2003. Die Beendigung des Sklavenstatus im Altertum. 13–72. Stuttgart: Steiner.
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  127. The first part of this book is a very detailed examination of the terminology of slavery, which is a helpful reminder of the possible complications.
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  129. Roman Law
  130.  
  131. Looking at how slaves and slavery were dealt with in Roman law is one approach to understanding what constituted slavery (see Watson 1987); and Buckland 1908, despite its age, is still fundamental for anyone wishing to understand slavery in Roman law. Chiusi, et al. 1999– (cited under Sourcebooks) is a collection of those legal texts that relate to Roman law on slavery. Burdon 1988 examines cases where slavery was used as a punishment. Surprisingly little has been done on this, and Burdon’s piece is enlightening. The Roman Law Library, run by Lassard and Koptev, and Roman Law Resources, run by Metzger, are both helpful on slavery and easy to use.
  132.  
  133. Buckland, W. W. 1908. The Roman law of slavery: The condition of the slave in private law from Augustus to Justinian. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  135. Comprehensive survey of the position of the slave with regard to the law in two parts: “Condition of the slave” and “Enslavement and release from slavery.” The second part deals mainly with aspects of manumission.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Burdon, Joan. 1988. Slavery as punishment in Roman criminal law. In Slavery and other forms of unfree labour. Edited by Leonie Archer, 68–85. London: Routledge.
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  139. Looks at the evidence that from the early Roman Republic the enslavement of free Romans was always a penalty for certain crimes.
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  141. Lassard, Y., and A. Koptev. The Roman Law Library.
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  143. A website with useful texts and bibliography on all aspects of Roman law.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Metzger, Ernest. Roman Law Resources.
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  147. A website maintained by the University of Glasgow with a vast amount of information on all aspects of Roman law. Very easy to use.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Watson, Alan. 1987. Roman slave law. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  151. Short (about 130 pages), accessible but learned introduction by one of the world’s experts on Roman law, written, he explains in his preface, because he was struck by the differences between the law of slavery in the American South and Rome.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Slave Society
  154.  
  155. A slave society is normally characterized as one in which slaves and their labor are necessary for the maintenance of that society. Slaves have been found in most periods in history, as Patterson 1982 shows, but not all societies in which slavery exists are classified as slave societies. Rome, however, was one. Fisher 2000 has a useful introduction to the main terms and debates. Engerman 1996 and de Ste. Croix 1981 are useful for defining the role of slaves in Roman society.
  156.  
  157. de Ste. Croix, G. E. M. 1981. Slavery and other forms of unfree labour. In The class struggle in the ancient Greek world. By G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, 133–174. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. The subject matter but not the discussion is the same as de Ste. Croix 1988 (cited under Definitions). Describes the Greek and Roman situation thoroughly. The whole book can be mined for information on Roman slave society, which one might not have guessed from the title.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Engerman, Stanley L. 1996. Slavery, serfdom and other forms of coerced labour: Similarities and differences. In Serfdom and slavery: Studies in legal bondage. Edited by M. L. Bush, 18–41. London: Longman.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. Looks generally at the different roles of unfree labor in different societies.
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  165. Finley, M. I. 1973. Masters and slaves. In The ancient economy. By M. I. Finley, 62–94. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. Overview of the position of slaves in Greek and Roman society and their place in the ancient economy.
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  169. Fisher, N. R. E. 2000. Definitions and problems: Chattel slaves, serfs, and the concept of a slave society. In Slavery in classical Greece, 2d ed. By N. R. E. Fisher, 1–9. Bristol, UK: Bristol Classical Press.
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  171. The concise introductory chapter is useful to students of Roman history too, although this short book as a whole is about Greece.
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  173. Patterson, Orlando. 1982. Slavery and social death: A comparative study. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175. The book as a whole looks at the institution of slavery from a sociological perspective. It is full of fascinating insights and worth reading. The appendices (pp. 350–364) list slave societies in world history and the proportion of slaves in them.
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  177. Enslavement
  178.  
  179. The Digest (the main part of the Code of Justinian) states that “slaves are either born or made” (“Servi autem aut nascuntur aut fiunt,” Digest 1.3.4), and the question of which was more important becomes more relevant for the Roman Empire, when expansion was much slower.
  180.  
  181. Prisoners of War
  182.  
