API tools faq
paste
Advertisement
jonstond2

Spanish School of International Law (15th/16th centuries)

jonstond2
Feb 25th, 2017
393
0
Never
Add comment
Not a member of Pastebin yet? Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!
text 100.31 KB | None | 0 0
raw download clone embed print report
  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The most important contribution to the development of modern international law was made by the so-called School of Salamanca (16th and 17th centuries). It was not a “school” in the classic sense. The different scholars were educated in various European universities, although their teaching and thinking were mainly developed at the University of Salamanca (Spain) and other European universities such as Coimbra (Portugal). They were the first who spoke out on rights, the first who wanted to establish norms for the conquest of America, and the first who defended the human rights of all human beings, including Indians. Among them, Francisco de Vitoria and Francisco Suárez were the main contributors to the Law of Nations. Spanish scholars considered the foundations of modern international law based upon a universalistic interpretation of the old roman ius gentium, which must be observed by peoples and nations. Of course, they made this new interpretation of the roman ius gentium knowing the both concept had not direct equivalence. The old roman ius gentium was divided between ius inter gentes and ius intra gentes. The first is the law of nations, and the second is the civil law. According to Spanish scholars, native people have right to the property of their lands; no prince has the right to the possessions of the conquest territories. The scholars defended intercultural coexistence and stated that all entities have the same right of equal sovereignty. Ius inter gentes (international law) is a positive law created by man, including individuals and nations. Vitoria’s idea of totus orbis was the revolutionary idea of a unique international community. The Spanish School was the first to proclaim the innate dignity of human beings, the right of indigenous peoples to their properties, the right to self-government, and the international obligation to cooperate among states. The contributions of the School of Salamanca are part of a long tradition of just war theory in Christian thought. Spanish scholars included customs as a real source of international law and considered that the rights of human beings go beyond the borders of the states. They believed that the objective should not justify the means. For this reason they thought idolatry was not a just cause for Christians to wage war on the Indians. They defended freedom of the seas and opposed any monopoly of them. They considered war inevitable when solidarity was removed from the relations between men. International law was born to regulate the global community.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The texts included here provide a comprehensive overview on the main contributions to international law by the Spanish School (Brown Scott 2008). In general, they analyze those common principles regarding international law (Alves and Moreira 2009) as the existence of an international community (totus orbis; Mangas Martín 1993), to which belong all sovereign states, European or not (Barcia Trelles 1939). This community is a natural and organic product, based on solidarity between states, including church–state relations (Hamilton 1963). The sovereign equality of states is the initial principle of the positive law of nations or ius gentium (Macedo 2009), and human rights have their ground in natural law. Truth and justice are the basic principles of positive international law (Barcia Trelles 1939). See also Gómez 1989 and Hanke 2002.
  8.  
  9. Alves, André A., and José M. Moreira. The Salamanca School. Edited by John Meadowcroft. Major Conservative and Libertarian Thinkers 9. London: Continuum, 2009.
  10. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. This book explains the meaning of the Salamanca School, its political and intellectual context, and indicates some of its key authors: Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, Martín de Azpilcueta, Diego de Covarrubias y Leva, Tomás de Mercado, Bartolomé de Las Casas, Luis de Molina, Juan de Mariana, and Francisco Suárez. The book offers a critical exposition on the most relevant theories on international law.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Barcia Trelles, Camilo. “Fernando Vazquez de Menchaca (1512–1569): L’école espagnole du droit international du XVIe siècle.” Recueil des Cours 67 (1939): 430–534.
  14. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. This is a classic work on the Spanish School of international law. Barcia Trelles presents, in French, the main juridical ideas of the different members of the school. It was a subject taught by Professor Barcia Trelles at The Hague Academy of International Law. He dedicates several analyses to Vitoria’s thought and the foundations of his ideas on international law. Available online by subscription.
  16. Find this resource:
  17. Brown Scott, James. The Spanish origin of international law: Francisco de Vitoria and his law of nations. Vol. 1. Union, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 2008.
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Reprint of the original version published in 1934 (London: Clarendon). Presents the historical background of the Spanish School, the process of Vitoria’s academic life and analysis of his reading on the Indians, his concept of natural law, the scholastic doctrine of the law of war, and the Vitoria’s contribution to international law. It has appendixes with translations into English of Vitoria’s Relectiones, including an index of names and voices.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Gómez Robledo, Antonio. Fundadores del derecho internacional: Vitoria, Gentili, Suárez, Grocio. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1989.
  22. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  23. This publication contains a study on the four main internationalist of their times. In a memorable phrase, the author simplifies that “the moment of creation of international law corresponds to Francisco de Vitoria and the reflection to Francisco Suarez” (“En la génesis del Derecho Internacional el momento de la creación corresponde a Francisco de Vitoria y el de la reflexión a Francisco Suárez,” p. 72).
  24. Find this resource:
  25. Hamilton, Bernice. Political Thought in Sixteenth-Century Spain: A Study of the Political Ideas of Vitoria, De Soto, Suárez, and Molina. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963.
  26. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. Hamilton shows the major ideas of the Spanish scholars, especially emphasizing four of them. We can find approaches of Vitoria and Suárez to church–state relations, and the quotations are many. She appreciates the elaborations of the different concepts. The volume offers an appendix with short biographies and a major bibliography.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Hanke, Lewis. The Spanish Struggle for Justice in the Conquest of America. Dallas, TX: Southern Methodist University Press, 2002.
  30. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. This new edition contains an introduction by Susan Scafidi and Peter Bakewell and previously unpublished personal and professional reminiscence by the author. Hanke shows the moral and legal questions arising during the meeting of Spanish with Native Americans, defending the role of Spain in the encounter with the Indians. Originally published in 1949 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press).
  32. Find this resource:
  33. Macedo, Paulo E. B. O Nascimento do direito internacional. São Leopoldo, Brazil: Editora Unisinos, 2009.
  34. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. Francisco Suárez and Hugo Groccio are the most important scholars studied by Paulo Marcedo. He analyzes the ius gentium as a law between natural law and positive law and examines the different concepts of ius gentium before both studied authors. He focuses his study on the grounds of ius gentium according to Suárez and Groccio.
  36. Find this resource:
  37. Mangas Martín, Araceli, ed. La Escuela de Salamanca y el derecho internacional en América: Del pasado al futuro; Jornadas Iberoamericanas de la Asociación Española de Profesores de Derecho Internacional y Relaciones Internacionales, Salamanca, 5–7 noviembre. Salamanca, Spain: Asociación Española de Profesores de Derecho Internacional y Relaciones Internacionales, 1993.
  38. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  39. This book contains the papers presented by the Latin American community of internationalists around the main topics of the Spanish Classical School of International Law. This publication marks the five-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America and contains new and interesting contributions (i.e., Antonio Truyol and Serra, “El derecho de gentes como orden universal” [The Law of Nations as Global Order], pp. 17–25).
  40. Find this resource:
  41. Primary Sources
  42.  
  43. Literature offers many original editions of texts by members of the Spanish School. The original editions obviously are difficult to find. However, there are facsimile editions and translations into different appropriate languages, including Spanish, English, French, German, and so on. In many cases, the editions were not published directly by the authors but through their disciples or through the notes of the students.
  44.  
  45. Francisco de Vitoria
  46.  
  47. Francisco de Vitoria is the most significant author of the School of Salamanca and is considered its founder. Nonetheless, he never personally wrote any of his publications, but available original texts were put onto paper by his students, disciples, and contemporaries. In a process called relectionis, solemn lecturae were given before the full faculty of the university (as opposed to lecturae that were given in class to students). The most important relevant documents to international law are Relectiones de Indis and Relectiones de potestate civili (Reelecciones De Indios y el Derecho de la Guerra). Relectiones de Indis contains three reflections: Vitoria considers the Indians the real owners of America before the Spaniards arrived. He studies seven titles to justify the occupation of America by the Spaniards, but does not find any justification whatsoever, and finally presents seven titles that legitimize the domination of the Spanish crown over the Indies. Francisco de Victoria pronounced his dissertation De Jure belli Hispanorum in Barbaros in 1532. He examines the cases in which intervention with armed force is justifiable. He intended to answer the following questions: Can Christians make war? What authority may declare and make war? What are the causes of a just war? What can be done to an enemy in a just war? (Vitoria 1917) Relectiones de potestate civili explains the origins and purpose of political power. Man is by nature social and civil. Man needs to cooperate, and this is the ground of the birth of the state. There is no society without authority. The basis of this power is in the social consensus. Vitoria prefers the monarchy but supports any other forms of government (Vitoria 2001).
  48.  
  49. Vitoria, Francisco de. Reelecciones de indios y el derecho de la guerra. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
  50. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51. The original texts of Francisco de Vitoria can be seen in Latin as well as Spanish (translated by Marquis of Olivart). It contains a preface and a preliminary study. It is the facsimile work published by Espasa-Calpe, Madrid, 1923. Text available online.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Vitoria, Francisco de. The Classics of International Law: De Indis et de Ivre Belli Reflectiones. Edited by Ernest Nys. Translated by John Pawley Bate. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution, 1917.
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55. Ernest Nys (a distinguished Belgian internationalist) offers the Latin original text (revised by Herbert Francis Rights) and a translation into English of De Indis and De lure Belli. This edition contains an introduction by Nys (in French and translated into English by Bate). Translation and reprint facsimile is from Johann Simon’s edition (1696). Reprinted in 1964 by Oceania, which is available online.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Vitoria, Francisco de. Political Writings. Edited by Anthony Pagden and Jeremy Lawrance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
  58. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. Translation directly from Latin into English for the first time. The published texts comprise the core of Vitoria’s political thought, including justice, civil power, law of war, and the rights of American Indians. The texts are accompanied by a comprehensive introduction, chronology, and bibliography. First published in 1991.
  60. Find this resource:
  61. Francisco Suárez
  62.  
  63. Francisco Suárez is one of the leading figures of the Spanish School of International Law (Solá 1949). He is considered the founder of the modern philosophy of law (Suárez 1944). In his work Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore (Suárez 1971–1981), he develops the distinction between natural law and international law. According to him, international law is based on custom. The authority of the state is not of divine but of human origin. He thinks God gives the power to all community and not just to certain people. This is the root of the idea of social contract and the concept of sovereignty (Doyle 2010).
