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Landscape (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2. This article concentrates primarily on landscape art and the visual depiction of natural scenery. It took a long time before the term “landscape” gained acceptance as the name of a painting genre. It first came into general use during the course of the 17th century, though as early as 1521, Albrecht Dürer had referred to his Antwerp colleague Joachim Patinir as a “gut landschafft mahler” (“good landscape painter”). The term became commonly used by 1604, when Karel von Mander used it in the prequel poem to his Schilder-Boeck (“painter-book”) for young painters, where he dedicated a whole chapter to landscape. The first landscape paintings originate from a time long before panel painting and its generic terminology were established. Among ancient wall paintings, many landscape images have survived. Furthermore, there is at least some literary evidence for the existence of antique panel paintings, for example in the work of Marcus Vitruvius Pollio; in particular the Vitruvian ideal of decorating interiors with “topia,” or evocations of places, which was postulated in his De architectura libri X (Book 7, chapter 5, Parts 1–3) exerted an important influence on early modern art. Examples can be found in the landscape paintings alleged to Studius (or Ludius), mentioned in Gaius Plinius Secundus’ work Naturalis historia (Book 35, chapters 116–117) Apart from chorographia, usually translated as “depictions of specific geographical regions or nations,” the locus amoenus, or “pleasant place” or idyll, was one of the most popular subjects in both secular and sacred contexts. From ancient times landscape images have combined esthetic pleasure with allegorical reference. Landscape paintings were used to depict geographical regions based on explorers’ interest, but could also be instrumentalized to legitimize claims of ownership, which may be the reason why landscape murals retained their unbroken popularity as a decorative element until the early modern period of privileges and power claims, landscape images have ornately decorated the palaces of the mighty from the Middle Ages to modern times. Yet landscape motifs also played an important role in the privileged imagistic media of tapestries and book and calendar illustration. Especially in the field of court art, the whole range of functional and receptional contexts noted from the era of antiquity onward remained alive. Thus, landscape imagery in panel painting remained a form of art in its own right and was in no way limited to merely forming the backgrounds of sacred history paintings.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. Büttner 2006, Andrews 1999, and Crandell 1993 provide comprehensive overviews of the historic development of the pictorial genre. A very good introduction to its theory and methods is offered in DeLue and Elkins 2008. The elementary texts Friedländer 1949 and Clark 1949 deal with questions of historical development, which have taken the works of Pochat 1973 and Eberle 1979 as their point of origin for deeper historical research. Hunt 1992 and Lauterbach 2004 focus on the related subject areas of cultivated landscapes of gardens.
  6.  
  7. Andrews, Malcolm. Landscape and Western Art. Oxford History of Art. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  8.  
  9. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. The volume examines countless ideas and samples of the landscape image repertoire which has developed in Western culture from early modern times onward. Panel painting is taken into account, as well as gardening, poetry, photography, garden design and cartography. The “Bibliographic Essay,” which forms the last chapter, is especially useful.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Büttner, Nils. Landscape Painting: A History. New York: Abbeville, 2006.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. This comprehensive monograph takes into account recent theories while offering a comprehensive overview of two thousand years of landscape painting in Europe from antique times to the beginning of the 20th century, which also marks the end of the era of landscape painting. The bibliography provides an overview on the artists in alphabetical order as well as a chronological registry. For a detailed review, see Michael J. Lewis, “The Ley of the Land,” The New Criterion 26 (2007): 67.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Clark, Kenneth. Landscape into Art. London: John Murray, 1949.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. Concerning his theses on the development of landscape painting, Clark’s book is to be regarded as outdated. Yet his classic and interesting account on how landscapes have been appreciated and represented in artists still provides the necessary terminology for a theoretical discourse on landscape as an esthetic phenomenon.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Crandell, Gina. Nature Pictorialized: The View in Landscape History. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
  35.  
  36. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37.  