  183. During the time of the Roman Republic, warfare was the most usual, and in some sense cheapest, way of acquiring slaves, well illustrated by Katsari 2008. Jongman 2003 touches on the connection between imperialism and slavery.
  184.  
  185. Jongman, Willem. 2003. Slavery and the growth of Rome: The transformation of Italy in the second and first centuries BCE. In Rome the cosmopolis. Edited by Catharine Edwards and Greg Woolf, 100–122. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Compares Rome to 17th-century London rather unconvincingly, but has a useful bibliography.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Katsari, Constantina. 2008. Enslavement and death: The Third Macedonian War. In From captivity to freedom: Themes in ancient and modern slavery. Edited by Constantina Katsari and Enrico Dal Lago, 19–39. Leicester, UK: Univ. of Leicester School of Archaeology and Ancient History.
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  191. This article takes the unusual step of looking at what happened to a region after a war of conquest and enslavement, when a vast proportion of the working population was either killed or enslaved.
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  193. The Slave Trade
  194.  
  195. It is surprisingly difficult to find much information about what must have been an important part of Roman life, but Bodel 2005 provides a straightforward introduction. Bosworth 2002 describes a famous individual case, whereas Gabrielson 2003 is more general. Gordon 1960, despite its age, is a useful survey of the possible origins of slaves.
  196.  
  197. Bodel, J. 2005. Caveat emptor: Towards a study of Roman slave traders. Journal of Roman Archaeology 18:181–195.
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  199. Overview of the study of slave traders in Rome and their general unpopularity in both Rome and the American South.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Bosworth, A. B. 2002. Vespasian and the slave trade. Classical Quarterly 52:350–357.
  202. DOI: 10.1093/cq/52.1.350Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Suggests that in his early career Vespasian traded in castrated slaves, not mules, when short of money. Interesting discussion of the slave trade generally.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Gabrielsen, Vincent. 2003. Piracy and the slave-trade. In A companion to the Hellenistic world. Edited by Andrew Erskine, 389–404. Oxford: Blackwell.
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  207. This article looks at pirates operating as slave traders mainly in Hellenistic times, but also covers the Roman Republic.
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  209. Gordon, M. L. 1960. The nationality of slaves under the early Roman Empire. In Slavery in Classical Antiquity. Edited by M. I. Finley, 171–189. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  211. This article was first published in 1924 and in the final comments its age shows, but mostly it is a thoughtful survey of how one might determine where slaves had originated.
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  213. Breeding
  214.  
  215. What was the most significant source of slaves during the Roman Empire is the subject of a debate between Harris 1994, Harris 1999, and Scheidel 1997. Sometimes the arguments are clearly so speculative as to be almost useless, but the articles provide insight into current preoccupations. Bradley 1987 and Madden 1996 present more straightforward discussions.
  216.  
  217. Bradley, Keith R. 1987. On the Roman slave supply and slavebreeding. In Classical slavery. Edited by M. I. Finley, 42–64. London: Frank Cass.
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  219. Discusses the conventional view that in the Republic, slaves came from wars of expansion, whereas under the Empire breeding became more significant. Concludes there were always several factors: breeding, wars, and trade.
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  221. Harris, W. V. 1994. Child-exposure in the Roman Empire. Journal of Roman Studies 84:1–22.
  222. DOI: 10.2307/300867Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Argues that child exposure was a significant source of slaves in the Roman Empire.
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  225. Harris, W. V. 1999. Demography, geography and the sources of Roman slaves. Journal of Roman Studies 89:62–75.
  226. DOI: 10.2307/300734Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Direct reply to Scheidel 1997, almost amusing in the vehemence of the debate, which concludes that other factors were important besides breeding for the supply of slaves in the Roman Empire, such as trade, self-sale, and enslavement of exposed children.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Madden, John 1996 Slavery in the Roman Empire: Numbers and origins. Classics Ireland 3:109–128.
  230. DOI: 10.2307/25528294Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Accessible discussion of where the Romans got their slaves after the wars of expansion largely ceased. Agrees with Harris that foundlings constituted significant numbers.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Scheidel, Walter. 1997. Quantifying the sources of slaves in the early Roman Empire. Journal of Roman Studies 87:156–169.