  64.  
  65. Doyle, John P. Collected Studies on Francisco Suárez, S.J. (1548–1617). Edited by Victor M. Salas. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2010.
  66. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. This volume contains a collection of previously published material by Suárez. Includes a preface and an introductory chapter as well as bibliographical references and indexes. Although the collected studies are mainly of philosophy, it is possible to find Suárez’s studies on the law of nations, human rights, and interpretation of laws.
  68. Find this resource:
  69. Solá, Francisco de Pablo. Suárez y las ediciones de sus obras: Monografía bibliográfica con ocasión del IV centenario de su nacimiento, 1548–1948. Barcelona: Editorial Atlántida, 1949.
  70. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  71. This work is considered the best bibliography of early editions of Suárez. It was published to mark the fourth centenary of his birth (1548–1948).
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Suárez, Francisco. Selections from Three Works of Francisco Suárez, S.J.: De legibus, ac deo legislatore, 1612; Defensio fidei catholicae, et apostolicae adversus anglicanae sectae errores, 1613; De triplici virtute theologica, fide, spe, et charitate, 1621. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1944.
  74. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. Volume 1 contains a facsimile of previous original editions in Latin. Volume 2 provides a translation into English by Gwladys L. Williams, Ammi Brown, and John Waldron, with revisions by Henry Davis. The introduction is by James Brown Scott.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Suárez, Francisco. Tractatus de legibus ac Deo legislatore. 8 vols. Edited by L. Pereña, E. Elorduy, V. Abril, C. Villanueva, and P. Suñer. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1971–1981.
  78. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. This is the modern edition of the Tractatus edited in Coimbra in 1612. It is a critical and bilingual edition (Latin and Spanish).
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Domingo de Soto
  82.  
  83. Domingo de Soto was a disciple of Francisco de Vitoria. He often substituted for him at the University of Salamanca. His main work is Relecciones y Opúsculos (Soto 2000, Soto 2003, Soto 2005). He also was confessor of the Emperor Charles V. In 1550–1551, he participated in the Juntas de Valladolid, being witness of the debate between Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda and Bartolomé de Las Casas, which criticized the practice of the Spanish conquest. Soto recognizes, together with Vitoria, the individual and collective human rights as the basis of interstate relations (Soto 1968).
  84.  
  85. Soto, Domingo de. De iustitia et iure. 5 vols. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Políticos, 1968.
  86. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. Facsimile of the 1556 Latin edition accompanied by a Spanish translation. Spanish translation is by Marcelino González Ordóñez, and historical and legal background is provided by Venancio Diego Trolley.
  88. Find this resource:
  89. Soto, Domingo de. Relecciones y opúsculos: El abuso de los juramentos: La ocultación y revelación de secretos Vol. II-1. Biblioteca de Teólogos Españoles. Edited by Antonio Osuna Fernández-Largo. Salamanca, Spain: Editorial San Esteban, 2000.
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91. Includes an introduction and a translation into Spanish.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Soto, Domingo de. Relecciones y opúsculos. Vol. 4. Edited by Ramón Hernández Martín. Salamanca, Spain: Editorial San Esteban, 2003.
  94. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. Sections include Relección sobre el mérito de cristo, Releccións obre las indulgencies, Anotaciones a Juan Fero, and others. It is a bilingual edition (Latin and Spanish), with an introduction and notes by Ramón Hernández Martín.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Soto, Domingo de. Relecciones y opúsculos. Vol. 3, De sacro canone et de eius sensibus. Edited by José Carlos Martín de la Hoz and Ignacio García Pinilla. Salamanca, Spain: Editorial San Esteban, 2005.
  98. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. This edition provides a Spanish translation, an introduction, and notes by editors.
  100. Find this resource:
  101. Bartolomé de Las Casas
  102.  
  103. This Dominican friar was born in Seville in 1474, and he was considered the “defensor de los Indios” (ombudsman of Indians). He was made bishop of Chiapas (in former Guatemala). In 1542, he actively participated in the redaction of the law prohibiting Indian slavery and safeguarding the rights of the Indians (Las Casas 1988–1998). He wrote Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias (see Fernández 2000), or The Tears of the Indians (Las Casas 1656), perhaps the most translated work of the Spanish School. He contributed to the Spanish Black Legend (Las Casas 1992a and Las Casas 1992b) with hundreds of English translations of this work. Also see Las Casas 1583, Las Casas 1988, and Las Casas 1971.
  104.  
  105. Fernández, Isacio Pérez, ed. Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas: Brevísima relación de la destruición de las Indias: Texto inédito desconocido, de 1542: Texto modifcado y añadido, de 1546; Texto remodificado y sobreañadido, de 1552. Bayamón, Puerto Rico: Universidad Central, Centro de Estudios de los Dominicos del Caribe, 2000.
  106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. An important critical edition containing an unpublished text of 1542, which was added in 1546 and further modified in 1552.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. The Spanish colonie, or Briefe Chronicle of the Acts and Gestes of the Spaniardes in the West Indies, Called the Newe World, for the Space of XL Yeeres: Written in the Castilian Tongue by the Reuerend Bishop Bartholomew de las Cases or Casaus, a Friar of the Order of S. Dominicke. London: Dawson, 1583.
  110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  111. This is Bartolomé de Las Casas’s first work translated into English, by M. M. S. This first edition can be found in various libraries.
  112. Find this resource:
  113. Las Casas, Bartolome de. The Tears of the Indians: Being an Historical and True Account. Edited by Nathaniel Brook. London: Angel in Cornhil, 1656.
  114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115. The book mentions the Cruel Massacres and Slaughters of Above Twenty Millions of Innocent People Committed by the Spaniards during the conquest of America. There is a reprint of this book by General Books, where is possible to download as PDF ebook.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. Bartolomé de las Casas: A Selection of His Writings. Translated and edited by George Sanderlin. New York: Knopf, 1971.
  118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. This book contains a selection of some of the most important documents by Bartolomé de Las Casas.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. Obras Completas: Apología. Vol. 9. V Centenario del descubrimiento de America. Edited by Ángel Losada. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1988.
  122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. This is an interesting edition and includes Las Casas’s whole texts. The work is considered the best reference for Las Casas’s texts in Spanish.
  124. Find this resource:
  125. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. Obras Completas. 14 vols. Edited by Paulina Castañeda Delgado. Madrid: Alianza Editorial, 1988–1998.
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. This book was prepared for the five-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. The work offers comments and annotations by the most prestigious specialists on Las Casas’s life and work. It could be considered the most complete publication of Las Casas’s original work.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. In Defense of the Indians: The Defense of the Most Reverend Lord, Don Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, of the Order of Preachers, Late Bishop of Chiapa, against the Persecutors and Slanderers of the Peoples of the New World Discovered across the Seas. Translated and edited by Stafford Poole. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1992a.
  130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  131. This is an English translation of the Latin edition published in 1552. The original is conserved at the University of Paris. It includes bibliographical references.
  132. Find this resource:
  133. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. The Devastation of the Indies: A Brief Account. Translated by Herma Briffault. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992b.
  134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. This book is a new edition of its 1974 version. The translation and introductory note have been severely criticized by Rolena Adorno (“The Politics of Publication: Bartolomé de Las Casas’s ‘The Devastation of the Indies,’” New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 67.3–4 [1993]: 285–292). She considers this book a commercial success but a scholarly failure.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca
  138.  
  139. Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca is considered a lawyer (Vázquez de Menchaca 1559), unlike his contemporary fellows of the School, who were theologians, canonists, and philosophers. His best published work is Controversiarum illustrium aliarumque usu frecuentium (Vázquez de Menchaca 1931–1934, Vasquio Menchacensi 1606). Vázquez de Menchaca found legal arguments to establish the right to intervene for humanitarian reasons. Vázquez de Menchaca mentions the Spanish, Lusitanian, Venetian, or Genovese Sea; however, he is referring to the right to navigate. The states could not acquire the sea by prescription or use. Freedom of the sea involved not only navigation but also fishing (Vázquez de Menchaca 1931–1934).
  140.  
  141. Vasquio Menchacensi, Fernando. Controversiarum illustrium: Aliarumque usu frecuentium. Edited by Joannis Saurii. Frankfurt: Francofurti ad Moenum, 1606.
  142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. This document is a combination of the two previous editions (Barcelona and Venice) compiled by Joannis Saurii.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Vázquez de Menchaca, Fernando. De successionum creatione progressu effectuq[ue] and resolutione tractatus: Primae partis liber tertius. Salamanca, Spain: Salmanticae excudebatur haeredes Ioannis à Iunta, 1559.
  146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  147. This book is not on international law so much as it is civil law (inheritance and testament). However, it can be interesting for law scholars. The original book is freely provided by the University of Granada. Text available online.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Vázquez de Menchaca, Fernando. Controversiarum illustrium: Aliarumque usu frecuentium. 4 vols. Translated by Fidel Rodríguez Alcalde. Valladolid, Spain: Talleres Tipográficos Cuesta, 1931–1934.
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151. This is considered the most famous translation from Latin into Spanish of Vázquez de Menchaca’s work. The translator offers interesting annotations of the original Book I and Book II. This edition is a translation of the Venitian second original edition of 1665.
  152. Find this resource:
  153. Baltasar de Ayala
  154.  
  155. Baltasar de Ayala was a military auditor in the Spanish army in the Netherlands. He wrote a treaty on the laws of war and military discipline. Ayala referred to limits during armed conflict and mentions the history of Rome as an example of armed conflicts law (Ayala 1912). He also refers to the law of war of the Spanish kingdom.
  156.  
  157. Ayala, Baltasar de. The Classics of International Law: De jure et officiis bellicis et disciplina militari libri tres. 2 vols. Edited by John Westlake. Translated by John Pawley Bate. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1912.
  158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. This is an English translation of the Three Books on the Law of War and on the Duties Connected with War and on Military Discipline. The introduction is written by John Westlake. Volume 1 (227 pp.) contains the facsimile of the original edition of 1582. Volume 2 (250 pp.) contains the translation into English. It also contains a portrait of Ayala and an index of citations.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Diego de Covarrubias
  162.  