  38. In another historical overview from the era of antiquity to the late 19th century, the author examines the impact of literature and landscape art on the general appreciation of the environment. The well-written work offers an extensive bibliography.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. DeLue, Rachael Ziady, and James Elkins, eds. Landscape Theory. Vol. 6, The Art Seminar. New York: Routledge, 2008.
  44.  
  45. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  46.  
  47. An interdisciplinary introduction in the best sense of the word, this work offers an overview on numerous methodological approaches, which are so diverse that it is hardly possible to detect a unified research approach.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Eberle, Matthias. Individuum und Landschaft. zur Entstehung und Entwicklung der Landschaftsmalerei. Giessen, West Germany: Anabas-Verlag, 1979.
  53.  
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  55.  
  56. This dissertation is still widely quoted today and places previous theses and research on the development of landscape painting in the context of materialistic aestheticism. On the threshold between the Middle Ages and the early modern age, Eberle identifies alienation from nature and division of labor as constitutive elements for a new perspective on nature, which he perceives to be essential to the development of landscape art.
  57.  
  58. Find this resource:
  59.  
  60.  
  61. Friedländer, Max J. Landscape, Portrait, Still-Life: Their Origin and Development. Oxford: Cassirer, 1949.
  62.  
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  64.  
  65. In this fundamental work, art history received a new context with the interpretation that landscape as an aesthetic phenomenon has to be seen separately from the geographic point of view on the earth and its surface. Originally published as Essays über die Landschaftsmalerei und andere Bildgattungen (The Hague: A. A. M. Stols, 1947).
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69.  
  70. Hunt, John Dixon, ed. Garden History: Issues, Approaches, Methods. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1992.
  71.  
  72. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  73.  
  74. The editor of this volume is one of the leading experts in landscape architectural theory and the development of garden design. This collection of essays introduces the issues, methods and approaches that have been developed in the field of garden history and landscape design; it remains unmatched in its wide perspective on garden history and theory.
  75.  
  76. Find this resource:
  77.  
  78.  
  79. Lauterbach, Christiane M. Gärten der musen und grazien: Mensch und natur im niederländischen Humanistengarten, 1522–1655. Munich: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 2004.
  80.  
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  82.  
  83. Lauterbach is less concerned with the description of actual gardens than on the Renaissance view of the surrounding natural landscape. The numerous contemporary sources, which illustrate the thought of the time, make the book a particularly relevant touchstone of garden history.
  84.  
  85. Find this resource:
  86.  
  87.  
  88. Pochat, Götz. Figur und Landschaft: Eine historische interpretation der Landschaftsmalerei von der Antike bis zur Renaissance. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1973.
  89.  
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91.  
  92. Due to its impressive amount of source material and quoted literature on the subject, this extensive and intelligent work is a useful reference guide, even though the thesis that landscape painting developed from religious history painting is now seen as outdated.
  93.  
  94. Find this resource:
  95.  
  96.  
  97. Sources and Textbooks
  98. There are several collections of texts and sources on the history of landscape perception and landscape painting which offer a wide range of literary and theoretical backgrounds for research. A selection of the most important sources is provided in Busch 1997. The most significant antique sources are Vitruvius 1931–1934, Pliny the Elder 1952, and Plinius Caecilius Secundus 2006, whose texts have remained effective since the end of the era of antiquity due to their diverse applications. For theoretical discussions since the Renaissance, the works of Alberti 1965, da Vinci 1939, and Lomazzo 1585 are especially important, as well as those of Dürer 1956 and Van Mander 1994–1999 for northern European art.
  99.  
  100. Alberti, Leon Battista. De re aedificatoria. Translated by Giacomo Leoni. London: Alec Tiranti, 1965.
  101.  
  102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103.  
  104. Although Alberti’s widely read tract, translated as “Ten Books on Architecture,” focuses on architectural planning, proportion and the arrangement of columns, various comments on garden design and the decoration of houses with landscape murals and paintings offer an interesting perspective (Books 9, 4).
  105.  
  106. Find this resource:
  107.  