  234. DOI: 10.2307/301373Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Argues that breeding was more important for the slave supply than child exposure, warfare, and trading in the Roman Empire.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Scheidel, Walter. 2005. Human mobility in Roman Italy, II: The slave population. Journal of Roman Studies 95:64–79.
  238. DOI: 10.3815/000000005784016270Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Looks at the increase of slaves in Roman Italy due to imperialism and argues that estimates of the numbers of slaves are generally too large.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Prices
  242.  
  243. Diocletian’s Price Edict from the early 4th century CE is a striking document to examine. Lauffer 1971 gives the text of the full edict, whereas Crawford and Reynolds 1979 discusses the section about slaves. The slave prices make little sense without the rest of the commodities, so it is worth looking at the whole edict. It is also necessary to remember that these prices are only from one extraordinary period of Roman history, but nevertheless, they are instructive. By way of comparison see Hopkins 1978 on the prices slaves paid for their manumission as recorded in the Delphi inscriptions.
  244.  
  245. Crawford, M. H., and J. M. Reynolds. 1979. The Aezani copy of the Prices Edict. Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik 34:177, 198.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Gives that part of Diocletian’s Price Edict that refers to the prices of slaves, translated by Wiedemann.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Hopkins, Keith. 1978. Conquerors and slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  251. The whole book is worth reading, but chapter 3 looks at inscriptions from Delphi which record about a thousand acts of manumission from the Roman Republican period. The prices slaves paid for their own freedom form the largest series of prices from the ancient world; see especially pp. 158–163.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Lauffer, S. 1971. Diokletians Preisedikt. Berlin: de Gruyter.
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  255. The text of the edict.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. 1981. Greek and Roman slavery. London: Croom Helm.
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  259. Gives a translation of the part of Diocletian’s Edict on Maximum Prices concerning slaves.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Slave Labor
  262.  
  263. The role slaves played in the ancient economy is much discussed, not least because of the dearth of real evidence about the numbers involved. The classic division by the ancients themselves was between their rural and urban slaves.
  264.  
  265. Agricultural Work
  266.  
  267. Although agriculture was the area where slaves were needed the most, there are not many studies that deal directly with it, probably due to lack of sources. The longest and most comprehensive to date is Giardina and Schiavone 1981, and the presence of archaeologists makes the debate much more fruitful. Thompson 2003 gives a vivid impression of conditions for slaves, while de Ste. Croix 1981 steps back to give the larger picture of how the slave system worked.
  268.  
  269. de Ste. Croix, G. E. M. 1981. The conditions of production: Land and unfree labour. In The class struggle in the ancient Greek world. By G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, 112–114. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Looks at how the elite in both Greece and Rome gained their wealth from the unfree workers of their land.
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  273. Giardina, Andrea, and Aldo Schiavone, eds. 1981. Societa romana e produzione schiavistica. Vol. 1, L’Italia: Insediamenti e forme economiche; Vol. 2, Merci, mercati e scambi nel Mediterraneo; Vol. 3, Modelli etici, diritto e trasformazioni sociali. Bari, Italy: Laterza.
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  275. The three volumes are the proceedings of a conference of ancient historians and archaeologists held in Pisa in 1979. The range of the papers is vast, from the 5th century BCE to the 5th century CE. Two useful reviews are D. W. Rathbone, “The slave mode of production in Italy,” Journal of Roman Studies 73 (1983): 160–168; and M. S. Spurr, “Slavery and economy in Roman Italy,” Classical Review 35 (1985): 123–131.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Thompson, F. H. 2003. Slavery in quarries and mines. In The archaeology of Greek and Roman slavery. By F. H. Thompson, 131–186. London: Duckworth.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. An illustrated look at the evidence for slaves working in both the Greek and Roman worlds. Chapter 5 discusses mines and quarries; chapters 6 and 7 are also worth reading: “Slaves in corn- and weaving mills and their use in lifting devices” and “Means of restraint.”
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Urban Slaves
  282.  
  283. There was a much more varied set of occupations for the slaves of the city, but it is important to note that the evidence is more copious for the imperial period, since imperial slaves had more chance of being recorded in literature, in epitaphs, or in dedications. Inscriptions are crucial for much of the discussion in these studies, such as Joshel 1992, Treggiari 1975, and Weaver 1972. Since we rarely have very much information about particular slaves, some of these studies, such as Boulvert 1970 and Christes 1979, are more for consultation than reading from start to finish. Saller 1996 and Saller 1987 are more discursive.
