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Globalization (Buddhism)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Globalization is a topic taken up by a variety of disciplines, from political science and international relations, to economics and sociology. Anthropology and sociology are the fields most relevant to Buddhist studies; unfortunately, the bulk of this work focuses on culture more broadly defined, religion as a subset of culture, and Buddhism as a subset of religion. This work is often heavy on theory and abstraction but light on concrete examples of lived religious experience. On the other hand, Buddhist studies scholars over the past two decades have increasingly framed their work on contemporary Buddhisms in the context of globalization or the transnational movement of peoples. However, in taking globalization as something of a given, little is said on what it actually means; and the relationship between globalization theory and concrete examples is merely implied. The following bibliography seeks to balance both the surfeit of globalization theory with the dearth of specifically Buddhist globalization theories. This balance can be achieved by focusing on works that are most relevant to Buddhist studies and works that situate Buddhism explicitly in a global context. This emerging field is presently concerned with Buddhist modernism and Buddhist reactions to colonialism and Western hegemony; area studies that locate Buddhist movements within the flow of global culture; and the effects of immigration, migration, and refugees on specific Buddhist communities or populations. This entry, then, begins with an overview of both globalization theory and some of the major introductions to the field of Buddhist globalization and resources for the classroom. To the extent that globalization is historically related to Western imperialism, there is much overlap here with postcolonial studies. The reader will also note a bias in this first edition toward Western language sources that will be attended to in later iterations; as Alles 2008 (cited under Globalization Theories) makes clear, the study of religion in the global context is not the sole purview of the Anglo-American West.
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  4. General Overviews
  5. The following section provides useful introductions to globalization and religion or Buddhism specifically, the major edited volumes that have recently been published, as well as reliable texts books for the classroom. Esposito, et al. 2008 is an excellent undergraduate-level text; chapter 6 deals with Buddhism specifically. Inda and Rosaldo 2008 provides a graduate-level reader with a specifically anthropological point of view. Juergensmeyer 2003 gives a fair overview of globalization from within religious studies proper, dealing with both specific traditions and thematic issues. Baumann 2001 gives an excellent historical overview of Buddhism in the modern world as it pertains to globalization. One of the first Buddhist studies volumes to appear with the actual word “globalization” in the title, the articles in Learman 2005 treat Buddhism as a missionary religion, focusing primarily on Asian Buddhists spreading the tradition outside of Asia. Prebish and Baumann 2002 includes a number of essays devoted specifically to the issue of globalization or transnationalism, whereas Heine and Prebish 2003 deals more specifically with issues of modernity. And while Numrich 2008 deals specifically with Buddhist groups in North America, many essays in this volume frame their studies within the context of transnationalism or globalization.
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  7. Baumann, Martin. “Global Buddhism: Developmental Periods, Regional Histories, and a New Analytical Perspective.” Journal of Global Buddhism 2 (2001).
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  11. Baumann provides a thorough and succinct overview of world Buddhist history, divided into specific historical eras moving away from “traditional” to “modern” forms. It is in this modern form, he argues, that we can locate the emergence of globalized Buddhism.
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  13. Find this resource:
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  16. Esposito, John L., Darrell J. Fasching, and Todd Lewis. Religion and Globalization: World Religions in Historical Perspective. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  19.  
  20. An excellent textbook for undergraduate religious studies majors, the book is a basic “Intro to World Religions” text with explicit emphasis on globalization. Contains a helpful introduction to such key terms as “modernity,” “postmodernism,” and “colonialism.” Chapter 6 deals exclusively with Buddhism.
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  22. Find this resource:
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  25. Heine, Steven, and Charles S. Prebish, eds. Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  28.  
  29. One of a number of recent collections that have moved away from a strict area-studies model of Buddhism located in specific countries or regions, this collection of essays covers a wide breadth of modernist Buddhist concerns both in and out of Asia.
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  31. Find this resource:
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  34. Inda, Jonathan Xavier, and Renato Rosaldo, eds. The Anthropology of Globalization: A Reader. 2d ed. Blackwell Readers in Anthropology. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
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  37.  
  38. An excellent graduate-level course reader for anthropology students, the work contains a number of excellent essays that may be useful for students in allied fields of religious studies, ethnic studies, or sociology. Contains an oft-cited piece by Appadurai.
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  40. Find this resource:
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  43. Juergensmeyer, Mark, ed. Global Religions: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  46.  
  47. A short but thorough introduction to religion as a global phenomenon aimed primarily at specialists or graduate students. Includes helpful essays on key terms and issues as well as tradition-specific chapters. Gananath Obeyesekere contributes the chapter on Buddhism.
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  49. Find this resource:
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  51.  
  52. Learman, Linda, ed. Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization. Topics in Contemporary Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005.
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  55.  
  56. One of the few titles from within Buddhist studies proper to contain the word “globalization” in the title, this collection of essays frames the issue in terms of missionary or evangelistic endeavors on the part of Buddhists both in and out of Asia. Learman provides an excellent introduction.
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  58. Find this resource:
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  61. Numrich, Paul David, ed. North American Buddhists in Social Context. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
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  64.  
  65. Although this edited collection of primarily sociological essays focuses on Buddhists in North America and Hawaii, it does not frame the issue explicitly in terms of globalization. Several essays are highly relevant to such issues as Asian immigrant communities or communities of diaspora, as well as transnationalism.
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  67. Find this resource:
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  69.  
  70. Prebish, Charles S., and Martin Baumann, eds. Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
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  73.  
  74. Not specifically framed in terms of globalization, this collection of essays covers an extremely broad range of study, considering virtually every area outside of Asia to be “the West,” including Africa and Israel. Includes reprints of standard essays as well as newer work on such topics as engaged Buddhism, modernity, and feminism.
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  76. Find this resource:
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  79. Journals and Digital Resources
  80. Globalization as a subject of research is covered well beyond the narrow confines of Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library. For researchers bold enough to venture into anthropology, sociology, international studies, or even economics, a wealth of relevant sources may be found in journals outside Buddhist studies proper. Published by the American Sociological Association, Sociological Theory has published a number of theoretical works on globalization, most notably by George Ritzer and his “globalization of nothing.” The Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion includes work by psychologists, political scientists, and anthropologists and has published work that covers a broad range of ancillary topics. The European Journal of Social Theory provides work from the European point of view, including relevant discussions on modernity. The freely distributed, online Journal of Global Buddhism is one the best sources for articles that deal specifically with Buddhism and globalization and transnationalism. Also freely distributed online, the Journal of Buddhist Ethics includes a number of recent works relevant to the broader topic of Buddhism outside Asia as well as meta-discourses on the nature of Buddhist studies as a discipline. Contemporary Buddhism deals with Buddhism in the modern world and of course is a relevant source as well. Finally, the online resources of Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library and the online Buddhist scholar’s resource H-Buddhism: H-Net Discussion List are extremely useful locations for information on Buddhism from a global perspective.