  108.  
  109. Busch, Werner, ed. Geschichte der klassischen bildgattungen in quellentexten und kommentaren. Vol. 3, Landschaftsmalerei. Berlin: Reimer, 1997.
  110.  
  111. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  112.  
  113. This volume compiles a representative selection of important source texts on the history of landscape painting. The book offers the texts in the original language as well as in a German translation with extensive interpretations and comments.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117.  
  118. da Vinci, Leonardo. The Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci. Edited by Jean Paul Richter and Imma Ann Richter. 2 vols. London: Oxford University Press, 1939.
  119.  
  120. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  121.  
  122. In a way previously unknown, the writings of Leonardo combined empirical observation and theoretical thinking. The broad spectrum of topics addressed range from epistemological reflection on science to cognitive psychology.
  123.  
  124. Find this resource:
  125.  
  126.  
  127. Dürer, Albrecht. Schriftlicher nachlass. Vol. 1, Autobiographische schriften. Edited by Hans Rupprich. Berlin: Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft, 1956.
  128.  
  129. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  130.  
  131. Dürer’s diary of his tour through the Netherlands (1521) offers particularly rich source material on theoretical observations concerning art and artists. His mention of Joachim Patinir as a “good landscape painter” (“gut landschafft mahler”) is the first evidence of the modern generic term.
  132.  
  133. Find this resource:
  134.  
  135.  
  136. Lomazzo, Giovanni Paolo. Trattato dell’arte de la pittura, scoltura et architettura. Milan: Pontio, 1585.
  137.  
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139.  
  140. This comprehensive textbook is the first to mention the three “grounds”—foreground, middle ground, and background—which have become canonical in the Western European understanding of art.
  141.  
  142. Find this resource:
  143.  
  144.  
  145. Plinius Caecilius Secundus. Complete Letters. Translated by Patrick G. Walsh. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  146.  
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  148.  
  149. Pliny the Younger was the owner of several villas, one south of Ostia (Book 2, chapter 17), another in the charming landscape of the upper Tiber valley (Book 5, chapter 6, 13). The remarkable collection of letters not only reveals a distinct awareness of beauty in nature, but also offers a vivid insight into the structure and look of an antique villa rustica.
  150.  
  151. Find this resource:
  152.  
  153.  
  154. Pliny the Elder. Naturalis historia. Translated by H. Rackham. The Loeb Classical Library Series. London: Heinemann, 1952.
  155.  
  156. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  157.  
  158. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, encompasses thirty-seven volumes and is an unrivalled compendium of Roman knowledge. In Volume 35, which is dedicated to various soils and stones, the author also examines the use of natural colors. In this context, he mentions the invention of landscape painting (Book 35, chapters 116–117).
  159.  
  160. Find this resource:
  161.  
  162.  
  163. van Mander, Karel. The Lives of the Illustrious Netherlandish and German Painters. Edited by Hessel Miedema. 6 vols. Doornspijk, The Netherlands: Davaco, 1994–1999.
  164.  
  165. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  166.  
  167. Karel van Manders’ “Schilder-Boeck” (originally published in 1604) is the first theoretical work on art that was published north of the Alps. It encompasses a didactic poem for young painters and a collection of famous artists’ lives. The painting of landscapes and early morning sketching of nature are extensively treated.
  168.  
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171.  
  172. Vitruvius Pollio. De architectura. 2 vols. Edited and translated by Frank Granger. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1931–1934.
  173.  
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175.  
  176. As the only contemporary source text from the period on antique art theory and architecture that has been fully preserved, De Architectura (translated as “Vitruvius on Architecture”) has always been of overwhelming importance. The ideals of interior design postulated by Vitruvius were seen as a model in the Renaissance, and included the decoration of living spaces with landscape paintings and murals (Book 7, chapter 5, 1–3).
  177.  
  178. Find this resource:
  179.  
  180.  