  163. Covarrubias was a distinguished Spanish lawyer during the 16th century. He became Bishop of Segovia and Royal Councilor. He is considered, together with Vázquez de Menchaca, one of the most prestigious jurisconsults of the Spanish School. He was also professor of canon law at the University of Salamanca (Covarrubias y Leyva 1573). Diego de Covarrubias is the author of several important juridical texts, and he was one of the most important influences on Hugo Groccio. He always wrote in Latin. The only translation into a modern language was published by Fraga Iribarne (Covarrubias y Leyva 1957). Many works are Relectioni (university lessons) published in various years. All of these can be found, as original versions, at the Local Library of Madrid (Biblioteca Municipal de Madrid).
  164.  
  165. Covarrubias y Leyva, Diego de. Opera Omnia, Quae hactenus extant. 3 vols. Frankfurt: Nicolai Bassaei, 1573.
  166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  167. This is an original Latin text of the 1573 edition, published in Germany. There are several editions of this book, all of them in Latin. One can be found at the Library of Congress.
  168. Find this resource:
  169. Covarrubias y Leyva, Diego de. Textos jurídico-políticos. Edited by Manuel Fraga Iribarne. Translated by Atilano Rico Seco. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Políticos, 1957.
  170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. To my knowledge, this is the only Spanish translation of Covarrubias’s works. The selection of the texts is made by Manuel Fraga. The book contains the original Latin texts and the translation into Spanish.
  172. Find this resource:
  173. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda
  174.  
  175. Sepúlveda was a Spanish scholar and Aristotle’s translator. He studied in Bologna, Italy, and was adviser to the president of the Council of the Indies. He considered the war against the Indians a iusta causa belli (Sepúlveda 1984, Sepúlveda 1973). He also defended the fighting against the aboriginal people of America as a necessity for their conversion, a view possibly influence by Aristotle. Sepúlveda justified his theory for cannibalism and the offering of human sacrifices (Sepúlveda 1997–2011). For this justification, the king of Spain had to be belligerent against them in order to obtain their conversion (Losada 1963). He had bad relations with Bartolomé de Las Casas (Losada 1973).
  176.  
  177. Losada, Ángel, ed. Tratados políticos de Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Políticos, 1963.
  178. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. This edition is a Spanish translation of the original Latin text, with introduction, notes, and index. The book contains comments on Sepúlveda’s most important texts.
  180. Find this resource:
  181. Losada, Ángel, ed. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda: A través de su “Epistolario” y nuevos documentos. 2d ed. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Instituto de Derecho Internacional “Francisco de Vitoria,” 1973.
  182. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. Ángel Losada edits a selection of letters of Sepúlveda. He offers the possibility to read critical judgments of Bartolomé de Las Casas through his letters to colleagues or friends. In some letters, Sepúlveda accuses Casas of impeding the publication of his works. The second edition includes new documents.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de. Apology for the Book on the Just Causes of War. Translated and edited by Lewis D. Epstein. Brunswick, ME: Bowdoin College, 1973.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. This is an English edition of the Apology of Sepúlveda, translated into English from the original Latin.
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de. Demócrates Segundo o De las justas causas de la guerra contra los indios. 2d ed. Edited by Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo. Madrid: Instituto Francisco de Vitoria, 1984.
  190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. This is a new edition of a previous book edited by one of the most distinguished professors in Spain in the 20th century. Menéndez y Pelayo also wrote the preface. Sepúlveda studies the just cause of the war against the Indians. Text available online through the Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Sepúlveda, Juan Ginés de. Obras completas: Historia de Carlos V. 15 vols. Pozoblanco, Spain: Ayuntamiento de Pozoblanco, 1997–2011.
  194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Contains all of Sepúlveda’s works. The work is organized by Emilio Cabrera Muñoz, professor of medieval history at the University of Córdoba. The content of the volumes with the original texts were translated into Spanish.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Historiography of Members of the School
  198.  
  199. This section selects those publications that shed light on the life and work of the members of the School of Salamanca. The authors analyze the writings of the Spanish scholars from a doctrinal point of view and provide critical comments on the life and work of each members of the Spanish School of International Law of the 16th and 17th centuries.
  200.  
  201. Francisco de Vitoria
  202.  
  203. Vitoria’s personal life was an important influence on his theoretical points of view (Hernández Sánchez-Barba 2009). Vitoria is considered the founder of international law (Scott 2000, Barcía Trelles 1928). His ideological concept of the international society is analyzed by Truyol y Serra (Truyol y Serra 1946) and the European projection of Vitorian thought by Hernández Martín (Hernández Martín 1995). Truyol and other authors have also studied the Vitorian legacy (Truyol y Serra, et al. 1988). However, Vitoria’s writings must be analyzed taking into account the historical time in which they were written (Castilla Urbano 1992). See also Scott 2007.
  204.  
  205. Barcía Trelles, Camilo. Francisco de Vitoria, fundador del derecho internacional moderno. Valladolid, Spain: Talleres Tipográficos “Cuesta,” 1928.
  206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. This book constitutes a very interesting study on Vitoria’s thought. Barcia Trelles analyzes the internationalist Spanish thought of the 16th and 17th centuries, considering Vitoria as the father of international law. The analysis is very critical but rigorous.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Castilla Urbano, Francisco. El pensamiento de Francisco de Vitoria: Filosofía política e indio americano. Barcelona: Anthropos, 1992.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. From a historicist point of view, the author studies in-depth Vitoria’s thought and work in a historical context. Castilla Urbano analyzes not only Vitoria’s writings but also the interpretation of these writings by colleagues and disciples. The author considers that, from his philosophical view, the importance of Vitoria goes beyond his known works.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Hernández Martín, Ramón. Francisco de Vitoria, vida y pensamiento internacionalista. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1995.
  214. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Hernández Martín makes a very strong approach to Vitoria’s internationalist thought. He analyzes the life of the Spanish Dominican and also analyzes the source of power and its limits, the obligation of the law, just war, and colonization. Hernández Martín also studies the European projection of Vitoria’s internationalist thought (Grotius, Gentili, Bodin, Locke, etc.) and the Americanist doctrine of Vitoria.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Hernández Sánchez-Barba, Mario. Francisco de Vitoria. Madrid: Universidad Francisco de Vitoria, 2009.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. This book is divided into five chapters. The first two chapters collect aspects related ton Burgos and Salamanca, the two cities closely associated with Vitoria. The influence of his life in both cities explains Vitoria’s thought. In the third chapter, Hernández Sánchez-Barba analyzes the “relectiones” dedicated to the Indians. The fourth and fifth chapters are devoted to international law and human rights.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Scott, James Brown. The Spanish Origin of International Law: Francisco de Vitoria and His Law of Nations. Union, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 2000.
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223. Scott provides an introduction with a historical situation. The book contains a historical background of the Spanish School and a biographical note. Scott analyzes the recent discovery of Indias, the natural law, and the law of war. There is an additional study on different aspects of Vitoria’s thought.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Scott, James Brown. The Catholic Conception of International Law: Francisco de Vitoria, Founder of the Modern Law of Nations, Francisco Suarez, Founder of the Modern Philosophy of Law in General and in Particular of the Law of Nations: A Critical Examination and a Justified Appreciation. Clark, NJ: Lawbook Exchange, 2007.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. This book was originally published in 1934. It is a critical commentary on Vitoria’s work. Scott studies the original text, concluding that every rule of international law has a municipal sanction (p. 56). Scott uses this conclusion to connect international law to US law, using Vitoria’s arguments. Scott compares some of Vitoria’s ideas with other scholars.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Truyol y Serra, Antonio. The Principles of Political and International Law in the Work of Francisco de Vitoria. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, 1946.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. This book was written to commemorate the four-hundredth anniversary of Vitoria’s death. Truyol analyzes Vitoria’s ideological conception of the universe, the natural foundations of international society, and the role of the state. Although dated, it is a very important book by one of the most accredited Spanish internationalist of the 20th century.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Truyol y Serra, Antonio, Henry Mechoulan, Peter Haggenmacher, Antonio Ortiz-Arce, Primitivo Marino, and Joe Verhoeven. Actualité de la pensée juridique de Francisco de Vitoria. Brussels: Bruylant, 1988.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. This is a book on the legal thinking of Francisco de Vitoria. It includes a preface by François Rigaux. All analyses are made by legal experts on international law. René Kosirnik makes a reference in International Review of the Red Cross 72 (1990): 79–81. The book constitutes an advanced study on Vitoria’s work. It contains the lecture presented on a conference at the University of Louvain (Belgium) on 5 December 1996.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Domingo de Soto
  238.  
  239. Domingo de Soto was a theologian very involved in the Council of Trent and in the dispute between Las Casas and Sepúlveda (Beltrán de Heredia 1961). He also criticized the way that the Spanish conquest was made (Hernández 1991), considering that the temporal power had limitations (Brufau 1960). He also studied Galileo’s theory (Wallace 2004).
  240.  
  241. Beltrán de Heredia, Vicente. Domingo de Soto: Estudio biográfico documentado. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, 1961.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Domingo de Soto’s biography has been reconstructed in this book by Beltrán de Heredia. This book explores the family roots of de Soto, his joining the Dominican order, his university education, his participation in the Council of Trent, the dialectic controversy between de Soto and Ambrosio Catarino on “De certitudine gratiae,” his intervention at the dispute between Sepúlveda and Las Casas, and more.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Brufau Prats, Jaime. El pensamiento político de Domingo de Soto y su concepción del poder. Salamanca, Spain: Universidad de Salamanca, 1960.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Brufau Prats’s doctoral thesis contains a preface by Joaquin Ruiz Jiménez, a prominent philosophy lawyer. After a historical introduction, the author discusses the idea of power of the human being and the limitations to this power. A chapter covers Soto’s thinking on economic power through market forces, monetary theory, and so on.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Hernández, Ramón. “The Internationalization of Francisco de Vitoria and Domingo de Soto.” Fordham International Law Journal 15.4 (1991): 1031–1059.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Ramón Hernández considers in this article that Francisco de Vitoria and Domingo de Soto were responsible for the genesis of international law. He provides arguments to affirm that de Soto would not have agreed with the action of the Spaniards in the conquest of America and with the treatment of the Indians. It includes biographical notes on Domingo de Soto.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Wallace, William A. Domingo de Soto and the Early Galileo: Essays on Intellectual History. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. William Wallace reprints fourteen previously published articles, chapters of books, and different works. It is a collection of his own publications on Domingo de Soto. The book contains an analysis of different topics of thinking by de Soto on Galileo’s science.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Francisco Suárez
  258.  