  81.  
  82. Ciolek, T. Matthew, et al., eds. Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library.
  83.  
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  85.  
  86. An extremely useful collection of information and primary and secondary sources on the study and practice of Buddhism from around the world. All the listed sources are online; thus the site acts as both a collection and example of globalized Buddhisms.
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  88. Find this resource:
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  90.  
  91. Contemporary Buddhism.
  92.  
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  94.  
  95. A publication of Routledge, Contemporary Buddhism covers broad ground on the current state of Buddhism from a multiplicity of disciplines. One of its central aims is to explore the meeting of Buddhism and Western culture, thus situating it nicely to delve into issues surrounding transnationalism and modernity.
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  97. Find this resource:
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  99.  
  100. European Journal of Social Theory.
  101.  
  102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103.  
  104. Edited by a wide swath of European scholars from an even wider diversity of social scientific disciplines, as the name implies, this journal takes a decidedly theoretic stance. As such, it has published many useful and relevant articles on global culture theory.
  105.  
  106. Find this resource:
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  108.  
  109. H-Buddhism: H-Net Discussion List.
  110.  
  111. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  112.  
  113. Developed from a previous scholarly listserv, budschol, H-Buddhism serves the needs of the larger community of Buddhist scholars. With a combination of wide-ranging academic conversations, conference announcements and open calls, book reviews, and job listings, it serves as the central online source for Buddhist studies scholars.
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  115. Find this resource:
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  117.  
  118. Journal of Buddhist Ethics.
  119.  
  120. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  121.  
  122. Something of a pioneer in online professional journal publishing, the Journal of Buddhist Ethics was founded by Damien Keown and Charles Prebish. Although primarily devoted to the study of Buddhist ethics, the journal has published a number of important works on Buddhism and modernity, with Quli 2009 (cited under Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and Modernity) being a notable recent example.
  123.  
  124. Find this resource:
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  126.  
  127. Journal of Global Buddhism.
  128.  
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  130.  
  131. A freely distributed electronic journal, the Journal of Global Buddhism’s chief aim is to discuss the spread of Buddhism globally. In its first decade, it has become a primary source for critical new scholarship on the intersection of Buddhism and the West broadly defined.
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  133. Find this resource:
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  135.  
  136. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.
  137.  
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139.  
  140. The primary publication of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, this journal brings the disciplines of sociology, psychology, political science, anthropology, and economics to bear on the study of religion.
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  142. Find this resource:
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  144.  
  145. Sociological Theory.
  146.  
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148.  
  149. Published by the American Sociological Association, this journal covers a wide array of topics beyond religion proper. However, by delving into such theoretical issues as ethnomethodology and world systems analysis, the journal has made significant contributions to the field of globalization studies.
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  151. Find this resource:
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  154. Globalization Theories
  155. As Buddhist studies is a discipline ordinarily predisposed to textual or linguistic studies, researchers may feel the need to survey the territory of recent theories of globalization from allied fields. The below list is, of course, not exhaustive; however, it does represent current trends in thinking and works that have been well cited within Buddhist studies proper. Robertson is one of the foundational sociologists to work in this field, often considered one of the earliest theorists to use the word “globalization.” Robertson 1992 is an excellent overview of his wider body of scholarship. Berger 1997 proposed “four faces of global culture,” which set some early, if narrow, parameters for debates to come. One of the “classics” of the field is Appadurai 1996 in which he delineates various “scapes” in which globalization manifests itself. Beyer 2006 provides a more abstracted, sociological account of global religions drawing on a function or systems model. This level of abstraction is critiqued slightly by Vásquez and Marquardt 2003, which focuses specifically on communities living in metaphorical and literal “borderlands” in the Americas. George Ritzer has been credited with coining the term “McDonaldization,” and Ritzer 2007 expands not only on this issue but also on the more relevant notion of “glocalization” [sic]. Alles 2008, a more recent collection of essays from religious studies, provides a global view of how scholars around the world are theorizing religion at the start of the 21st century. And Iwabuchi 2002 provides a compelling perspective on globalization from the Japanese point of view, challenging the tendency to equate “globalization” with “Westernization.”
  156.  
  157. Alles, Gregory D., ed. Religious Studies: A Global View. London and New York: Routledge, 2008.
  158.  
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  160.  
  161. A collection of essays assessing the state of the field in religious studies from a global perspective both in terms of subject matter and contributing scholars. In addition to the informative introductory and concluding essays by the editor, many chapters have specific relevance for global Buddhism.
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  163. Find this resource:
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  165.  
  166. Appadurai, Arjun. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization. Vol. 1, Public Worlds. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
  167.  
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  169.  
  170. Something of a foundational text in the field referenced excessively in later scholarship, Appadurai here develops five dimensions of cultural flows with which to study cultural globalization: ethnoscapes, mediascapes, technoscapes, financescapes, and ideoscapes.
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  174.  
  175. Berger, Peter. “Four Faces of Global Culture.” National Interest 49 (1997): 23–29.
  176.  
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  178.  
  179. Another relevant foundational argument, published in the unlikely National Interest, well-known sociologist Peter Berger here delineates four useful if somewhat limited features of cultural globalization: from corporate hegemony to evangelical Protestantism.
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  181. Find this resource:
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  183.  
  184. Beyer, Peter. Religions in Global Society. London and New York: Routledge, 2006.
  185.  
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  187.  
  188. In a more recent work that builds on more than a decade of previous research and publications, sociologist Peter Beyer frames religions as one meaningful social function system among many in an increasingly interconnected world.
  189.  
  190. Find this resource:
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  192.  
  193. Iwabuchi, Koichi. Recentering Globalization: Popular Culture and Japanese Transnationalism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002.
  194.  
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  196.  
  197. Challenging the perceived notion that Japan is somehow neither a Western nation nor a Third World nation, Iwabuchi makes a compelling argument for the global influence of contemporary Japanese culture, highlighting the possibility of multiple, coexisting, and competing globalizations.
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  199. Find this resource:
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  201.  
  202. Ritzer, George. The Globalization of Nothing 2. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge, 2007.
  203.  
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  205.  
  206. A significantly revised version of an earlier manuscript, Ritzer explores not only his notion of “McDonaldization” but also his highly idiosyncratic use of the nothing/something dichotomy. Most important, by developing his use of “glocolaization,” his work contributes to the growing literature on how globalization is expressed locally.
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  208. Find this resource:
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  210.  
  211. Robertson, Roland. Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture. London: Sage, 1992.
  212.  
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  214.  