  181. Perception and Interpretation
  182. In the early modern period, the term “landscape” first received the aesthetic connotation which dominates the use of the term today. A landscape, either seen as a fragment of nature or depicted in an image, is more than just a peculiar assemblage of natural and man-made features. In the arts and humanities, the concept that any landscape is composed not only of what lies before the viewers’ eyes but also what lies within the viewers’ mind has become common knowledge. A central area of research is dedicated to the question: what intellectual and artistic factors have contributed to the formation of landscapes as a theme? Gombrich 1966 provides a good introduction to this subject. Mitchell 1994 and Thompson 2008 also provide a broad overview. Hard 1982 dedicates itself to the history of the term “landscape.” Kemal and Gaskell 1993 deals with the field of aesthetic perception. See Goodchild 1998, Whyte 2002, and Watson 2006 for landscape within the theoretical notion of the Renaissance.
  183.  
  184. Gombrich, Ernst H. “The Renaissance Theory of Art and the Rise of Landscape.” In Gombrich on the Renaissance. Vol. 1, Norm and Form. By E. H. Gombrich, 107–121. London: Phaidon, 1966.
  185.  
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187.  
  188. In his essay, which still belongs in the basic canon today, Gombrich explains that the genre of landscape in the arts could only be revived due to the rediscovery of the antique genre definitions.
  189.  
  190. Find this resource:
  191.  
  192.  
  193. Goodchild, Karen Hope. “Towards an Italian Renaissance Theory of Landscape.” PhD diss., University of Michigan at Ann Arbor, 1998.
  194.  
  195. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  196.  
  197. This carefully researched dissertation reconstructs the concept of landscape in the Italian Renaissance, taking into account the historic background discourses on art, philosophy and literature.
  198.  
  199. Find this resource:
  200.  
  201.  
  202. Hard, Gerhard. “Landschaft als wissenschaftlicher Begriff und als gestaltete Umwelt des Menschen.” In Biologie für den Menschen: Eine Vortragsreihe in Gelnhausen und Frankfurt am Main. Edited by Günter Altner, 113–146. Frankfurt: W. Kramer, 1982.
  203.  
  204. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  205.  
  206. The cultural geographer Hard dedicates many of his writings to the concept of landscape. His lecture on the history of the term, published subsequent to this article, is of special value, as he examines the meaning of the term “landscape” in various languages of science and highlights the utopian dimension of the term.
  207.  
  208. Find this resource:
  209.  
  210.  
  211. Kemal, Salim, and Ivan Gaskell, eds. Landscape, Natural Beauty and the Arts. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  212.  
  213. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511554605Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  214.  
  215. This volume is dedicated to the broad field of aesthetic perception of nature. The focus of the essays are the aesthetic disputes of modern times, yet besides philosophy, the perspectives of art history, literary criticism and geography are taken into account. The detailed bibliography is especially useful.
  216.  
  217. Find this resource:
  218.  
  219.  
  220. Mitchell, W. J. Thomas. Landscape and Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
  221.  
  222. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  223.  
  224. This elegantly written work has had a special impact on the discussion of the structural determination of landscape, which is widely accepted today. According to Mitchell, landscape is not a genre but a medium, which expresses the dialogue between man and nature in all cultures, although the author takes into account that the genre had a special position in early modern times.
  225.  
  226. Find this resource:
  227.  
  228.  
  229. Thompson, Ian H., ed. Rethinking Landscape: A Critical Reader. London: Routledge, 2008.
  230.  
  231. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  232.  
  233. This carefully selected collection of readings and commentary expertly guides the reader through the aesthetic, social, cultural and environmental foundations of our thinking about landscape, and explores the key writings that shaped the field in its emergence and maturity.
  234.  
  235. Find this resource:
  236.  
  237.  
  238. Watson, Robert N. Back to Nature: The Green and the Real in the Late Renaissance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
  239.  
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. In his well-written study, the author analyzes the connection between early modern religious, scientific, and artistic epistemologies and ecological alienation in works by Shakespeare, Marvell, and Traherne, and in 17th-century Dutch painting.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246.  