  259. Francisco Suarez was an unorthodox Jesuit, although he had trouble with the Inquisition (Fichter 1940). However, he had a strong influence on the company (Sgarbi 2010). Suárez was a theologian but, above all, he was a philosopher of law (Doyle 2010). He analyzed from a moral and legal dimension—that is, from natural law (Hill and Lagerlund 2012). He was also interested in international law but from the point of view of the philosophy of law (Barcia Trelles 1933). He was not only a leading lawyer (Schwartz 2012) but a man of integrity (Pereira 2006), whose dream was the perfect community (Cedroni 1996).
  260.  
  261. Barcia Trelles, Camilo. “Francisco Suárez (1548–1617): Les théologiens espagnols du XVIe siècle et l’école moderne du droit international.” Recueil des cours 43 (1933): 385–553.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. This is a classic study on Francisco Suárez and was a course at The Hague Academy of International Law. It shows the interplay between Francisco Suárez and international law. Barcia Trelles was one of the classical specialists on the Spanish School of International Law.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Cedroni, Lorella. La comunità perfetta: Il pensiero político di Francisco Suárez. Rome: Edizioni Studium, 1996.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. This book is written in Italian by a political philosopher. She analyzes the political thinking of Francisco Suárez through the “Perfect Community.” It is an interesting book on Suarezian thought.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Doyle, John P. Collected Studies on Francisco Suárez, S.J. (1548–1617). Edited by Victor M. Salas. Leuven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2010.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. This book contains a chapter on Francisco Suárez—his life, his work, his doctrine, and some of his influence. After nine chapters centered on the Suarezian metaphysic conceptions, Doyle dedicates three chapters to an in-depth study of the Law of Nations, human rights, and the interpretation of law in Suárez’s doctrine.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Fichter, Joseph H. Man of Spain: A Biography of Francis Suárez. New York: Macmillan, 1940.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. This is a classic book on Francisco Suárez in English. The author introduces Suárez as an unorthodox Jesuit. He explains the context of the Suárez’s life and his accusation before the Inquisition. Charles S. Braden commented on his work as follows: “A book like this is exceedingly interesting reading for a Protestant” (review in Church History 10.1 [1941]: 78).
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Hill, Benjamin, and Henrik Lagerlund, ed. The Philosophy of Francisco Suárez. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  278. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199583645.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. This book is on Suárez’s philosophical work, but two chapters are dedicated to analyzing Suárez’s legal obligation concept and his thought on natural law. An article by Thomas Pink (King’s College London), “Reason and Obligation in Suárez,” considers if there is a moral law and the obligation under natural and positive law (pp. 175–208).
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Pereira, José. Suárez: Between Scholasticism and Modernity. Milwaukee, WI: Marquette University Press, 2006.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Pereira explores the philosophical dimension of Suárez and his existential integralism. It is an important book on Suarezian ideas on international law. Pereira analyzes Suárez as philosopher of international law and studies him as inspirer of freedom of movements. He calls Suárez a champion of democracy. He shows the impact of Suárez thought in the main revolutions: Portugal, France, the United States, and Mexico.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Schwartz, Daniel, ed. Interpreting Suárez: Critical Essays. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. In the last three chapters, leading specialists Terence C. Irwin, Daniel Schwartz, and Gregory M. Reichberg, respectively, provide detailed studies on the most important of Suárez’s legal arguments on obligations, rightness, and natural law; distributive justice; and just war. A rich selected bibliography in English is included.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Sgarbi, Marco, ed. Francisco Suárez and His Legacy: The Impact of Suárezian Metaphysics and Epistemology on Modern Philosophy. Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 2010.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. This book discusses Suárezian ideas on modern philosophy. Although the point of view is strongly philosophical, and some chapters are dedicated to the relation of Suárez’s thinking to other modern philosophers, such as Hegel (Valerio Rocco Lozano), it is also possible to find an analysis of the impact of Francisco Suárez and the “rationes studiorum” of the Society of Jesús (Marco Forlivesi).
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Bartolomé de Las Casas
  294.  
  295. Surely, Las Casas is the best known author of the Spanish School by the Anglo-Saxon public (Hanke 1951), although there are numerous, very rigorous sources about his work in Spanish (Giménez Fernández 1984). Las Casas maintained strong ties to the Americas, where he lived (Hanke and Giménez Fernández 1954). It is possible to build his own biography through his writings (Wagner and Parish 1967). Some scholars criticize him because he never wanted to know the indigenous languages (Castro 2007). Friede studied his work, without prejudice, in its historical time (Friede and Keen 1971). Arias and Merediz attempted to analyze Las Casas’s work from different geographical and linguistic optics (Arias and Merediz 2008).
  296.  
  297. Arias, Santa, and Eyda M. Merediz, eds. Approaches to Teaching the Writings of Bartolomé de las Casas. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2008.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Explores Las Casas’s letters, writings, and petitions to the Spanish crown in the colonial context. The approaches are across different disciplines (theology, anthropology, history, etc.) and different languages (English, Spanish, Portuguese, French) from a comparative perspective. One interesting chapter is “Teaching Las Casas in the Broader Ibero-American Context.”
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Castro, Daniel. Another Face of Empire: Bartolomé de las Casas, Indigenous Rights, and Ecclesiastical Imperialism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Daniel Castro provides a revisionist reading of Las Casas’s writings and his political activities. He considers Las Casas as a new imperialist, offering the American natives another face of a paternalistic empire. Castro points out that Las Casas spent very little time among the indigenous people and he never learn their own languages.”
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Friede, Juan, and Benjamin Keen, eds. Bartolomé de las Casas in History: Towards an Understanding of the Man and His Work. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. This is another classic book on Las Casas. We find contributions of some of the most accredited scholars on Las Casas, such as Benno M. Biermann, Venancio D. Carro, Juan Comas, Manuel Giménez Fernández, and Raymond Marcus. Contributions include “The Spanish Theological-Juridical Renaissance and the Ideology of Bartolomé de Las Casas” and “Historical Reality and the Detractors of Father Las Casas.”
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Giménez Fernández, Manuel. Bartolomé de Las Casas. 2 vols. Seville, Spain: Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos, 1984.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. This is an important book on Bartolomé de Las Casas written by one of the most eminent professors of the Spanish university in the second half of the 20th century. It is a rigorous study on Bartolomé de Las Casas’s thought. Originally published in 1953.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Hanke, Lewis. Bartolomé de Las Casas: An Interpretation of His Life and Writings. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1951.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Hanke is considered the main American authority on Las Casas. This book provides a comprehensive survey of Las Casas’s life and work. A classic work on Las Casas in English.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Hanke, Lewis, and Manuel Giménez Fernández. Bartolomé de Las Casas, 1474–1566: Bibliografía Crítica y cuerpo de materiales para el estudio de su vida, escritoes, actuación y polémicas que suscitaron durante cuatro siglos. Santiago, Chile: Fondo Histórico y Bibliográfico José Toribio Medina, 1954.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Contains a preface by Lewis Hanke in which he explains the relation between Bartolomé de Las Casas and the Spanish empire in America: four centuries of contradictions, his own life with Las Casas (1930–1953), the interplay between Las Casas and Cuba, the purpose of the book and how to use it, and an acknowledgment.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Wagner, Henry Raup, and Helen Rand Parish. The Life and Writings of Bartolomé de las Casas. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1967.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Wagner and Parish explored the primary sources of Las Casas to build his biography free of posterior influences from other sources. In this way, they were able to write the biography and analyze his writings, treating both as inseparables. It is necessary to know the one to understand the other.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca
  326.  
  327. Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca was one of the finest jurists of the Spanish School (Barcia Trelles 1939). He achieved notoriety in international law with his conceptions of Mare Liberum, a theory that Hugo Groccio would further develop (Miaja de la Muela 1932). His legal and political ideas are examined in Gómez López 1948. Despite the notoriety of his studies on international law, he also studied natural law and private law (Santaló, et al. 1969–1970).
  328.  
  329. Barcia Trelles, Camilo. “Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca (1512–1569): L’école espagnole du Droit International du XVIe siècle.” Recueil des cours 671 (1939/I): 429–534.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Barcia Trelles offers a biohistorgraphy on Francisco Vázquez de Menchaca in the Academy of International Law. At the time, it was the only academic work on the life and thinking of de Menchaca in a language other than Latin or Spanish.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Gómez López, José Francisco. Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca: Sus ideas jurídicas y políticas. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1948.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Gómez López’s thesis dissertation. The author makes an analysis of the legal and political ideas of Vázquez de Menchaca. It is one of the few dissertations on this Spanish jurist.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Miaja de la Muela, Adolfo. Internacionalistas españoles del siglo XVI: Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca, 1516–1569. Valladolid, Spain: Talleres Tipográficos “Cuesta,” 1932.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Miaja de la Muela presents the concept of international law of the Spanish jurist Fernando Vázquez de Menchaca in the 16th century. The most important issue studied is the problem of freedom of the seas. Vázquez de Menchaca considered the freedom of the seas an immutable principle, not affected by any fact or practice.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Santaló, José Luis, Luis García Arias, Hans Thieme, Luciano Pereña, and Vidal Castelló. Vázquez de Menchaca (IV centenario 1569–1969). Vol. 17. Madrid: Asociación Francisco de Vitoria, 1969–1970.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. This book provides new facts on Vázquez de Menchaca’s biography, an analysis on the freedom of the seas, and an approach to the construction of the history of natural law and private law by Spanish scholars. Four reprints.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Baltasar de Ayala
  346.  