  215. Sociologist Roland Robertson’s work has been foundational to the study of global culture, which he frames in the context of the Western project of modernity. Given that perspective, his work has been challenged by later theorists who see multiple, competing centers of globalization (see Iwabuchi 2002).
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  219.  
  220. Vásquez, Manuel A., and Marie Friedmann Marquardt. Globalizing the Sacred: Religion across the Americas. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2003.
  221.  
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  223.  
  224. Concerned specifically with religious movements within the Americas, Vásquez and Marquardt build on Appadurai’s and Beyer’s work to develop their own theories of transnationalism and “borderland” religious practice and identity.
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  226. Find this resource:
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  229. Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and Modernity
  230. There is considerable overlap between the study of globalization and the fields of postcolonial studies and modernity, to the point where some researchers have suggested that globalization is little more than an extension of colonialism. The following reflect both the relevant issues associated with globalization, such as Orientalism and reactions to colonial hegemony, along with the burgeoning issue of multiple modernities. Bechert 1966 is a foundational work, setting out some of the contours of Buddhist modernism. McMahan 2008 takes up the issue of modernist versus traditionalist Buddhist rhetoric. Said 1993 provides some later nuances to his earlier articulated theories of Orientalism, here with a focus on imperialism and issues more relevant to East Asia. King 2005 provides much-needed historical context to the Orientalist project of constructing religion. Borup 2004 takes up this issue with the specific case of Japanese Zen at the turn of the 20th century. Amstutz 1997 looks at the same issue and time period but focuses on the neglected case of Jōdo Shinshū Buddhism. Lopez 1995 is a widely read and cited work that details the buddhologist’s culpability in the Orientalist project. And Quli 2009 is a more recent, and more explicit, take on a similar issue.
  231.  
  232. Amstutz, Galen. Interpreting Amida: History and Orientalism in the Study of Pure Land Buddhism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1997.
  233.  
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  235.  
  236. In an oft-repeated argument, Amstutz questions how the rhetoric of Japanese nationalism and Western Orientalism led to the exclusion of Shin Buddhism from the discourse of Buddhist modernism; thus the work is a good example of an Orientalist critique. Includes a useful appendix of primary European missionary documents.
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  238. Find this resource:
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  240.  
  241. Bechert, Heinz. Buddhismus, Staat und Gesellschaft in den Ländern des Theravāda-Buddhismus. Vols. 2–3. Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Metzner, 1966.
  242.  
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  244.  
  245. A foundational text, and one of the earliest examples of Western scholars taking up the issue of Buddhism in the modern world and specifically discussing “Buddhist modernism” as a distinct area of study.
  246.  
  247. Find this resource:
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  249.  
  250. Borup, Jørn. “Zen and the Art of Inverting Orientalism: Buddhism, Religious Studies, and Interrelated Networks.” In New Approaches to the Study of Religion. Vol. 1, Regional, Critical, and Historical Approaches. Edited by Peter Antes, Armin W. Geertz, and Randi R. Warne, 451–488. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2004.
  251.  
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  253.  
  254. Through an examination of “Suzuki-Zen,” Borup explores the process of inverted Orientalism, demonstrating the ways in which representing “the other” is a reciprocal process: often a response and systematic use of what Said labeled the “Orientalist project.”
  255.  
  256. Find this resource:
  257.  
  258.  
  259. King, Richard. Orientalism and Religion: Postcolonial Theory, India, and “the Mystic East.” London: Routledge, 2005.
  260.  
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  262.  
  263. A wide-ranging historical and theoretical postcolonial critique of the West’s fascination with Asian culture that both builds on and goes beyond Edward Said’s Orientalism. Chapter 7 focuses specifically on the European “discovery of Buddhism.”
  264.  
  265. Find this resource:
  266.  
  267.  
  268. Lopez, Donald, Jr., ed. Curators of the Buddha: The Study of Buddhism under Colonialism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.
  269.  
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  271.  
  272. Lopez’s introduction to this seminal work nicely frames the issues of representation and the scholar’s culpability in the Orientalist project. The remaining essays cover topics ranging from colonialism, Japanese nationalism, European fascism, psychology, and Tibet in the Western imagination.
  273.  
  274. Find this resource:
  275.  
  276.  
  277. McMahan, David L. The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
  278.  
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  280.  
  281. An excellent overview of both the nuanced characteristics of contemporary modernist Buddhist movements as well as an overview of the history of Buddhist modernism and revivalism in Asia. Points toward his more recent, unpublished work arguing for “multiple modernities.”
  282.  
  283. Find this resource:
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  285.  
  286. Quli, Natalie E. “Western Self, Asian Other: Modernity, Authenticity, and Nostalgia for ‘Tradition’ in Buddhist Studies.” Journal of Buddhist Ethnics 16 (2009).
  287.  
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  289.  
  290. In a critical view of Buddhist studies, Quli takes to task American academic representations of the Asian Buddhist “other” and discusses the limitations of the modernist/traditionalist dichotomies prevalent in recent scholarship employed by McMahan and others.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294.  
  295. Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Knopf, 1993.
  296.  
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  298.  
  299. A more recent treatment of culture, imperialism, colonialism, and Orientalism, this work has more to say about the Far East, a subject not dealt with substantially in his seminal Orientalism. See Iwabuchi 2002 (cited under Globalization Theories) for a useful critique of the limits of Said’s theory.
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  301. Find this resource:
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  303.  
  304. Regional Studies
  305. The lion’s share of research on Buddhism and globalization is being conducted through specific regional areas. This is, no doubt, due to the general tendency within Buddhist studies to view the Buddhist world from regional perspectives. The following sections, then, focus on different parts of the world that have been the subject of scholarly research framed in more or less explicitly global contexts. More detailed information on immigrant and diaspora groups follows.
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  307. Asia
  308. The following sources focus primarily on continental Asia. Recurring themes in this area include the tensions between Buddhism (and religion more generally) and various socialist states, Asian cultural resistance to Western hegemony, and the exportation of Buddhist culture through communities of diaspora. Gombrich and Obeyesekere 1990 sets the tone for much work in this area by detailing the historical development of modern Buddhism in Sri Lanka. A great deal of recent work deals with various Taiwanese and mainland Chinese Buddhist global movements. Chandler 2002 and Chandler 2004 focus on the Foguangshan movement in the context of postmodernity and globalization. Huang 2005 covers similar geography but focuses on a different Buddhist community. And Jones 2002 provides some pertinent historical information in his profile of a specific Taiwanese Buddhist modernist. Laliberté 2004 brings much of this work together in an engaging account of the intersection of Taiwanese Buddhism and Taiwanese politics. Kollmar-Paulenz 2003 contributes much to a burgeoning area of study on the resurgence of Mongolian Buddhism. Spiritual tourism and the connection between pilgrimage and Buddhism-as-commodity is an area directly relevant to Buddhist globalization but little studied; Philip and Mercer 1999 provides an interesting case study in Burma.