  284.  
  285. Boulvert, Gérard. 1970. Esclaves et affranchis impériaux sous le haut-empire romain: Rôle politique et administratif. Naples, Italy: Jovene.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A comprehensive chronological survey of the political and administrative roles played by slaves and freedmen under the emperors from Augustus to Alexander Severus.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Christes, Johannes. 1979. Sklaven und Freigelassene als Grammatiker und Philologen im antiken Rom. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Steiner.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. A reference work for those who seek further information about individual slaves and freedmen who taught grammar or were professional literary scholars.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Joshel, Sandra R. 1992. Work, identity and legal status at Rome: A study of the occupational inscriptions. Norman: Oklahoma Univ. Press.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Traces evidence for the lives of 1,470 individuals from the epitaphs and dedications from Rome in which a person names his work, looking at what names and occupations can tell us about the lives of slaves in the city.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Saller, Richard 1996. The hierarchical household in Roman society. In Serfdom and slavery: Studies in legal bondage. Edited by M. L. Bush, 18–41. London: Longman.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Explores what the relationships between free and slave might have been like in the Roman household, given that the paterfamilias had the power of life and death over his children as well as his slaves.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Saller, R. 1987. Slavery and the Roman family. In Classical slavery. Edited by M. I. Finley, 82–110. London: Frank Cass.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. An earlier look at how slaves were part of the Roman family.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Treggiari, Susan. 1975. Jobs in the household of Liva. Papers of the British School at Rome 43:48–77.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Reconstructs the household belonging to Augustus’s wife, Livia, from the epitaphs from the Monumentum Liviae on the Appian Way.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Weaver, Paul R. C. 1972. Familia Caesaris: A social study of the emperor’s freedmen and slaves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A study of slaves and freedmen from the imperial household from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE based largely on the large number of inscriptions remaining which refer to such individuals.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Public Slaves
  314.  
  315. Public slaves were in a class of their own, belonging to the state rather than to individual owners, and could be seen as rather a privileged category. Eder 1980 and Weiss 2004 together have collected a vast amount of information on public slaves in Roman history.
  316.  
  317. Eder, Walter. 1980. Servitus publica: Untersuchungen zur Entstehung, Entwicklung und Funktion der öffentlichen Sklaverei in Rom. Wiesbaden, West Germany: Steiner.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Earlier monograph on public slaves, but more restricted to city of Rome and the Republican period than Weiss 2004.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Weiss, Alexander. 2004. Sklave der Stadt: Untersuchungen zur öffentlichen Sklaverei in den Städten des Römischen Reiches. Stuttgart: Steiner.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Everything you could possibly want to know about the duties of public slaves in the Roman Empire.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Gladiators
  326.  
  327. Gladiators are perhaps thought of today as the most glamorous set of slaves—which could not be further from the truth, since being sent to fight in the arena was only a more entertaining death penalty for slaves who had committed an offense. However, the popularity of the film Gladiator has ensured that there are plenty of works about the situation of these fighters. Jacobelli 2003 is an attractive picture book focusing on the evidence from Pompeii, whereas Hopkins 1983 and Wiedemann 1992 give more weight to the brutal side of the sport. See also the article “Arena Spectacles.”
  328.  
  329. Hopkins, Keith. 1983. Murderous games. In Death and renewal. By Keith Hopkins, 7–30. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Hopkins considers the attraction of the spectacle of watching men fight to the death, in his characteristically vivid style.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Jacobelli, Luciana. 2003. Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. An illustrated survey of gladiatorial life in this city.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. 1992. Emperors and gladiators. London: Routledge.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Examines the place of the gladiatorial games in the identity of the Romans. Chapter 3, “The gladiators: Background and status,” is a readable and informed introduction to the subject.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. The Experience of Slavery
  342.  
  343. There is no direct evidence from slaves themselves on how they perceived their slavery, although from the masters’ attitudes to them, one can see that the masters at least expected hostility. Serghidou 2007 looks at fear as a factor in ancient slavery, while Weaver 1974 gives a contrasting picture of the opportunities in Roman society for some slaves. Treggiari 1975 studies inscriptions to build up a picture of how slaves lived.Thompson 2003 conjures up graphically what living and working conditions for slaves could have been like.