  347. Baltasar de Ayala is one of the lesser known Spanish scholars. Peralta wrote his doctoral thesis on him (Peralta 1964), and Knight published an English article on his life and work (Knight 1921). The Ayala’s most important contribution to international law is on the law of war (Fraga Iribarne 1948).
  348.  
  349. Fraga Iribarne, Manuel. “Baltasar de Ayala.” Revista española de derecho internacional 1 (1948): 135–141.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. A short article in which Fraga Iribarne gives some information on Ayala’s life, but his main contribution on Ayala’s work was the analysis of the Ayala’s conception of the law of war.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Knight, W. S. M. “Balthasar Ayala and His Work.” Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 3 (1921): 221–227.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. This is an old article on Ayala’s life and work. This article is one of the few papers published in English on Baltasar de Ayala. It is very superficial but interesting for beginning to know Ayala’s thinking.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Peralta, Jaime. Baltasar de Ayala y el derecho de la guerra. Madrid: Insula, 1964.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. This book is the most cited about Baltasar de Ayala. Peralta defended this work as a doctoral dissertation at the University Complutense in Madrid in 1953. It was published eleven years after. So far, it is the only published book on Baltasar de Ayala. For this reason, it is crucial to considering his work.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Diego de Covarrubias
  362.  
  363. Covarrubias was a man of humanism and law (van Liere 1996). He became bishop of Ciudad Rodrigo, Spain, and Segovia, Spain, and archbishop of Santo Domingo (Rigo Sureda 1967). However, he is known for his legal and political thinking (Malagón-Barceló 1975). He cultivated thought on not only international law but private law as well (Medina de Lemús 1993). In fact, he is considered the creator of the Spanish legal renaissance (Pereña 1957).
  364.  
  365. Malagón-Barceló, Javier. “El obispo don Diego de Covarrubias Leyva: (1512–1577).” Boletín Mexicano de Derecho Comparado 24 (1975): 709–713.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Malagón qualifies Covarrubias as one of the great jurists and politicians of 16th-century Spain. He mentions Covarrubias’s doctoral thesis on the nobility of letters, in which Covarrubias said, “From the University of Salamanca have left generations of teachers and enlightened jurists who have gained more fame for Spain [than] as if they had liberated the country with weapons enslaved by the Moors” (p. 710).
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Medina de Lemús, Manuel. “Problemas de cabida de bienes en el derecho intermediario: Diego Covarrubias Leyva.” In Estudios de derecho civil en homenaje al profesor José Luis Lacruz Berdejo. Vol. 2. Edited by José Luis Lacruz Berdejo, 1695–1718. Barcelona: Bosch Edito, 1993.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Medina de Lemús offers this contribution to honor José Luis Lacruz Berdejo. His point of view is from civil law. He studies a very special problem of a legal civil institution. After an introduction, he analyzes the general principles, the models of application, and his interpretation of texts.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Pereña Vicente, Luciano. Diego de Covarrubias y Leyva, maestro del derecho internacional. Madrid: Asociación Francisco de Vitoria, 1957.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. This book contains a portrait of Covarrubias, painted by El Greco. The contents are as follows: Part 1: Creator of the Spanish Legal Renaissance; Part 2: Theories of the Spanish Conquest; and Part 3: International Law System, with chapters on the natural community of people, positive law of nations, and war in the service of peace. The book has a concluding chapter on the historical projection of Covarrubias.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Rigo Sureda, Andrés, Juan Iglesias Santos, and Manuel Trufero Rodríguez. Vida y obra de Diego de Covarrubias y Leyva. Edited by Colegio Mayor Diego de Covarrubias Madrid: Ed. Colegio Mayor Diego de Covarrubias, 1967.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. This is a book on the life and work of Covarrubias (141 pp.). It has a preface by Javier Iglesias. The authors give notices on Covarrubias’s life and his main publications and books.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. van Liere, Katherine Elliot. Humanism and the Law Faculties in Sixteenth-Century Spain: Diego de Covarrubias y Leyva (1512–1577) and the University of Salamanca. Ann Arbor: UMI Dissertation Services, 1996.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. This is a doctoral dissertation presented to Princeton University in November 1995, dedicated to the description of the historical context of Diego de Covarrubias at the University of Salamanca during the 16th century. Covarrubias was a royal reformer of the Spanish University, and van Liere mentions the improvements Covarrubias made in humanist education. Includes bibliographical references.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda
  386.  
  387. Sepúlveda is known for his legal dispute with Bartolomé de Las Casas (Bell 1925). However, Sepúlveda was primarily a humanist, although his humanism must be understood in the context of his time (Losada 1993). There is also justification to consider him a soldier (Beneyto Pérez 1944). He came to study the compatibility of the war with religion in the context of the use of force (Nájera 2011). His philosophy studies were very important (Castilla Urbano 2000), and he became tutor to the crown prince of Spain (Gadow 2003).
  388.  
  389. Bell, Aubrey FitzGerald. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. This is one of the few books published in English about Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. It includes biographical data and analysis of him as a historian, a part of the dispute with Bartolomé de Las Casas.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Beneyto Pérez, Juan. Ginés de Sepúlveda, humanista y soldado. Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1944.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. This is a biography of Sepúlveda (168 pp.). The author introduces Sepúlveda as a humanist and a soldier. The book includes a selection of Sepúlveda’s writings.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Castilla Urbano, Francisco. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, 1490–1573. Madrid: Ediciones del Orto, 2000.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. The book recounts Sepúlveda’s biobibliography and discusses the philosophical, cultural, social, and political events of the time. The main part of this book is devoted to the study of the philosophy by Sepúlveda. In this sense, the author analyzes the humanism of Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, the defense of active life, the virtues of war, a typology of societies, a nationalist theory of the empire, and a doctrine of civilization.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Gadow, Marion Redes. “En torno a Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda.” Baetica: Estudios de arte, geografía e historia 25 (2003): 607–624.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. The author of this article offers information on the biography of Sepúlveda. Gadow gives special importance to Sepúlveda’s studies at the University of Alcala de Henares, his stay in Italy, his work as tutor to the prince, his dispute with Bartolomé de Las Casas, and his humanist dimension.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Losada, Ángel, ed. Actas del Congreso Internacional sobre el V Centenario del Nacimiento del Dr. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda. Córdoba, Spain: Diputación provincial de Córdoba, 1993.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. This book contains the proceedings of the International Congress on the 500th birthday of Sepúlveda, celebrated in 1992 at Pozoblanco, Sepúlveda’s hometown. The multidisciplinary dimension of the Congress allowed the publication of works on philosophy, history, historiography, law, and literature. Thus, the book provides a very interesting overview of Sepúlveda.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Nájera, Luna. “Myth and Prophecy in Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda’s Crusading ‘Exhortación.’” Bulletin for Spanish and Portuguese Historical Studies 35.1 (2011).
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. This article offers an analysis of Sepúlveda’s work on “Exhortación a la Guerra contra los turcos” (Bologna, 1529). The author identifies that the most important arguments to the use of force in international relations are the compatibility of war and religion. Available online by subscription.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. The Law of War and Peace
  414.  
  415. Spanish scholasticism can be considered the creator of the law of war, in both aspects, ad bellum and in bello. Spanish scholars’ reflections on these issues have been very useful in the subsequent analysis of international humanitarian law and on the use of force. It is true Augustine and Aquinas were the initiators of the just war theory (ius ad bellum). However, the Spanish School of International Law developed the content of this theory (Fernández-Santamaría 1977). It is important to distinguish between just war and regular war (Haggenmacher 1992). In this context, on that time, humanitarian intervention was considered an important aspect of the law of war (Aparisi Miralles 2007). Undoubtedly, the Spanish School can be considered the initiator of the study on the limits of armed conflicts (Vanderpol 1919); that is the international humanitarian law or the ius in bello (Diego Carro 1946). Although these writings must be analyzed considering the scholars’ contemporary circumstances and from the point of view of their moral dimension, these works have proven to be a very useful starting point. The most important authors of the Spanish School on the law of war are Vitoria (Vitoria 1981), Sepúlveda (Martínez Castilla 2006), and Molina (Fraga Iribarne 1947).
  416.  
  417. Aparisi Miralles, Ángela. Derecho a la paz y derecho a la guerra en Francisco de Vitoria. Granada, Spain: Editorial Comares, 2007.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Aparisi Miralles studies the philosophical and political assumptions of the theory of just war, jus ad bellum and jus in bello. Especially interesting is the foundation of the humanitarian intervention and the analysis of whether a war can be just for both parties.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Diego Carro, Venancio. Los criminales de guerra según los teólogos-juristas españoles. Valladolid, Spain: Imprenta provincial, 1946.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. At the end of World War II, Venancio Carro held a lecture on 23 March 1946 at the Association and Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas in Valladolid. The text of this lecture was published by the Printing Provincial, and, despite being only thirty-four pages, it is an interesting text to learn aspects of the jus in bello of the School of Salamanca.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Fernández-Santamaría, J. A. The State, War and Peace: Spanish Political Thought in the Renaissance, 1516–1559. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
  426. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511896804Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. The book provides an overview of medieval constitutionalism, Christian humanism, and neoscholasticism, before and after discovery of America. Francisco de Vitoria, Diego de Covarrubias, and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda are the most important selected authors analyzed. Fernández-Santamaría points out the humanist foundations for a universal society by Sepúlveda. He develops the doctrine of just war in the New World.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Fraga Iribarne, Manuel. Luis de Molina y el derecho de la guerra. Madrid: Instituto Francisco de Vitoria, 1947.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. This book is the dissertation of one of the most distinguished Spanish politicians, Fraga Iribarne. He analyzes and comments on the text of Luis de Molina on the law of war. He studies the concept of just war, the doctrine of iusta causa belli, the limits of war, and jus in bello.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Haggenmacher, Peter. “Guerre juste et guerre régulière dans la doctrine espagnole du XVIe siècle.” Revue Internationale de la Croix-Rouge 74.797 (1992): 450–462.