  247. Whyte, Ian D. Landscape and History Since 1500. London: Reaktion, 2002.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. This book offers a unique overview that explores the relationship between literary and cultural artifacts and the natural environment. From the perspective of a professor of historical geography, the author provides an interdisciplinary analysis, drawing on material from social, economic and cultural history as well as from geography and landscape history.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255.  
  256. Ideology and Politics
  257. The landscape as ideology is examined in Cosgrove 1984, Bender 1993, Warnke 1995, and Schama 1995. See Bentman and Müller 1992 for the political function of landscapes and gardens.
  258.  
  259. Bender, Barbara. Landscape: Politics and Perspectives. Providence, RI: Berg, 1993.
  260.  
  261. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  262.  
  263. In her well-written account, Bender emphasizes the constant construction and negotiation involved in the creation and maintenance of landscapes and national identities. In this definition landscape is polysemic—not static iconography but rather a process or act of construction and reconstruction, which she illustrates using various examples.
  264.  
  265. Find this resource:
  266.  
  267.  
  268. Bentmann, Reinhard, and Michael Müller. The Villa as Hegemonic Architecture. London: Humanities Press, 1992.
  269.  
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271.  
  272. This book has become a historic source itself, due to its outdated political view on historicist analysis. Yet it remains an interesting and useful read today, as the early modern architecture in upper Italy, villegiatura (vacation landscapes), and contemporary views on nature are addressed in relation to politics and social structures.
  273.  
  274. Find this resource:
  275.  
  276.  
  277. Cosgrove, Denis E. Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape. London: Croom Helm, 1984.
  278.  
  279. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  280.  
  281. Within the European history of ideas, landscape can be defined as an ideological category. In this standard work, landscape is presented as a means of legitimization, which Europeans use to define themselves and their position within the surrounding world. At the same time, the concept is used to comment on social relationships.
  282.  
  283. Find this resource:
  284.  
  285.  
  286. Schama, Simon. Landscape and Memory. New York: Knopf, 1995.
  287.  
  288. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  289.  
  290. In an extensive overview and with many examples, this well-written book examines the political myths connected with the concept of landscape.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294.  
  295. Warnke, Martin. Political Landscape: The Art History of Nature. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
  296.  
  297. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  298.  
  299. In this fundamental work, first published in 1992 in the German edition, the author examines the political claims on landscapes, which can be expressed in various ways, either by a semiotic occupation of real spaces with monuments, streets and utility buildings or by the interrelation of topography and war. The political allegory that can be found in some landscape paintings is part of this complex connection.
  300.  
  301. Find this resource:
  302.  
  303.  
  304. Theology and Philosophy
  305. At the time when the term “landscape” established itself in the metalanguage of art, the term was also first used to describe the result or the contents of a specific form of subjective perception. The unity of a landscape is not determined by the composition of objects and structures within a specific area but is shaped in the process of aesthetic selection and composition within the individual’s perception. Accordingly, the visual reception and the artistic representation of landscapes were open to a wide range of interpretations in theological and philosophical contexts. On the philosophical ideas of landscape, see Ritter 1978. Ribouillault 2011 and Bakker 2012 examine the theological notions. For an exemplary close reading of a number of related questions, see Jones 1988.
  306.  
  307. Bakker, Boudewijn. Landscape and Religion from Van Eyck to Rembrandt. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012.
  308.  
  309. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  310.  
  311. Following Bakker’s interpretation, landscape painting can only be understood in the context of the intellectual and religious climate of the day. In his well-informed study the author links the early Netherlandish as well as 17th-century Dutch painting with religious beliefs and philosophical theories.
  312.  
  313. Find this resource:
  314.  
  315.  
  316. Jones, Pamela M. “Federico Borromeo as a Patron of Landscapes and Still Lifes: Christian Optimism in Italy ca. 1600.” Art Bulletin 70.2 (1988): 261–272.
  317.  