  344.  
  345. Serghidou, Anastasia, ed. 2007. Fear of slaves—fear of enslavement in the ancient Mediterranean. Besançon, France: Presses Universitaires de Franche-Comté.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. This collection of articles about fear as a factor in slavery in Greece and Rome, most but not all of which are in English, is useful because this aspect is not often addressed.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Thompson, F. H. 2003. Slavery in quarries and mines. In The archaeology of Greek and Roman slavery. By F. H. Thompson, 131–186. London: Duckworth.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Illustrated look at the evidence for slaves working in both the Greek and Roman worlds. Chapters 6 and 7 are also worth reading: “Slaves in corn- and weaving mills and their use in lifting devices” and “Means of restraint.”
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Treggiari, Susan. 1975. Family life among the staff of the Volusii. Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 105:393–401.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Examines slaves’ names inscribed on the tombs belonging to this family for information about their lives.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Weaver, P. R. C. 1974. Social mobility in the early Roman Empire: The evidence of the imperial freedmen and slaves. In Studies in ancient society. Edited by M. I. Finley, 121–140. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Looks at how the slaves and freedmen of the imperial household acquired power from their position and could improve their position by marrying women of higher status.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Thoughts on Slavery
  362.  
  363. Freedom was seen as the major good in Antiquity, perhaps largely owing to the existence of slavery. The philosophers did not take either freedom or slavery for granted, and much can be learned from the philosophical texts about attitudes to slavery.
  364.  
  365. Philosophers and Slavery
  366.  
  367. The Stoics had quite a lot to say about slavery. They were not against the institution but argued that as only the wise can really be free, a slave can be free if he is wise. Bradley 1986 focuses on Seneca, while Garnsey 1996 surveys both pagan and Christian thinkers.
  368.  
  369. Bradley, Keith R. 1986. Seneca and slavery. Classica et Mediaevalia 37:161–172.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Short, clear and forceful argument that Seneca’s views on slavery were not especially enlightened nor liberal but rather a product of his class, from a Stoic perspective.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Garnsey, Peter. 1996. Ideas of slavery from Aristotle to Augustine. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Examines the attitudes of ancient thinkers to slavery in part 1, which consists of translations of passages under discussion from writers from classical Greek and Roman times, as well as early Church Fathers. In part 2 chapters are devoted to writers: Aristotle, the Stoics (as a group), Philo, Paul, Ambrose, and Augustine.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Slavery and the Church
  378.  
  379. One might expect a change in society with the advent of Christianity. Generally the Church seems to have taken over Stoic attitudes to slavery, which enabled them to consider the slave as human without condemning the institution of slavery. de Ste. Croix 1981 patiently details the attitudes of the early Church to reveal its support for the status quo. Glancy 2002 is a more literary study of how ideas of slavery permeated the ideology of the Church.
  380.  
  381. Combes, I. A. H. 1998. The metaphor of slavery in the writings of the early Church from the New Testament to the beginning of the fifth century. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Although there is a chapter on slavery and the Church, most of this volume looks as the use of slavery as metaphor in patristic works, the early liturgy, and the New Testament.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. de Ste. Croix, G. E. M. 1981. The class struggle in the ancient Greek world. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Thorough and detailed discussion of the failings of the Church with regard to slavery.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Glancy, Jennifer A. 2002. Slavery in early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Argues that since slavery permeated society from the birth of Christianity, it affected not only the social makeup of the Church but also the attitudes found in the early texts.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Poetry
  394.  
  395. The use of slavery as a metaphor is ubiquitous; see for instance the popular motif of the slave to love, discussed by Lyne 1979. Fitzgerald 2000 looks at the presence of real slaves in literature, not just metaphorical ones.
  396.  
  397. Fitzgerald, William. 2000. Slavery and the Roman literary imagination. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A study of slaves and slavery in Roman literature, not merely as metaphor, which in turn illustrates graphically the ubiquity of slavery in Roman society.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Lyne, R. O. A. M. 1979. Servitium amoris. Classical Quarterly 29:117–130.
  402. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800035229Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Argues that the well-known figure of the slave of love (servus amoris) is the invention of the Augustan poet Propertius.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Becoming Free
  406.  