  434. DOI: 10.1017/S0035336100088274Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. This article on the just war and regular war in 16th-century Spanish doctrine is a revised version of a lecture reproduced in L’Espagne el la formation du droit des gens modern: Acta Colloquii Bruxellensis, 22.10 (1985). Peter Haggenmacher examines this doctrine of the Spanish authors in the 16th century and the changes they introduced. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Martínez Castilla, Santiago. “Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda y la guerra justa en la conquista de América.” Pensamiento y Cultura 9.1 (2006): 111–136.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. This text shows an implementation of the just war doctrine for justifying the conquest of America and intends to demonstrate that some elements could be useful for analyzing current wars. The author studies the precedents of the just war doctrine, the compatibility between Christianity and military life, war and natural law, and the active and contemplative life.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Vanderpol, Alfred. La doctrine scolastique du droit de la guerre. Paris: Pedone, 1919.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. This is one of the first modern books on the scholastic doctrine of the war. The author makes a statement of the scholastic doctrine of war, hoping to answer a question on the law or war: Is war permitted for Christians? He also discusses the legitimacy of war, the definition of just war, just causes, the authority to declare war, the right intention, and more.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Vitoria, Francisco de. Relectio de iure Belli o Paz Dinámica: Escuela española de la Paz. primera generación 1526–1560. Edited by Luciano Pereña. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1981.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. This is a comprehensive study of the jus ad bellum and jus in bello. The author explores questions and answers, according to Vitorian texts. Who can make war and how? What are the limits of war? Who can be killed in a war? Can clergies can participate in war? Text available online.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. The Conquest of America and the Anticolonial Theory
  450.  
  451. Curiously, there exist no English essays or analyses of the conquest of America from an anticolonial point of view. The historical books on the conquest number in the hundreds. However, the legal and moral dimensions of the Spanish School of International Law has not been studied in the English literature, except for the discussion between Las Casas (Traboulay 1994) and Sepúlveda, which we cover later in this article. On the other hand, this subject has been sufficiently analyzed by Spaniards. For this reason, the works in this section are mostly in Spanish (Diego Carro 1951, Brufau Prats 1989). The occupation (Gasa 1939), the right of conquest, and the anticolonial theories were studied by Spanish scholars of the 16th and 17th centuries (Pereña Vicente 1992a), including the idea of justice in the conquest (Pereña Vicente 1992b) and the idea of different cultures (Anghie 1996), analyzed in Castañeda Salamanca 2002. Vasco de Quiroga is a new author not mentioned until now, whom Serrano Gassent analyzes in this context (Serrano Gassent 2001).
  452.  
  453. Anghie, Antony. “Francisco de Vitoria and the Colonial Origins of International Law.” Social and Legal Studies 5.3 (1996): 321–336.
  454. DOI: 10.1177/096466399600500303Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The author defends a critical point of view of Vitoria’s conception of American Indian sovereignty. Vitoria justifies the impossibility of this American Indian sovereign amid the cultural differences. However, Anghie examines Vitorian texts with modern eyes. He strongly criticizes Vitoria. In this context, the text is worth noting because it is one of the few papers published in English.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Brufau Prats, Jaime. La Escuela de Salamanca ante el descubrimiento del Nuevo Mundo. Salamanca, Spain: Editoral San Esteban, 1989.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Jaime Brufau Prats analyzes the legal and moral position of the members of the School of Salamanca. In fact, he devotes many pages to commenting on the humanistic perspectives in the legal conception of Vitoria, the natural-law doctrine of the School of Salamanca and its projection in the New World, the thought of the Spanish scholars in Indian legislation, and so on.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Castañeda Salamanca, Felipe. El indio: Entre el bárbaro y el Cristiano: Ensayos sobre filosofía de la conquista en Las Casas, Sepúlveda y Acosta. Bogotá, Colombia: Alfaomega, 2002.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Castañeda studied rational animality of the infidel and the inability of the servant by nature—the barbarian, according to Bartolomé de Las Casas. He also analyzes idolatry, divination, magic, human sacrifice, and cannibalism in Fernandez de Oviedo and Las Casas. The problem of Indian cowardice in Sepúlveda and the pedagogy of fear and violence in Jose de Acosta are other mentioned issues.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Diego Carro, Venancio. La teología y los teólogos-juristas españoles ante la conquista de América. Salamanca, Spain: Biblioteca de Teólogos Españoles, 1951.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Venancio Diego Carro shows the essential content of the doctrinal position of the School of Salamanca. The resolution of the Indian problem was one of the most important subjects of the intellectual Spanish life of the 16th century. It is a clear and systematic book on the theological ideas of the Spanish School.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Gasa, Francisco. “Francisco de Vitoria y su doctrina sobre la ocupación y conquista colonial.” Revista de Derecho Internacional 26 (1939): 77–169.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Francisco Gasa published his work in this Cuban journal. He made a careful analysis of the doctrine of the occupation and colonial conquest in Vitoria’s view. He holds his theories grounded at all times in the original texts of Vitoria. Part 2 of this article appears in Revista de Derecho Internacional 37 (1940): 34–53.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Pereña Vicente, Luciano. La Escuela de Salamanca: Conciencia crítica de América en el centenario de la reconciliación. Salamanca, Spain: Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, 1992a.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Luciano Pereña Vicente is one of the experts in this field. In this book, he mentions the School of Salamanca as the critical conscience of America on its five-hundredth anniversary of discovery. He calls this anniversary the centenary of reconciliation. He points out the ideas of the Spanish thinkers on the right of conquest, anticolonial theories, and so on in their historical context five hundred years ago.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Pereña Vicente, Luciano. La idea de justicia en la conquista de América. Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, 1992b.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. This essay is dedicated to the study of integral idea of justice in the conquest of America. According to Luciano Pereña Vicente, colonial justice evolved in three phases: the Iron Age of conquest, the colonial restructuring process, and the new policy of Spanish colonization.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Serrano Gassent, Paz. Vasco de Quiroga: Utopía y derecho en la conquista de América. Madrid: Fondo de Cultura Económica de España, 2001.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. This book approaches an author not mentioned until now, Vasco de Quiroga. Paz Serrano Gassent points out the ideas of this author in relation to the conquest. The book is also a rigorous approach to the legal framework of the conquest and its justification in the early modern wars on Indians and slavery of Indians.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Traboulay, David M. Columbus and Las Casas: The Conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Traboulay approaches the American conquest using the legend of Colon. The initial part presents an historical approach. The most interesting chapters in this publication are dedicated to Alonso de Zorita and the rationality of Native American society, the Great Debate in Valladolid on the rights of Indians in 1550–1551, and Francisco de Vitoria and his influence.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. The Rights of Indians
  490.  
  491. Ethically (Actas del I Simposio, 1984) the inherent rights of the Native Americans were one of central ideas of the Spanish School (Pereña Vicente 1992). The right to wage war against the Indians is strictly denied/reproached, with some exceptions, because Indians were human beings (Las Casas 1992). It was thought Indians must maintain their legal rights, although the reality was different (Redondo Redondo 1992). Native Americans were legally free people, because there were differences between encomienda and slavery (Yeager 1995). However, these intellectual Spaniards were more explicit about Indians’ property (Suárez Romero 2004) than about labor conditions (Pérez-Prendes Muñoz-Arraco 1988). We must consider the circumstances of the time when these proclamations were made. Las Casas was the major defender of Indians’ rights (Sullivan 1995).
  492.  
  493. Actas del I Simposio sobre la Ética en la conquista de América (1492–1573). Salamanca, Spain: Ayuntamiento y Diputación Provincial, 1984.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. This book presents the proceedings of the First Symposium on Ethics in the Conquest of America held in Salamanca in 1984. It is significant that the title is “Ethics of the Conquest.” The text includes an introduction by Fernando Murillo Rubiera: “Conquest of America and the Law of Nations.”
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Las Casas, Bartolomé de. In Defense of the Indians: The Defense of the Most Reverend Lord, Don Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas, of the Order of Preachers, Late Bishop of Chiapa, against the Persecutors and Slanderers of the Peoples of the New World Discovered across the Seas. Translated and edited by Stafford Poole. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1992.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Although this book includes an English translation of one of the most important manuscripts of Las Casas, it is included in this section because Stafford Poole makes very important commentaries on the arguments of Las Casas concerning the rights of Indians. The vehement reminder that native inhabitants should be viewed as human beings is the main argument.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Pereña Vicente, Luciano. Derechos y deberes entre indios y españoles en el nuevo mundo según Francisco de Vitoria. Salamanca, Spain: Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca, 1992.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. In this text (Rights and Obligations of Indians and Spaniards in the New World), Luciano Pereña Vicente reconstructs Vitoria’s formulation of the rights and duties of the Indians and his views on the rules of conduct that must be kept with them.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Pérez-Prendes Muñoz-Arraco, José Manuel. “Las leyes de Indias ante el V centenario.” In Jornadas informativas sobre temas internacionales, 1987, 161–169. Madrid: Sociedad de Estudios Internacionales, 1988.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Pérez-Prendes analyzes the Indians Acts before the five-hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America in the proceedings of the Conference on International Issues, held in Madrid, in 1988. He makes a dispassionate analysis of the Indians Acts promulgated by Spanish monarchs, taking into account the influence of the Spanish School of International Law.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Redondo Redondo, María Lourdes. Utopía vitoriana y realidad indiana. Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 1992.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. This book was the author’s doctoral thesis. She tried to show that the solution of Francisco de Vitoria (and the whole School of Salamanca) to the problems raised by the discovery of America is what she calls a “utopia.” The “utopia” is a defense of the rights of Indians, and human rights and duties in general, as members of the international community.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Suárez Romero, Miguel Ángel. “La situación jurídica del indio durante la conquista española en América: Una visión de la incipiente doctrina y legislación de la época tendiente al reconocimiento de derechos humanos.” Revista de la Facultad de Derecho de México 242 (2004): 229–260.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Suárez Romero examines the influence of the doctrine in the legal status of Indians, the doctrines of Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas, legitimate and illegitimate titles, the Indian’s capacity to act in public and private, and their restrictions. At the end of the book, Suárez Romero makes some remarks on the encomienda as a disguised form of slavery.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Sullivan, Francis Patrick. Indian Freedom: The Cause of Bartolomé de Las Casas, 1484–1566: A Reader. Kansas City, MO: Sheed & Ward, 1995.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Sullivan studies the rise of conscience, the creation of pro-Indian law (the atrocities of the conquest, the reason against the encomienda or antislavery tract), the defense of pro-Indian law (rules for confessors, defense of Indian civilization, defense of Indian sovereignty).