  318. DOI: 10.2307/3051119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319.  
  320. In her fundamental study, Jones illustrates the connection between the ideal value of works of art and the religious contents and implications of landscapes and still lifes in the example of the art collector and patron Federico Borromeo. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  321.  
  322. Find this resource:
  323.  
  324.  
  325. Ritter, Joachim. Landschaft: Zur Funktion des Ästhetischen in der modernen Gesellschaft. Münster, West Germany: Aschendorff, 1978.
  326.  
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. This text is widely quoted and examines the philosophical roots of the term landscape. For the philosopher Joachim Ritter, the origin of the modern concept of landscape lies within the socially specific view on nature which has developed in the face of the increasing alienation of human work from nature.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333.  
  334. Ribouillault, Denis. Le paysage sacré: Le paysage comme exégèse dans l‘Europe de la première modernité. Papers read at a conference held at the Institut National d‘Histoire de l‘Art de la Renaissance in Paris on 29–30 June 2007. Giardini e paesaggio. Florence: Olschki, 2011.
  335.  
  336. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  337.  
  338. This volume is part of the serial publication and compiles the contributions of a conference which covered a wide range of topics. By examining a variety of media—from literature to gardens, from painting to microarchitecture—it suggests that landscape in this period could be used to express a wide range of meanings.
  339.  
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342.  
  343. Literature
  344. Just as in the visual arts, the concept of landscape is also examined broadly in the field of literature. From antiquity to early modern times, two contrasting topoi shape the representation of landscapes: On the one hand, Nature is seen as a beautiful, enchanted place (locus amoenus) or as a horrid, hostile place (locus terribilis). These topoi are not based on empirical descriptions but are symbolic blueprints with specific stock features (topotheses). The examination of literary discourses below spans medieval allegories (Piehler 1971), Petrarch (Billanovich 1966), the Gothic age (Adler 1995) through the general consideration of literary reception of landscapes (Barnes 1992). See Mackenzie 2011 for a close reading into the discourses of the French Renaissance.
  345.  
  346. Adler, Jeremy. “Time, Self, Divinity: The Landscape of Ideas from Petrarch to Goethe.” In Landschaft und Landschaften im achtzehnten Jahrhundert: Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für die Erforschung des 18. Jahrhunderts, Hertzog-August-Bibliothek Wolfenbüttel, 20–23 November 1991. Edited by Heinke Wunderlich, 25–36. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Literatur und Kunst des 18. Jahrhunderts. Heidelberg, Germany: C. Winter, 1995.
  347.  
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  349.  
  350. Adler examines the representation of landscape in literature, showing that it occurs in relation to a few key ideas, including features of the idyll, of the pastoral, and of the georgic; moreover, it encompasses topoi, such as the often cited locus amoenus.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
  353.  
  354.  
  355. Barnes, Trevor, and James S. Duncan, eds. Writing Worlds: Discourse, Text and Metaphor in the Representation of Landscape. London: Routledge, 1992.
  356.  
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358.  
  359. Twelve diverse chapters, ten of which are original publications, all rooted in social theory, explain the role of maps, images and written words in representing and constructing landscapes. Supplemented by a useful introduction and afterword.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Billanovich, Giuseppe. “Petrarca e il Ventoso.” Italia medioevale e umanistica 9 (1966): 389–401.
  365.  
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367.  
  368. For a long period, Petrarch’s account of his ascent of Mont Ventoux on 26 April 1335 was seen as the beginning of a new, modern view on nature. Billanovich was able to refute this thesis by showing that the letter is essentially a work of fiction written almost fifteen years after its supposed date.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372.  
  373. Mackenzie, Louisa. The Poetry of Place: Lyric, Landscape, and Ideology in Renaissance France. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011.
  374.  
  375. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  376.  
  377. This well written and well-structured study is exemplary for its discussion of the cross-medial discourse between poetry, cartography and pictorial arts in the early modern period.
  378.  
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381.  