  309.  
  310. Chandler, Stuart. “Globalizing Chinese Culture, Localizing Buddhist Teachings: The Internationalization of Foguangshan.” Journal of Global Buddhism 3 (2002).
  311.  
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  313.  
  314. As part of a larger body of research and publishing, Chandler discusses Foguangshan’s turn from a local Taiwanese Buddhist community to a global Buddhist leader. Interestingly, this piece frames the community in the context of the postmodern dilemma in which people’s locus of meaning shifts from nation to religion.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. Chandler, Stuart. Establishing a Pure Land on Earth: The Foguangshan Buddhist Perspective on Modernization and Globalization. Topics in Contemporary Buddhism. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2004.
  320.  
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  322.  
  323. In the book-length version of his research, Chandler has the space to explore the Foguangshan movement in some detail, framing his subject in terms of global humanism with reach and influence beyond Taiwan and the Taiwanese.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327.  
  328. Gombrich, Richard Francis, and Gananath Obeyesekere. Buddhism Transformed: Religious Change in Sri Lanka. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990.
  329.  
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  331.  
  332. An extremely important contribution to the field, it is in this larger work on Buddhism in Sri Lanka that the term “Protestant Buddhism” is first explored in some depth. The heuristic of a “Protestant Buddhism” has been repeatedly discussed in subsequent research.
  333.  
  334. Find this resource:
  335.  
  336.  
  337. Huang, C. Julia. “The Compassion Relief Diaspora.” In Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization. Edited by Linda Learman, 185–209. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005.
  338.  
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  340.  
  341. Huang, like Chandler, is interested in globalized Taiwanese Buddhist communities. Her focus here is on the interplay between a specifically ethnically identified Taiwanese group and its outreach to both Taiwanese and non-Taiwanese Buddhists living abroad.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Jones, Charles B. “Buddhism and Marxism in Taiwan: Lin Qiuwu’s Religious Socialism and Its Legacy in Modern Times.” Journal of Global Buddhism 1 (2002).
  347.  
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  349.  
  350. Jones profiles Lin Qiuwu (Venerable Zhengfeng) (1903–1934), a somewhat revolutionary figure prominent in the development of modern Taiwanese Buddhism during the Japanese occupation.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
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  354.  
  355. Kollmar-Paulenz, Karénina. “Buddhism in Mongolia after 1990.” Journal of Global Buddhism 4 (2003).
  356.  
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  358.  
  359. After providing an overview of Mongolian Buddhism following the collapse of Soviet Russia, Kollmar-Paulenz describes current developments in a sort of Buddhist renaissance. By highlighting the truly international character of this resurgence, the essay points to a burgeoning new area of research.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Laliberté, André. The Politics of Buddhist Organizations in Taiwan, 1989–2003: Safeguarding the Faith, Building a Pure Land, Helping the Poor. New York and London: Routledge, 2004.
  365.  
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  367.  
  368. Similar to the work being done by Chandler and Huang, Laliberté is interested in contemporary Taiwanese Buddhism; however, he is specifically interested in the relationship between Buddhists and politics and profiles the Buddhist Association of the Republic of China, the Foguanshan, and the Buddhist Compassion Relief Association.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372.  
  373. Philip, Janette, and David Mercer. “Commodification of Buddhism in Contemporary Burma.” Annals of Tourism Research 26.1 (January 1999): 21–54.
  374.  
  375. DOI: 10.1016/S0160-7383(98)00050-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  376.  
  377. Pointing toward two areas in need of more research—Buddhism in Burma and spiritual tourism—the article explores how the military junta controlling Burma has attempted to use Buddhism as a commodity to attract foreign investors and tourists. Somewhat outdated given more contemporary political events.
  378.  
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381.  
  382. Australia and Oceania
  383. Australia and Oceania pose a unique problem for the area studies model. On the one hand, due to its relative proximity to Asia proper, the area has been enriched by Buddhist culture as the destination for a number of Buddhist missionary groups and migrants. On the other hand, as former European colonies, the area is usually understood to be part of the larger “Western” cultural sphere. As a result, the nature of Buddhism in the southern hemisphere looks both strikingly similar to other Western cultural areas and strikingly different. Spuler 2002 provides a useful overview of Buddhism’s introduction to Australia and New Zealand. Spuler 2003 focuses more on a specific case of Buddhism in Australia. These are complimented by Kemp 2007, which draws parallels to the “two Buddhisms” typology in other Western cultural spheres. Barker 2007 discusses the increased popularity of Buddhism in Australia using a religious capital model. Bubna-Litic and Higgins 2007 employs Baumann’s and Batchelor’s typologies to explore the specific case of insight meditation practices. Metraux 2003 frames Soka Gakkai in Australia as a global religion. Eddy 2007 discusses the acceptance of Buddhist tantra by Australians. McAra 2007 explores the complexities of Buddhists negotiating a settler-colonial cultural milieu.
  384.  
  385. Barker, Michelle. “Investments in Religious Capital: An Explorative Case Study of Australian Buddhists.” Journal of Global Buddhism 8 (2007).
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. Barker uses a framework of “religious capital” to explore not only the demographic growth of Buddhism in Australia but its overall effects on the larger cultural milieu.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Bubna-Litic, David and Winton Higgins. “The Emergence of Secular Insight Practice in Australia.” Journal of Global Buddhism 8 (2007).
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. Bubna-Litic and Higgins build on Baumann’s periodization of Buddhism (Baumann 2001, cited under General Overviews) as well as Stephen Batchelor’s distinction between “religious Buddhism” and “dharma practice” (secular Buddhism) to explore the rise and diversification of insight meditation practice in Australia.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Eddy, Glenys. “A Strand of Contemporary Tantra: Its Discourse and Practice in the FPMT.” Journal of Global Buddhism 8 (2007).
  404.  
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. Based on fieldwork conducted at a Sydney, Australia affiliate of the international Gelugpa Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition, Eddy rejects Hugh Urban’s claim that the Western acceptance of Asian tantra is little more than spiritual hedonism.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Kemp, Hugh. “How the Dharma Landed: Interpreting the Arrival of Buddhism in New Zealand.” Journal of Global Buddhism 8 (2007).
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. A somewhat strained argument based on an uncritical acceptance of the “two Buddhisms” typology. Kemp nevertheless provides useful context for the introduction of Buddhism to New Zealand.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. McAra, Sally A. “Indigenizing or Adapting? Importing Buddhism into a Settler-Colonial Society.” Journal of Global Buddhism 8 (2007).
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. With the construction of a stupa by the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition at the center of her analysis, McAra explores the challenges of marking land in a settler-colonial society when that land has different meanings for both colonizer and colonized.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429.  