  407. There were various methods by which slaves could obtain some sort of freedom in Roman society. They might be freed by their masters, or they could buy their freedom with money earned during their slavery. They might run away or kill themselves, which could be viewed at least by the Stoics as obtaining their freedom. Or they might take up arms against their masters, which some scholars have interpreted as delayed suicide. One might say in response that while rebelling they were free, so they obtained at least temporary freedom, or that they genuinely thought they could win some kind of permanent freedom.
  408.  
  409. Manumission
  410.  
  411. Manumission could be awarded in several ways. How frequently it was is disputed. Duff 1928 is out of date in many ways, but is a very structured introduction that has proved popular with students for its clarity. Treggiari 1969 looks at the roles freedmen performed in the late Republic. Gonzales 2008 has a huge range of articles, not all about the ancient world, but there are several on Roman manumission and freedmen. Hopkins 1978 looks at the unique set of inscriptions from Delphi describing individual cases of slaves winning freedom. Wiedemann 1985 looks at how frequently slaves actually were freed.
  412.  
  413. Duff, Arnold M. 1928. Freedmen in the early Roman Empire. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. This book documents freedmen in the imperial period but is very old now, with outdated political views underlying some of the discussion (on which see McKeown 2007, pp 13–24, cited under Historiographical Overviews). However, there is no new textbook yet to replace it.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Gonzales, Antonio, ed. 2008. La fin du statut servile? Affranchissement, libération, abolition. 2 vols. Besançon, France: Presses Universitaires de Franche-Comté.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A collection of essays, many of which are about the ancient world, discussing the different ways of ending slavery, written in French, English, Italian, and Spanish.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Hopkins, Keith. 1978. Between slavery and freedom: On freeing slaves at Delphi. In Conquerors and slaves. By Keith Hopkins, 133–171. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Discusses the different terms and conditions under which slaves could gain their freedom based on the evidence of the Delphic inscriptions. Unique insight into some individual cases.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Treggiari, Susan. 1969. Roman freedmen during the late Republic. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Looks at freedmen in all aspects of Roman society where they were found: trade, industry, politics, and the professions.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Wiedemann, Thomas E. J. 1985. The regularity of manumission at Rome. Classical Quarterly 35:162–175.
  430. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800014658Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Argues against the idea that slavery in Rome was only a temporary period for most slaves, who could expect to be manumitted for good service. Very clearly and precisely, Wiedemann goes through the evidence to show that it does not support this humane picture.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Rebellion
  434.  
  435. Armed conflict with slaves is perhaps the most politically charged area of the study of slavery, presumably because ideologues of the old Communist countries wanted to appropriate them as ancient freedom fighters. This led scholars in the West to veer too far in the other direction and play down the vivid accounts in the ancient sources in a variety of ways. Bradley 1989 is a good example of the conflict a conscientious reader of the ancient texts faced in the second half of the 20th century. The ancients portrayed the situation as revolutionary, yet the modern historiographical tendency was to deny that the revolts were historically significant. The stated intention of Urbainczyk 2008 is to look at the ancient sources anew. Capozza 1966 collects the evidence for revolts before the first Sicilian slave war. Unfortunately, the evidence is sparse and generally uninformative, but it’s useful to have the survey. Shaw 2001 is a sourcebook for the slave wars and general information about slave discontent. Strauss 2009 and Urbainczyk 2004 are more general books focusing on Spartacus, but both have helpful bibliographies at the back.
  436.  
  437. Bradley, Keith. 1989. Slavery and rebellion in the Roman world 140BC–70BC. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Full discussion of the slave wars in the Republic, setting them against their political and economic background. Suggests that the slaves were only aiming to set up maroon communities and unintentionally fell into outright war.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Capozza, Maria. 1966. Movimenti servili nel mondo Romano in età repubblicana. Rome: Pontifica Universitas Lateranensis.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Still the only study of the revolts in the early Republican period.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Shaw, B. D. 2001. Spartacus and the slave wars: A brief history with documents. Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Collection of ancient sources for the Spartacan and earlier Sicilian slave wars. Very useful introduction.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Strauss, Barry S. 2009. The Spartacus war: The revolt of the gladiators. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. An enthusiastic retelling of the Spartacus story, aimed at the popular market.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Urbainczyk, Theresa. 2004. Spartacus. London: Bristol Classical Press.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. Also for the general reader, but discusses earlier slave wars, as well as the way Spartacus was depicted in later ages.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Urbainczyk, Theresa. 2008. Slave revolts in Antiquity. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Looks at what circumstances facilitated the occurrence and maintenance of slave revolts in the ancient world. The best-documented wars took place in the Roman Republic, so this book is mostly about Roman slave rebellions.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Slavery in the Later Empire
  462.  