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Yeager, Timothy J. “Encomienda or Slavery? The Spanish Crown’s Choice of Labor Organization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America.” Journal of Economic History 55.4 (1995): 842–859.
  522. DOI: 10.1017/S0022050700042182Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Yeager studies the differences between encomienda and slavery. The first was a labor organization for native peoples. The encomenderos could not inherit from, trade with, or relocate with Indians. As an economist, Yeager has an approach directed more toward the work organization than the analysis of Indians’ rights. However, the article is also useful to understand this institution. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Dispute between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda
  526.  
  527. The controversy between Las Casas and Sepúlveda (see the original texts in Losada 1975) on the action of Spain in the New World was one of the most intense of the 16th century (Losada 1971, Hanke 1974). Both scholars defended their ideas with passion (Chaparro 2001). Sepúlveda justifies Emperor Charles V’s wars against the Turks and the Spanish conquest of America. Sepúlveda also considered Indians natural slaves (Fernández Buey 1992). On the contrary, Las Casas, who lived and worked among Indians, responded with the book titled In Defense of the Indians (Las Casas 1992a, cited under Bartolomé de Las Casas). Las Casas shows the devastation of the Indies and the Spanish cruelties against Indians. The debate was resolved in a conclave held in Valladolid under the auspices of the king and the Catholic Church (Zavala Vallado 1977). We can confidently say that the theoretical conclusion was favorable to the Indians but the practical conclusion of the conquest was favorable to Sepúlveda. In any case, the presentation of the debate has been a caricature (Maestre Sánchez 2004), and some scholars have written on that without knowledge (Hernandez 2001), contributing to the confusion.
  528.  
  529. Chaparro, Sandra. “Pasiones políticas e imperialismo: La polémica entre Ginés de Sepúlveda y Bartolomé de Las Casas.” Espacio, Tiempo y Forma: Historia Moderna 14 (2001): 149–172.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Chaparro notes this controversy from the perspective of “political love” as a passion that is at the base of Western political thought. The controversy serves to monitor the discussions about the proper way to analyze Indian societies through the controversy between the “benevolent universalism” of Bartolomé de Las Casas and the idea of “crusade as an act of love” of Sepúlveda.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Fernández Buey, Francisco. “La Controversia entre Ginés de Sepulveda y Bartolomé de Las Casas: Una Revisión.” Boletín Americanista 42–43 (1992): 301–347.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. The author analyzes and studies the disputes between Sepúlveda and Bartolomé de Las Casas in relation to the rights of the Indians. Sepulveda defends the natural inferiority of the Indians and the barbaric nature of those towns, following the Aristotelian theory of slavery, while Las Casas defends the injustice of the war against the Indians.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Hanke, Lewis. All Mankind is One: A Study of the Disputation between Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda in 1550 on the Intellectual and Religious Capacity of the American Indians. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1974.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. This book is one of the most cited works on this debate. The author studies the disputation in 1550 on the intellectual and religious capacity of the Indians. He studies the nature of the Indians according to the Spaniards. He also remarks on the controversy in 1573, the continued conflict on the capacity of the Indians, and the polarization, polemics, and paranoia raised. Reprinted in 1994.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Hernandez, Bonar Ludwig. “The Las Casas-Sepúlveda Controversy: 1550–1551.” Ex Post Facto: Journal of the History Students at San Francisco State University 10 (2001): 95–104.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Bonar Hernández explores a historiography on the controversy divided by decades. He analyzes the context of the debate (1492–1542) and the theoretical debate. The aftermath of the controversy and the continuous denouncing of the authors’ respective writings are pointed out in a short chapter. It is a very descriptive analysis of the controversy.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Losada, Ángel. “The Controversy between Sepúlveda and Las Casas in the Junta of Valladolid.” In Bartolomé de Las Casas in History: Toward an Understanding of the Man and His Work. Edited by Juan Friede and Benjamin Keen, 279–309. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1971.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. This book has several chapters on the life of Las Casas, his ideology, his visits to America, and so on. Losada was in charge of presenting the controversy in the meeting of Valladolid and in this chapter provides information on the matter. He is familiar with the subject because he knows the original texts very well, as he is a researcher of both controversialists.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Losada, Ángel. Apología de Juan Ginés de Sépulveda contra Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas y de Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas contra Juan Ginés de Sépulveda. Madrid: Editoria Nacional, 1975.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. This book contains the original texts of the controversy translated into Spanish from Latin by Ángel Losada. The author includes a very qualified introduction and provides interesting comments on the works of these two famous debaters.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Maestre Sánchez, Alfonso. “Todas las gentes del mundo son hombres: El gran debate entre Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas (1474–1566) y Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1490–1573).” Anales del Seminario de Historia de la Filosofía 21 (2004): 91–134.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Maestre Sánchez studies Las Casas, wondering if he is a humanist or a fanatic. He believes that Las Casas made some well-structured doctrinal formulations on political philosophy. The author notes that Sepúlveda passes for “the opponent of Las Casas” and offered the image of an imperialist, defender of slavery, and opponent to the extermination of Indians. But this picture is not entirely accurate.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Zavala Vallado, Silvio. “Aspectos formales de la controversia entre Sepúlveda y Las Casas en Valladolid, a mediados del siglo XVI y observaciones sobre la apología de Fray Bartolomé de Las Casas.” Cuadernos Americanos 212 (1977): 137–162.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Zavala is a tireless researcher of the history of Latin America and promoter of American culture. In this article, he points out the formal aspects of the controversy between Las Casas and Sepúlveda and describes some observations he made on Las Casas’s apology. He mentions interesting annotations on the Valladolid debate.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Human Rights
  562.  
  563. Many scholars consider that Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de Las Casas were the first to define the human rights thought in Spain in the early 16th century (Pereña 1992, DiSalvo 1993). Nevertheless, other scholars think this is not certain (Albayrak 2004). It is true that medieval scholars were their precedents (Brett 1997). Vitoria (Sarmiento 1990) and Las Casas (Beuchot 1994), among others, approached human rights from the concept of the law of nations. The law of nations is universal and serves all human beings (García y García 1997). For this reason we can say, at least, that the Spanish School can be considered the precursor of human rights (Sarmiento 1990), defending the dignity of the human being (Murillo Rubiera 1992). In fact, these neoscholastic authors are commonly cited in regards to international human rights.
  564.  
  565. Albayrak, Aydin. “The Possibility of Conceiving Universal Human Rights in the Sixteenth Century Political Theory: The Views of Vitoria and Las Casas.” PhD diss., Graduate School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, 2004.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Albayrak studies the formulation of the universality of laws in Francisco de Vitoria. He presents the demarcating and protecting of the Indians as the other in Bartolomé de Las Casas. He concludes Vitoria does not articulate any principles concerning human rights and Las Casas’s approach is insufficient for providing a solid basis for the creation of human rights.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Beuchot, Mauricio. “Bartolomé de Las Casas, el humanismo indígena y los derechos humanos.” Anuario Mexicano de Historia del Derecho 6 (1994): 37–48.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. In this article, Beuchot examines the thinking of Las Casas, considering it is between the humanistic and the scholastic. He points out the recognition of Indian humanism and the reason of the defense of Indians as humanism principle. Beuchot considers the protection of Indians’ human rights was not humanist but scholastic.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Brett, Annabel S. Liberty, Right, and Nature: Individual Rights in Later Scholastic Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Brett presents this monograph to explore the thought of the Salamanca School on individual rights. Her analysis is made from a political and philosophical point of view, although she also considers other opinions. She provides an overview of the many members of the Spanish School. Nonetheless, she starts her analysis with medieval scholars of 13th and 14th centuries. Reprinted in 2000 and 2003.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. DiSalvo, Angelo J. “Spanish Dominicans, the Laws of the Indies, and the Establishment of Human Rights.” Romance Quarterly 40.2 (1993): 89–96.
  578. DOI: 10.1080/08831157.1993.10545015Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. DiSalvo analyzes the role of Spanish Dominicans without forgetting other religious orders, such as the Jesuits, in the formulation of human rights. He also includes Bishop Carranza, from Toledo, among the defenders of Indians and mentions the Laws of Burgos of 1512 as the precursor to human rights. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. García y García, Antonio. “The Spanish School of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries: A Precursor of the Theory of Human Rights.” Ratio Juris 10.1 (1997): 25–35.
  582. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9337.00039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. The author examines the inspiration of the theory of human rights through the Spanish School. He analyzes the law of nations as a human law and emphasizes the characteristics of the law of nations, including subjective rights (those rights that all human beings have) and objective rights (punishable rights by law). Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Murillo Rubiera, Fernando. América y la dignidad del hombre: Los derechos del hombre en la filosofía de la historia de América. Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, 1992.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. The author highlights key dates for the process of defending the dignity of humans in America. He explores the universal concept of mankind and the presence of the inhabitants of the New World. The fourth chapter deals with the process of defending human dignity (pp. 89–137). Murillo is also the author of the article “The Defence of Human Dignity in the New World” (International Review of the Red Cross 32 [1992]: 452–464.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Pereña Vicente, Luciano. “Charter of Rights of the Indians according to the School of Salamanca.” International Review of the Red Cross 32.290 (1992): 467–487.
  590. DOI: 10.1017/S002086040007100XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Pereña Vicente dedicates his contribution to explore the human rights of the Indians in the thinking of the Spanish School. He is considered a very skilled scholar on this subject, and this is a sufficient reason to read this article. The sources are the originals and the secondary sources are very known by the author. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Sarmiento, Augusto. “La condición personal como fundamento de la libertad e igualdad de derechos entre los hombres y los pueblos, según Francisco de Vitoria.” In Evangelización y teología en América (siglo XVI). Vol. 2. Edited by José Ignacio Saranyana, 265–271. Pamplona, Spain: Servicio de Publicaciones, Universidad de Navarra, 1990.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Sarmiento starts the analysis with the theology of the human being. According to him, the Spanish scholars developed the theory of human rights in the theological perspective of individual men and as men of society. This doctrine is present in almost all members of the School of Salamanca. Sarmiento is strong in developing the section on freedom and humane treatment of the Indians.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Sovereignty and World Order
  598.  