  430. Metraux, Daniel A. “The Soka Gakkai in Australia: Globalization of a New Japanese Religion.” Journal of Global Buddhism 4 (2003).
  431.  
  432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  433.  
  434. While attempting to frame Soka Gakkai International as a “global Buddhist movement” by uncritically accepting that SGI adherents’ practice in various locations is universal, Metraux nevertheless provides a useful account of SGI actives in Australia.
  435.  
  436. Find this resource:
  437.  
  438.  
  439. Spuler, Michelle. “The Development of Buddhism in Australia and New Zealand.” In Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, 139–151. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  440.  
  441. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  442.  
  443. An overview of the historical development of Buddhism in both Australia and New Zealand highlighted by useful demographic statistics. Also covers some salient developmental issues and reasons for the tradition’s ready acceptance within mainstream culture.
  444.  
  445. Find this resource:
  446.  
  447.  
  448. Spuler, Michelle. Developments in Australian Buddhism: Facets of the Diamond. RoutledgeCurzon Critical Studies in Buddhism 22. New York and London: Routledge, 2003.
  449.  
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451.  
  452. A sociocultural analysis of, primarily, the Diamond Sangha Zen Buddhist groups within Australia, this work features relevant issues for the study of Buddhism in the West more generally.
  453.  
  454. Find this resource:
  455.  
  456.  
  457. Europe
  458. Studies of globalization and transnationalism in Europe of late have tended to focus on the migrations of people from the Near East and North Africa and, therefore, have focused more on studies of Islam in Europe rather than Buddhism. Nevertheless, Buddhism has played an important role in European culture for centuries and continues to exert influence in the modern era through immigration as well as the diffusion of Buddhist popular culture. Baumann 2002 provides a good historical overview and survey of the terrain. Bell 2001 and Bluck 2004 give useful information on the diffusion of Buddhism in Britain and statistical data, respectively. Koné 2001 is a good overview of Zen Buddhism in Europe. And Ostrovskaya-Junior 2004 gives an intriguing account of Buddhism in Russia. Obadia 2001 and Liogier 2004 provide useful information on Buddhists in France with the latter tending more toward sociological analysis. Finally, Cox and Griffin 2009 critiques the regional studies model in favor of a global-systems approach with Buddhism in Ireland as a case study.
  459.  
  460. Baumann, Martin. “Buddhism in Europe: Past Present, Prospects.” In Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, 85–105. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. With an eye to the future development of Buddhism in Europe and how it will be impacted by globalization and transnational movements, Baumann provides an excellent overview of European Buddhism with a particular focus on the rise and acceptance of the tradition into the mainstream after 1970.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Bell, Sandra. “Being Creative with Tradition: Rooting Theravaada Buddhism in Britain.” Journal of Global Buddhism 1 (2001).
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. An examination of Theravada Buddhism in Britain based on ethnographic study and analyzed through Milton Singer’s notion of cross-cultural borrowing. Bell both supports and rejects the model, noting the wholesale adoption of Buddhist cultural elements into British religious life.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477.  
  478. Bluck, Robert. “Buddhism and Ethnicity in Britain: The 2001 Census Data.” Journal of Global Buddhism 5 (2004).
  479.  
  480. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  481.  
  482. A short overview of the 2001 Census data describing how many Buddhists are in Britain pointing to the commingling of converts, “new Buddhist” groups such as the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order, and Asian immigrants. Provides much-needed statistical data.
  483.  
  484. Find this resource:
  485.  
  486.  
  487. Cox, Laurence, and Maria Griffin. “Border Country Dharma: Buddhism, Ireland, and Peripherality.” Journal of Global Buddhism 10 (2009).
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. Using Ireland as something of a case study, the authors critique the tacit acceptance by Buddhist scholars of a country-by-country comparative approach to Buddhist studies, arguing persuasively for a world-systems approach.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495.  
  496. Koné, Alioune. “Zen in Europe: A Survey of the Territory.” Journal of Global Buddhism 2 (2001).
  497.  
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499.  
  500. An overview of Zen Buddhism in Europe focusing on issues of legitimating newer Buddhist communities of primarily European converts as well as changes and adaptations to the tradition in a new cultural locale.
  501.  
  502. Find this resource:
  503.  
  504.  
  505. Liogier, Raphaël. Le bouddhisme mondialisé: Une perspective sociologique sur la globalisation du religieux. Paris: Ellipses, 2004.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. Based on research conducted in Buddhist France, Liogier gives a wide-ranging but largely coherent account of Westernized Buddhism from a uniquely French sociological perspective that repudiates the notion that contemporary or postmodern religion is dying due to increasing secularization.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513.  
  514. Obadia, Lionel. “Tibetan Buddhism in France: A Missionary Religion?.” Journal of Global Buddhism 2 (2001).
  515.  
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. Using Tibetan Buddhism in France as a case study, Obadia provides not only a much-needed critical analysis of the topic but also a compelling argument for Buddhism as a missionary religion taking seriously the issue of dissemination and acceptance of Buddhism in a new cultural location.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522.  
  523. Ostrovskaya-Junior, Elena A. “Buddhism in Saint Petersburg.” Journal of Global Buddhism 5 (2004).
  524.  
  525. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  526.  
  527. A good overview of the history of Buddhism in Russia. Section four provides insightful coverage of contemporary concerns, including new Russian converts to Buddhism, as well as the impact of the Tibetan diaspora on the larger socioreligious scene.
  528.  
  529. Find this resource:
  530.  
  531.  
  532. North America
  533. Like Europe, many studies of globalization and transnationalism in North America have focused on more immediate immigrant movements, in this case from Latin America. But also like Europe, Buddhism and Asian culture generally have had an enormous impact and exerted a considerable influence on North American culture. The study of Buddhism in North America has had a robust and productive life for the past three decades, and the following sources are meant to highlight representative scholarship that has some relevance to themes of modernity, transnationalism, and globalization more broadly defined. Tweed 1992 is a standard in this field, outlining the early history of the pan-Pacific encounter between Buddhism and North America. McMahan 2002 discusses the construction of Zen as a modernist religion for non–Asian American consumption. Amstutz 2002 covers similar ground but from the Jōdo Shinshū perspective. Cadge 2004 is a vital new contribution to the field of Theravada studies in America. Similarly, Mullen 2006 has contributed important new research on the meeting of Tibetans and their Euro-American benefactors. McLellan 1999 has done extensive research on Toronto, Ontario, as a case study for North American Buddhist diversity. Padgett 2000 uses the case of Buddhist entrepreneurial enterprises to comment on the nature of American Buddhist identity. Tamney 2008 presents an excellent and forward-looking overview of many salient issues in North American Buddhist communities.
  534.  