  463. Slavery continued through the Middle Ages, but a feature of this later period is the existence of the serf, a free man tied to the soil. In later Roman times we find coloni, whom we could characterize as serfs—that is, freemen who have their freedom restricted. We find them referred to in the 5th and 6th centuries as servi terrae (“slaves of the land”). As in all periods, it is impossible to have any idea of the numbers of slaves in late Antiquity, or even of what proportion of the population they made up. What is clear is that slavery persisted, but alongside the slaves were coloni. Who these were and when they first appeared is disputed; see Jones 1974, Mirkovic 1997, de Ste. Croix 1981, and Whittaker 1987. MacMullen 1987 suggests that slavery was less important in Late Antiquity, while Rotman 2009 is a thorough and informative study of the continuance of slavery in the Byzantine era.
  464.  
  465. de Ste. Croix, G. E. M. 1981. The class struggle in the ancient Greek world. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Overview of the period of transition and the steps leading to the transformation from slavery to serfdom, pp. 226–275.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Jones, A. H. M. 1974. The Roman colonate. In Studies in ancient society. Edited by M. I. Finley, 288–320. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. A learned but clear introduction to the subject of the colonus, essentially a serf, and the relationship between this class of people and slaves. Argues that the measure tying free people to the land was probably from Diocletian’s time. First published in Past and Present 13 (1958).
  472. Find this resource:
  473. MacMullen, Ramsay. 1987. Late Roman slavery. Historia 36:359–382.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Suggests that because there is little evidence for slaves in the Roman Empire from the 2nd century CE on, there were not many, and therefore this was not really a slave society. The argument from silence is unconvincing, but there are not many articles on late Roman slavery. Reprinted in MacMullen, Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the ordinary (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1990), pp. 236–249.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Mirkovic, Miroslava. 1997. The later Roman colonate and freedom. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Argues that coloni did not originate from the reforms of Diocletian but earlier. Full and useful survey of the issue.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Rotman, Youval. 2009. Byzantine slavery and the Mediterranean world. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Although a study of slavery in the Byzantine Empire, it refers frequently to the Roman world.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Whittaker, C. R. 1987. Circe’s pigs: From slavery to serfdom in the later Roman world. In Classical Slavery. Edited by M. I. Finley, 111–154. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Suggests that the colonate was an extension of a class of men who were in the service of rich landowners, as is found in Late Antiquity.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Modern Parallels
  490.  
  491. Comparing ancient societies with later ones is fraught with potential problems. Nevertheless, given the dearth of evidence for ancient slavery, it is useful to look at other societies to make suggestions for a fuller picture of slavery in Rome. Dal Lago and Katsari 2008 and Katsari and Dal Lago 2008 were the results of a conference held on this comparative theme. Webster 2008 encourages archaeologists to take a greater interest in Roman slavery, arguing that there is still much to be uncovered.
  492.  
  493. Dal Lago, Enrico, and Constantina Katsari, eds. 2008. Slave systems: Ancient and modern. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  494. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511482748Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A collection of articles in which pairs of authors discuss the same theme from ancient and modern times. These particular papers deal with the organization of slavery.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Katsari, Constantina, and Enrico Dal Lago. 2008. From captivity to freedom: Themes in ancient and modern slavery. Leicester, UK: Univ. of Leicester Press.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. The papers here look specifically at how slaves gained their freedom.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Webster, Jane. 2008. Less beloved: Roman archaeology, slavery and the failure to compare. Archaeological Dialogues 15.2: 103–123.
  502. DOI: 10.1017/S1380203808002596Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Webster’s article observes that although in other aspects of slavery studies, scholars compare different cultures to throw light on a topic that is often very inadequately documented from Antiquity, archaeologists have been slow to learn from this approach. This issue of Archaeological Dialogues is devoted to this subject.
  504. Find this resource:
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