  382. Piehler, Paul. The Visionary Landscape: A Study in Medieval Allegory. London: Edward Arnold, 1971.
  383.  
  384. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  385.  
  386. In this study, which also compiles valuable source material, the author examines the artistic device of allegorical landscape description in the literature of the Middle Ages and the early modern age, in which a specific surrounding was used to describe the merits and vices of the characters acting in it.
  387.  
  388. Find this resource:
  389.  
  390.  
  391. The Scientific View
  392. By the 16th century, landscape painting had become a mass phenomenon and an autonomous form of panel painting. The boom of landscape in the arts was accompanied by a rising interest in cosmography and the geographic description of the world, which reached an early peak in 1570, when the first atlas was published by Abraham Ortelius. One of the pioneers of landscape panel painting was Pieter Bruegel, whose works were widely circulated thanks to new developments in printing technique. Thus his works became a touchstone for his contemporaries when it came to the conception and development of the art of landscape painting. For the history of the academic, scholarly, and scientific analysis of landscapes, see Woodward 1987. For information about art and cartography, see Alpers 1983, Büttner 2000, and Michalsky 2011.
  393.  
  394. Alpers, Svetlana. The Art of Describing: Dutch Art in the Seventeenth Century. London: John Murray, 1983.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. In her controversial account, Alpers sets up a fundamental distinction between Italian narrative painting and a Northern practice of a describing art. The inspiring chapter on landscape painting, mapmaking and optical science has led to much debate and rethinking among historians of art.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Büttner, Nils. Die Erfindung der Landschaft: Kosmographie und Landschaftskunst im Zeitalter Bruegels. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000.
  404.  
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. The author shows the numerous connections between art and science in early modern times, and the interdependency of painted landscapes and other media, such as maps, illuminated manuscripts and tapestries.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Michalsky, Tanja. Projektion und Imagination: Die niederländische Landschaft der Frühen Neuzeit im Diskurs von Geographie und Malerei. Paderborn, Germany: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 2011.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. Michalsky places early modern epistemes of landscape reception within a finely spun web of interrelations of arts and sciences, which she illustrates with selected pictures and texts from the period. Not only does she focus on the interdependency of painting and geography, but she also examines their specific contributions to the formation of a collective perception.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. Woodward, David. Art and Cartography: Six Historical Essays. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. Based on the 1980 Kenneth Nebenzahl Jr. lectures in the history of cartography given at the Newberry Library, these six lectures remain an indispensable introduction to the history of cartography and the geographic acquisition of territory and landscape.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429.  
  430. Arts in Northern Europe
  431. Especially in early Flemish painting after 1430, the representation of landscape was given more room within the context of religious history panels. The works of Van Eyck are an example of this increasing focus on naturalism and precise rendering of details. However, in spite of all their detail, they were not aimed at a faithful representation of a specific segment of nature. They are examples of the contemporary convention and its range of stock features, which was aimed at a reception attitude different from modern aesthetic expectations. Thus symbolic abstraction was seen as an adequate means for generating especially accurate images, which can still be seen in the illustrations of Schedels’ Liber cronicarum (“World Chronicle,” 1493), where the same illustration could be used to represent landscapes as starkly different as Hesse and Wallachia. At the same time, the interest in representations of the environment and its characteristic features and places was gradually increasing, which can be seen in Albrecht Durer’s landscape watercolors. Those chorographic renderings of landscapes were especially significant for the development of representational modes which took into account an individual and singular perception of visible nature. The development of graphic prints in the northern Alps was an important factor for the wide circulation of distinctive motifs that played a significant role in the popularization of this particular field of art. For a good summary of the development in landscape art of Holland, see Falkenburg 1998 and the exhibition catalog Benesz 2003. For stylistic development, see Stechow 1966 and Franz 1969. For the beginning of the genre of landscapes in Holland, see Gibson 1989. For the so-called Golden age of Dutch art, see Sutton 1987 as well as the singular studies of Freedberg 1980, Gibson 2000, and Bartilla 2005.