  535. Amstutz, Galen. “Limited Engagements: Revisiting the Non-Encounter Between American Buddhism and the Shin Tradition.” Journal of Global Buddhism 3 (2002).
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. A somewhat polemical but compelling take on Buddhist modernism from the Jōdo Shinshū perspective and its engagement, or lack thereof, with the non–Japanese American Buddhist discourse.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Cadge, Wendy. Heartwood: The First Generation of Theravada Buddhism in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. An important sociological study of the adaptations and changes Theravada Buddhists have made in North America with an eye to their transnational connections. Notably, Cadge compares ethnic Thai Buddhists and “convert” insight meditation Buddhists, a rare and much-needed example of intra-Buddhist comparative work.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. McLellan, Janet. Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1999.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. McLellan presents an excellent overview of Toronto’s diverse Buddhist communities by profiling five specific Asian American Buddhist populations: Japanese, Tibetan, Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Chinese.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. McMahan, David L. “Repackaging Zen for the West.” In Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, 218–229. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. Includes a brief overview of the Western construction of an ahistorical, antinomian “Zen” (see Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and Modernity). The article includes a well-framed portrait of largely middle-class, white American Zen groups, their practices, and issues facing the community.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Mullen, Eve. “Tibetan Religious Expression and Identity: Transformations in Exile.” In Materializing Religion: Expression, Performance, and Ritual. Edited by Elisabeth Arweck and William J. F. Keenan, 175–189. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2006.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. A more focused study of a larger body of research, this piece examines the tension and different religio-cultural needs and expectations between Euro-American Buddhist sympathizers and the ethnic Tibetan diaspora community.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579.  
  580. Padgett, Douglas M. “‘Americans Need Something to Sit On,’ or Zen Meditation Materials and Buddhist Diversity in North America.” Journal of Global Buddhism 1 (2000).
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. Rather than taking the usual stance of being outraged at the “corruption” of Buddhism by commercial interests, Padgett uses the study of Buddhist commercialism as an avenue for exploring “cross-cultural religious transformation” and current debates about the character of American Buddhism.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Tamney, Joseph B. “Afterword: Modernization, Globalization, and Buddhism.” In North American Buddhists in Social Context. Edited by Paul David Numrich, 225–241. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. In his concluding afterword to Numrich’s collection of essays, Tamney connects the dots, so to speak, explicitly framing these earlier discussions in terms of modernity and globalization and their consequences for the development on Buddhism in North America.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597.  
  598. Tweed, Thomas A. The American Encounter with Buddhism, 1844–1912: Victorian Culture and the Limits of Dissent. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. This standard in the field chronicles Victorian American Protestant sympathizers’ attempts to make sense of Buddhism in their own terms and explores why it would be nearly a century before the religion took hold within mainstream American culture.
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606.  
  607. South America
  608. A small but rich body of literature has focused on Buddhism in South America, particularly in Brazil. The continent, dominated by Catholicism, has unique parallels to North America but also significant differences—chiefly the higher degree of religious syncretism and a greater willingness to accept so-called new religious movements. Most relevant for Buddhism, this includes a large number of Japanese migrants (see The Japanese Diaspora). Cristina Rocha is the primary English-language researcher in the area, and Buddhism in Brazil: A Bibliography provides a much-needed overview of the available resources. Clarke 1999 provides a good overview of the religious landscape in Brazil that fosters a willingness to accept new religious movements. Ursarski 2002a gives a fair overview of Buddhism in Brazil; and Ursarski 2002b presents the work of a number of well-known scholars from the Americas and Japan. Shoji 2005 uses the case of Shingon Buddhism in Brazil to argue against rigid modernist Buddhist categories such as “Protestant Buddhism.” Rocha 2000 is a brief but thorough overview of Zen in Brazil. This work is complemented greatly by Rocha 2006, in which Brazilian Zen is put into a global discourse on Western and Japanese religiosity.
  609.  
  610. Clarke, Peter B. “Japanese New Religious Movements in Brazil: From Ethnic to ‘Universal’ Religions.” In New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response. Edited by Brian Wilson and Jamie Cresswell, 197–210. London: Routledge, 1999.
  611.  
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. Although the focus is on a broader array of Japanese “new religious movements” in Brazil, Clarke’s presentation does cover Soka Gakkai and provides useful background information on the religious landscape of 20th-century Brazil.
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
  617.  
  618.  
  619. Rocha, Cristina. Buddhism in Brazil: A Bibliography.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. Rocha, one of the foremost researchers on Buddhism in Brazil, has compiled an extremely useful compendium of sources on Brazilian Buddhism, both in print and on the web, in a variety of languages.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. Rocha, Cristina. “Zen Buddhism in Brazil: Japanese or Brazilian?” Journal of Global Buddhism 1 (2000).
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. A useful overview of the history of Japanese immigration to Brazil, the establishment of Zen Buddhism in Brazil, and the challenges and opportunities faced by contemporary “ethnic Buddhists” and “converts” to the tradition.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Rocha, Cristina. Zen in Brazil: The Quest for Cosmopolitan Modernity. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006.
  638.  
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640.  
  641. By framing Brazilian Zen in modernist, cosmopolitan, and global contexts, Rocha expertly discloses how Zen is being transformed in its new locale as well as participating in a larger, Western or global Buddhist discourse.
  642.  
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645.  
  646. Shoji, Rafael. “Buddhism in Syncretic Shape: Lessons of Shingon in Brazil.” Journal of Global Buddhism 4 (2005).
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. Rejecting the “rigid” concept of “Protestant Buddhism” as a heuristic category, Shoji explores Shingon Buddhism in Brazil to argue for a syncretic version of religious or Buddhist identity.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654.  
  655. Ursarski, Frank. “Buddhism in Brazil and Its Impact on the Larger Brazilian Society.” In Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, 163–176. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002a.
  656.  
  657. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. A handy overview of Brazilian Buddhism including a three-fold typology of Buddhist groups, their relationship to Brazilian religion and society more generally, and their participation in global Buddhist movements.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
  662.  
  663.  
  664. Usarski, Frank, ed. O Budismo no Brasil. São Paulo, Brazil: Verbo Humano, 2002b.
  665.  
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. A useful collection of essays on Buddhism in Brazil more generally including work by well-known Brazilian and Japanese scholars, in Portuguese.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672.  
  673. Immigration, Migration, and Diaspora
  674. A significant body of literature relevant to globalization and Buddhism frames the issue in terms of the movement of people. This refers specifically to the issues of immigration, refugees, and diaspora. The most obvious example of a Buddhist diaspora is the Tibetan community, living in exile since the 1959 invasion of Tibet by the People’s Republic of China. But this methodological framework has also been applied to other large-scale populations of Buddhists living outside of their ancestral homelands either by choice or force, with the Japanese diaspora being a prime example. Conversely, a number of scholars have focused on migration, immigration, or refugees, a subject of particular importance to late 20th-century Asian Buddhists living in North America and elsewhere.