  599. The Spanish School of International Law provided a great number of documents on the concept of sovereignty and world order, although the founder of the school, Vitoria, has never actually used the expression “sovereignty” (Naszalyi 1948). They developed the theory of the state, called the republic at that time (Maravall Casesnoves 1944), from the ideas of dominium and the communitas perfecta (Sánchez Agesta 1959). Vitoria made no notion on orbus christianus but on totus orbis (Miaja de la Muela 1965). He built the concept of sovereignty beyond the Christian world (Rommen 1951). The totus orbis is not a universal government. Vitoria considers the idea of a natural sociability of mankind, accompanied by the existence of relations among communities with legal links (Lewkowicz 2007). The totus orbis is a society of communities and of individuals. However, the most important scholar on sovereignty was Suárez (Onclin 1950). De Soto and Molina were other important scholars who studied the concept of sovereignty and world order (Hamilton 1963).
  600.  
  601. Hamilton, Bernice. Political Thought in Sixteenth-Century Spain: A Study of the Political Ideas of Vitoria, De Soto, Suárez, and Molina. Oxford: Clarendon, 1963.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. This book was the first systematic study of Spanish political thinking during the 16th and 17th centuries in English. Hamilton presents the ideas of Vitoria, de Soto, Suárez, and Molina, taking into account every topic. She discusses different details and emphasizes the different points of view of each author.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Lewkowicz, Nicolás. “The Spanish School as a Forerunner to the English School of International Relations.” Estudios Humanísticos: Historia 6 (2007): 85–96.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Lewkowicz approaches the creation of an international law for the society of states based on the Spanish School. He studies the writings of Francisco de Vitoria, Francisco Suárez, Domingo de Soto, Francisco Vázquez de Menchaca, and others. In his opinion, the Spanish School has a notion of just war as an institution of international society.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Maravall Casesnoves, José Antonio. La teoría española del estado en el siglo XVII. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Políticos, 1944.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Maravall is considered a crucial character in the study of theories of the state in the 16th century. He shows the different points of view and the various concepts of the state in the writings of the members of the Spanish School. He is surprised that, even in the 16th century, they still continue to call the state “Republic.”
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Miaja de la Muela, Adolfo. “El derecho ‘totus orbis’ en el pensamiento de Vitoria.” Revista Española de Derecho Internacional 18 (1965): 341–364.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Miaja de la Muela analyzes the idea of the ius humanae societatis. The author concludes Vitoria’s thinking on totus orbis is grounded on Ciceron’s concept of societas hominum. Miaja de la Muela studies Vitoria’s ideas of the state and the international community.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Naszalyi, Emilio. El estado según Francisco de Vitoria. Translated by Ignacio G. Menéndez-Reigada. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura hispánica, 1948.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Translator Menéndez-Reigada also provides the preface. Naszayi develops the idea of the State of Vitoria. The Spanish Dominican friar, basing himself in St. Thomas, considers a concept of unity of a higher order.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Onclin, Willy. “La souveraineté de l’État selon Suarez.” In Actas del IV centenario del nacimiento de Francisco Suarez (1548–1948). Vol. 2, 271–294. Madrid: Publicaciones Españolas, 1950.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. This work is included in the proceedings in honor of the four-hundredth birthday of Suárez, in 1948. The chapter is dedicated to the study of the concept of sovereignty according to Suárez. The author is one of the most recognized specialists on Suárez. He analyzes Suárez’s writings starting from the original texts.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Rommen, Heinrich Albert. La teoría del estado y de la comunidad internacional en Francisco Suárez. Madrid: Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Sociales, Instituto de derecho internacional, 1951.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. The author refutes opinions of some scholars who thought Suárez had a theory of the state as a transition from natural law to modern law. Rommen studies the organic conception of the state; the historical background of the theory of the state; and the essence of the origin, the end, and the theory of the power of the state.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Sánchez Agesta, Luis. El concepto del estado en el pensamiento español del siglo XVI. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Políticos, 1959.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. The author studies the writings of Vitoria, Suárez, Vázquez de Menchaca, Covarrubias, Sepúlveda, Molina, and others. His conclusion of the Spanish thinking is as follows: The state is a whole (a perfect community), the power of the king is inherent to the community, the political community is a natural necessity, the state is an ethic community, and its objective is the common good.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Natural Law, Public Law, and Political Power
  634.  
  635. The Spanish School of International Law is also well known as Natural Law School (Osuna Fernández-Largo 1994). For legal philosophers, it is the starting point of natural law science (Pérez Luño 1998). Therefore, the writings and reflections on natural law (Osuna Fernández-Largo 1994) are present in all the works of the scholars of the 16th and 17th centuries (Lamas 2001). Besides the increasing interest in the science of natural law (Rizo Patrón 2006), the Dominicans and Jesuits Spanish and their fellows developed a theory of public power (Truyol y Serra 1946) and political power (Galán y Gutiérrez 1944), with a theory of the power that was in accordance with their principles (Lissarague 1947). The contributions made to other sectors of law, such as customary law (Tierney 2007) or legal consent (Schwartz 2008), justify the presence of this specific heading.
  636.  
  637. Galán y Gutiérrez, Eustaquio. “La teoría del poder político según Francisco de Vitoria.” Revista general de legislación y jurisprudencia 176 (1944): 32–58.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. Galán y Gutiérrez analyzes the theory of political power according to Francisco de Vitoria. This is a short but a well-documented article, published by the journal of a prestigious Spanish institution, the Academy of Legislation and Jurisprudence. The author analyzes the theory of political power of Vitoria in a rather suggestive way.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Lamas, Félix Adolfo. “Fecundidad de la Escuela Española del Derecho Natural y de Gentes.” In El derecho natural hispánico: Pasado y presente; Actas de las II Jornadas Hispánicas de Derecho Natural. Edited by Miguel Ayuso, 19–23. Cordoba, Spain: CajaSur, 2001.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Lamas points out the definition of Hispanic natural law. He also points out the concept of natural law and its origins and grounds. He presents the historical background of the Western legal tradition. He also assumes that the four most important Spanish scholars in this field were Vitoria, Suarez, Domingo de Soto, and Luis de Molina. Lamas studies the methodology of the Spanish School.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Lissarague, Salvador. La teoría del poder en Francisco de Vitoria. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios Políticos, 1947.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. This is a well-known, classic book on the theory of power in Francisco de Vitoria, published by the Institute for Politics Studies in Madrid in 1947. It clarifies concepts and structures ideas on the theory of power in the Spanish School and, specifically, in Francisco de Vitoria.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Osuna Fernández-Largo, Antonio. “La Escuela Española del Derecho Natural: Introducción a su estudio.” In XIV Jornadas de Filosofía Jurídica y Social: Problemática actual de la historia de la filosofía del derecho española. Vol. 2. Edited by Francisco de Paula Puy Muñoz, María Carolina Rovira Flórez de Quiñones, and Milagros María Otero Parga, 127–138. Santiago de Compostela, Spain: Universidade de Santiago, 1994.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Osuna cautions against judging the ideas of the authors of the 16th and 17th centuries from a too theological position, without expressing their criticism of Spanish School on the model of Christianity at the time. These criticisms are underlying in Vitorian and Suarecian theories. Although this study is only an introduction, it is useful.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Pérez Luño, Antonio Enrique. “Los clásicos iusnaturalistas españoles.” In Historia de los derechos fundamentales. Vol. 1. Tránsito a la modernidad: Siglos XVI y XVII. Edited by Gregorio Peces-Barba Martínez and Eusebio Fernández García, 505–570. Madrid: Dykinson, 1998.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Pérez Luño offers an overview of the Spanish classical iusnaturalists. His main concern is placing his study in the context of the time.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Rizo Patrón, Francisco. “El Pensamiento Jurídico de la Escuela de Salamanca, Concreción de la Ley Natural en la Configuración de la Cultura.” In II Jornadas Internacionales de Derecho Natural, 171–184. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina, 2006.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. Rizo reminds us that the Salamanca School is also known as the Spanish School of Natural Law. He studies the contribution of this school to natural law, its relation with the humanism, the fact of the discovery into the light of law, its influence on legal thought and on the ius commune, and the formation of the current dogmas of private law.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Schwartz, Daniel. “Francisco Suárez on Consent and Political Obligation.” Vivarium 46.1 (2008): 59–81.
  662. DOI: 10.1163/156853408X252768Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  663. Schwartz analyzes in this article two less studied Suárez’s texts: De voto and De iuramento. The arguments and explanation presented are presented in the following sections: “Consent and the Naturalness of Political Obligation,” “Consent and the Generation of the City,” “The Independence of Political Obligation from Wills,” “Political Right without Alienation of Rights,” and “What Does the City Cause by ‘Natural Resultancy’?” Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Tierney, Brian. “Vitoria and Suarez on ius gentium, Natural Law, and Custom.” In The Nature of Customary Law: Legal, Historical and Philosophical Perspectives. Edited by Amanda Perreau-Saussine and James Bernard Murphy, 101–124. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  666. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511493744.006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Tierney studies Vitoria’s contribution to the grounds of international law in customary law, natural law, and positive law. However, he does not think Vitoria contributed to the consolidation of this ground. Suarez’s studies were more precise and detailed with sources of international law. Tierney believes that Suarez is a more precise jurist concerning the international customary law.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Truyol y Serra, Antonio. Los principios del derecho público en Francisco de Vitoria. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica, 1946.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. This book contains a selection of Vitoria’s original texts, with an introduction and commentaries on the texts. Truyol presents details of great interest and very precise annotations. It can be very useful to researchers on these topics.
  672. Find this resource:
Advertisement
Add Comment
Please, Sign In to add comment
Advertisement
Public Pastes
Advertisement
We use cookies for various purposes including analytics. By continuing to use Pastebin, you agree to our use of cookies as described in the Cookies Policy.  OK, I Understand
Not a member of Pastebin yet?
Sign Up, it unlocks many cool features!