  675.  
  676. Late 20th-Century Asian Immigration
  677. Owing to the changes in immigration laws in both the United States and Canada in the latter half of the 20th century, coupled with a number of wars and the collapse of Buddhist-friendly governments in many parts of Asia, a large number of Asian Buddhists found themselves in North America. The following works focus primarily on these more recent immigrant groups and their adaptations to new cultural contexts. Numrich 1996 is an early and foundational text in this field outlining some key terms in later American Buddhist studies such as the notion of “parallel congregations.” Lin 1999 does some similar work on post-1965 Chinese immigrants, challenging the “two Buddhisms” typology prevalent in this field. Bankston and Hidalgo 2008 gives a strikingly good overview of a number of South and Southeast Asian immigrant groups. Cadge and Sangdhanoo 2005 and Padgett 2002 provide some specific case studies of Thai American Buddhist temples that highlight the transnational character of this diasporic community. McLellan 2008 gives a brief overview of various Buddhist groups in the Toronto area. Based on fieldwork in California Chinese communities, Chen 2008 demonstrates that many Chinese American Buddhists are rejecting Protestant Christianity in favor of a modernist Buddhism. And Cadge 2008 challenges the accepted norm of “de facto congregationalism” in immigrant religious communities with an eye to post-1965 Buddhist immigrants.
  678.  
  679. Bankston, Carl L., and Danielle Antoinette Hidalgo. “Temple and Society in the New World: Theravada Buddhism and Social Order in North America.” In North American Buddhists in Social Context. Edited by Paul David Numrich, 51–85. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
  680.  
  681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682.  
  683. An extremely good overview of various Asian Buddhist groups in North America that details not only their shared sociohistorical background but also more important, the unique factors leading to their American development as either missionary or refugee communities.
  684.  
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687.  
  688. Cadge, Wendy. “De Facto Congregationalism and the Religious Organization of Post-1965 Immigrants to the United States: A Revised Approach.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 76.2 (2008): 344–374.
  689.  
  690. DOI: 10.1093/jaarel/lfn034Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. Building on research on Thai Buddhist communities, Cadge provides a critique of “de facto congregationalism” in immigrant religious institutional organization, arguing instead that immigrant communities are decidedly more diverse in character, developing in multidimensional rather than linear ways.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Cadge,Wendy, and Sidhorn Sangdhanoo. “Thai Buddhism in America: An Historical and Contemporary Overview.” Contemporary Buddhism 6.1 (May 2005): 7–35.
  698.  
  699. DOI: 10.1080/14639940500129421Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Based on fieldwork conducted at eighty-seven American Thai Buddhist temples, the article both covers the history of the tradition from the 1970s through the present as well as exploring the multidimensional ways that Thai Theravada Buddhists have adapted their tradition to the American cultural milieu.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Chen, Carolyn. “‘True Buddhism Is Not Chinese’: Taiwanese Immigrants Defining Buddhist Identity in the United States.” In North American Buddhists in Social Context. Edited by Paul David Numrich, 145–161. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
  707.  
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709.  
  710. Challenging the notion that recent Chinese immigrants are purely “Buddhists by birth,” Chen notes that many immigrants reject the Christianity of their peers as “backward” instead embracing a modernist, rationalistic Buddhism compatible with Western science.
  711.  
  712. Find this resource:
  713.  
  714.  
  715. Lin, Irene. “Journey to the Far West: Chinese Buddhism in America.” In New Spiritual Homes: Religion and Asian Americans. Edited by David K. Yoo, 134–165. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1999.
  716.  
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. With a focus on Chinese American Buddhist communities, Lin discusses the ways in which scholars approach the study of American Buddhism using Western religious models and theoretical frameworks that may be wholly inappropriate in Asian American contexts.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723.  
  724. McLellan, Janet. “Themes and Issues in the Study of North American Buddhists and Buddhism.” In North American Buddhists in Social Context. Edited by Paul David Numrich, 19–49. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
  725.  
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727.  
  728. With a focus on Toronto, Ontario’s Buddhist landscape, McLellan provides an excellent overview of the promises and pitfalls of religious pluralism and how these issues affect a diverse set of Canadian Buddhist groups.
  729.  
  730. Find this resource:
  731.  
  732.  
  733. Numrich, Paul David. Old Wisdom in the New World: Americanization in Two Immigrant Theravada Buddhist Temples. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996.
  734.  
  735. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  736.  
  737. In his foundational work on Theravada in America, Numrich presents the results of an ethnographic survey of one Thai and one Sinhala Buddhist community around a theme of transplantation.
  738.  
  739. Find this resource:
  740.  
  741.  
  742. Padgett, Douglas M. “The Translating Temple: Diasporic Buddhism in Florida.” In Westward Dharma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Martin Baumann, 201–217. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  743.  
  744. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  745.  
  746. Based on fieldwork conducted on a Thai Buddhist temple in Tampa Bay, Florida, Padgett argues that such static typologies as “ethnic” or “convert” Buddhists are inadequate at describing what he terms “transnational diasporic Buddhists,” challenging researchers to place their work in conversation with diaspora studies.
  747.  
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750.  
  751. The Tibetan Diaspora
  752. Due to the legal status of Tibet, Tibetan exiles cannot readily return to their homeland. However, unlike many other refugee groups, Tibetans receive widespread public support in many parts of the world. And although this public support has not seemed to soften Beijing’s grip on Tibet itself, it has had an impact on the way Tibetans identify themselves as Tibetans and as Buddhists. Tuttle 2005 makes explicit the connection between political or nationalist activities and religious identity. Cozort 2003 details the challenges of perpetuating traditional religious training and ordination within the diaspora community. Lavine 1998 gives a fair amount of historical overview and points toward the challenges in spreading Tibetan Buddhism in the United States among non-Tibetans. This issue is taken up further by Mullen 2001, which looks specifically at the transnational nature of Tibetan teachers who negotiate between the needs of their ethnic Tibetan communities and the much-needed financial and political support of non-Tibetan benefactors. Scherer 2009 explores a specific case of a non-Tibetan convert community in the European context (compare with McAra 2007, cited under Australia and Oceania). Bishop 2000 examines the ways in which Tibet has been exploited in Western media. Yong 2008 uses the Buddhist-science debates as a case study in Tibetan Buddhist globalization.
  753.  
  754. Bishop, Peter. “Caught in the Cross-Fire: Tibet, Media and Promotional Culture.” Media, Culture, and Society 22.5 (2000): 645–664.
  755.  
  756. DOI: 10.1177/016344300022005007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. A useful examination of the ways in which Tibet and the Tibetan cause have been exploited within Western films, particularly Seven Years in Tibet and Kundun, which highlight both Western idealizations and critiques of the Tibet-as-Shangri-la idea.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762.  
  763. Cozort, Daniel. “The Making of the Western Lama.” In Buddhism in the Modern World: Adaptations of an Ancient Tradition. Edited by Steven Heine and Charles S. Prebish, 221–248. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  764.  
  765. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  766.  
  767. An examination of the teacher-training procedures of the Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition and the New Kadampa Tradition. Cozort addresses many of the challenges facing the Tibetan tradition in the West to train and certify lamas and spiritual leaders.
  768.  
  769. Find this resource:
  770.  
  771.  
  772. Lavine, Amy. “Tibetan Buddhism in America: The Development of American Vajrayāna.” In The Faces of Buddhism in America. Edited by Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka, 99–116. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
  773.  
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775.  
  776. An insightful overview of the challenges faced by American practitioners as they negotiate the traditional practices of Tibet and the expectations of American-born converts, focusing on issues of authority and transmission of teachings.
  777.  
  778. Find this resource:
  779.  
  780.  
  781. Mullen, Eve. The American Occupation of Tibetan Buddhism: Tibetans and Their American Hosts in New York City. Munster, Germany: Waxmann, 2001.
  782.  
  783. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  784.  
  785. In a compelling and revealing critical work on Tibetan Buddhism in New York City, Mullen deftly outlines the complex relationships between the wishes and expectations of popular Buddhism and ethnic Tibetans of the tradition while placing it firmly within the larger North American and transnational religio-cultural milieus.
  786.  
  787. Find this resource:
  788.  
  789.  
  790. Scherer, Burkhard. “Interpreting the Diamond Way: Contemporary Convert Buddhism in Transition.” Journal of Global Buddhism 10 (2009).
  791.  
  792. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793.  
  794. This article focuses on non-Tibetan converts to Tibetan Buddhist traditions, based on research conducted on the Diamond Way community founded by a lay Danish Buddhist teacher and explores the process of Westernizing the Tibetan Buddhist tradition.
  795.  
  796. Find this resource:
  797.  
  798.  
  799. Tuttle, Gary. “United Religion and Politics in a Bid for Autonomy: Lamas in Exile in China and America.” In Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization. Edited by Linda Learman, 210–232. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2005.
  800.  
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. Tuttle makes explicit the connection between the spread of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan political concerns and nationalistic objectives, carefully balancing activist lamas’ autonomy within their historical contexts.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807.  
  808. Yong, Amos. “Tibetan Buddhism Going Global? A Case Study of a Contemporary Buddhist Encounter with Science.” Journal of Global Buddhism 9 (2008).
  809.  
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811.  
  812. Adding to a wide array of literature on the encounter between Tibetan Buddhism and Western culture, Yong argues that the encounter between science and Buddhism is a primary example of how Tibetan Buddhism is becoming thoroughly globalized.
  813.  
  814. Find this resource:
  815.  
  816.  
  817. The Japanese Diaspora
  818. Since the Meiji Restoration, a sizable number of Japanese have migrated to the West in search of jobs and opportunities, bringing with them their religions. Moreover, since the end of World War II, a number of “new religious movements” with explicitly missionary aims have further spread Japanese religions and Buddhism across the globe. The below sources reflect these twin concerns and the rising issues of how to define not only “Japanese Buddhism” but “Japaneseness” in a global context. Hirabayashi, et al. 2002 deals with this last issue most directly. Nakamaki 2003 comprises a series of essays on the subject of Japanese culture abroad, capping a lifetime of work. Nakamaki 1994 deals with the specific cases of Buddhism in the United States and Brazil. Nishimura 2008 details some of the earliest Japanese immigration to the United States while Williams 2003 provides an account of some of the consequences of this immigration, specifically during World War II. After studying Japanese American Buddhists for some three decades, Kashima 2008 provides more useful sociological analysis of this demographic.
  819.  
  820. Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James A. Hirabayashi. New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
  821.  
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823.  
  824. As this study focuses primarily on what constitutes a nikkei (a Japanese living abroad), it is not about Buddhism or Buddhists per se. However, this issue of ethnic or national identity outside Japan is an increasingly contested issue of deep relevance for the study of the Japanese Buddhist diaspora.
  825.  
  826. Find this resource:
  827.  
  828.  
  829. Kashima, Tetsuden. “Japanese American Religiosity: A Contemporary Perspective.” In North American Buddhists in Social Context. Edited by Paul David Numrich, 107–143. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
  830.  
  831. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  832.  
  833. In some ways, this article provides a much-needed update to Kashima’s earlier fieldwork. Of particular interest in this later piece, however, is Kashima’s comparison between the religious attitudes and beliefs of Japanese Americans (both in Hawaii and on the mainland) and those of non–Japanese Americans and Japanese living in Japan.
  834.  
  835. Find this resource:
  836.  
  837.  
  838. Nakamaki, Hirochika. “Mutações Contemporâneas de Religiões Japonesas: Principalmente o Bodismo no Brasil e nos Estados Unidos.” Senri Ethnological Reports 1 (1994): 72–80.
  839.  
  840. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  841.  
  842. (Contemporary changes to Japanese religions: Primarily Buddhism in Brazil and the United States). In Portugese, an excellent overview of the changes being made to Japanese Buddhism specifically in the United States and Brazil.
  843.  
  844. Find this resource:
  845.  
  846.  
  847. Nakamaki, Hirochika. Japanese Religions at Home and Abroad: Anthropological Perspectives. London and New York: Routledge, 2003.
  848.  
  849. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  850.  
  851. Based on a lifetime’s worth of research and writing, these essays explore the many-faceted ways that Japanese religious movements have moved into other cultural locations and have thus been transformed by these movements.
  852.  
  853. Find this resource:
  854.  
  855.  
  856. Nishimura, Arthur. “The Buddhist Mission of North America 1898–1942: Religion and Its Social Function in an Ethnic Community.” In North American Buddhists in Social Context. Edited by Paul David Numrich, 87–106. Boston: E. J. Brill, 2008.
  857.  
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859.  
  860. Nishimura provides a balanced account of early Japanese immigrants to North America in the decades leading to World War II along with their establishment of the national Buddhist organizations in both the United States and Canada.
  861.  
  862. Find this resource:
  863.  
  864.  
  865. Williams, Duncan Ryūken. “Complex Loyalties: Issei Buddhist Ministers during the Wartime Incarceration.” Pacific World 3.5 (2003): 255–274.
  866.  
  867. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  868.  
  869. As part of a larger research project on Japanese Americans’ Buddhist experiences during their World War II relocation, Williams here explores how Buddhists practiced the dharma in the camps and negotiated complex loyalties and identities, vacillating between “Japanese” and “American.”
  870.  
  871. Find this resource:
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