  432.  
  433. Bartilla, Stefan. Die Wildnis: Visuelle Neugier in der Landschaftsmalerei: eine ikonologische Untersuchung der niederländischen Berg- und Waldlandschaften und ihres Naturbegriffs um 1600. Freiburger Dissertationsreihe 6. Freiburg, Germany: Rombach, 2005.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. In his broad-range study, the author links his reflections on the history of ideas to an extensive examination of the motifs in landscape paintings around the year 1600. The result is a reference work that can almost be called an encyclopedia, offering extensive information on the main aspects of European landscape painting in the early modern period.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Benesz, Hanna, ed. Die flämische Landschaft, 1520–1700: Eine Ausstellung der Kulturstiftung Ruhr Essen und des Kunsthistorischen Museums Wien: Kulturstiftung Ruhr Essen, Villa Hügel, 23. August–30. November 2003. Lingen, Germany: Luca-Verlag, 2003.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. This sumptuous catalog of an exhibition held in Essen and Vienna gives a broad and well-grounded overview on Flemish landscape painting of the early modern period.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Falkenburg, Reindert, ed. Natuur en landschap in de Nederlandse kunst, 1500–1850. Part 48 of Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek. Zwolle, The Netherlands: Waanders, 1998.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. Drawing upon contributions from a wide range of experts in Dutch and Flemish landscape art, this work includes bibliographical references as well as contributions in English and Dutch.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Franz, Heinrich Gerhard. Niederländische Landschaftsmalerei im Zeitalter des Manierismus. 2 vols. Graz, Austria: Akademische Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, 1969.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. This book offers rich source material on Flemish late mannerist art and its impact on the genre history of landscape painting.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Freedberg, David. Dutch Landscape Prints of the Seventeenth Century. British Museum, Prints and Drawings Series. London: British Museum, 1980.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Well-written, comprehensive introduction to the influential Dutch landscape prints of the 17th century.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477.  
  478. Gibson, Walter S. Mirror of the Earth: The World Landscape in Sixteenth-Century Flemish Painting. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.
  479.  
  480. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  481.  
  482. This beautifully illustrated and well-written volume offers a detailed study of the 16th-century transformations of the panoramic “world landscapes” invented by Joachim Patinir and is focused on the impact of cartography on Flemish art.
  483.  
  484. Find this resource:
  485.  
  486.  
  487. Gibson, Walter S. Pleasant Places: The Rustic Landscape from Bruegel to Ruisdael. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000.
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. This richly illustrated survey is dedicated to the “rustic landscape” from the late 1550s through the 1670s in the Netherlands.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495.  
  496. Stechow, Wolfgang. Dutch Landscape Painting of the Seventeenth Century. London: Phaidon, 1966.
  497.  
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499.  
  500. This work has long since become a classic on its subject and offers a wide range of context, sorted by themes and motifs of the paintings.
  501.  
  502. Find this resource:
  503.  
  504.  
  505. Sutton, Peter C., ed. Masters of Seventeenth Century Dutch Landscape Painting. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1987.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. Catalog of the exhibition held at Amsterdam, Boston and Philadelphia. Elegantly written and superbly illustrated account of Dutch landscape painting of the “Golden Age.” The artists’ biographies and bibliographies to all exhibits provide valuable material for further research.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513.  
  514. Arts in Italy
  515. For the beginnings of Italian landscape art see Pächt 1950. For the further development see Salerno 1977–1980 and Trezzani and Cavina 2004. In early-16th-century northern Italy, Giorgione, Titian, Dosso Dossi, and many others created idyllic pastoral scenes with human figures as part of the surrounding landscapes. These figures were perceived and valued as an important part of the image. For this phenomenon, see Cafritz, et al. 1988 and Lagerlöf 1990.
  516.  
  517. Cafritz, Robert C., Lawrence Gowing, and David Rosand, eds. Places of Delight: The Pastoral Landscape. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988.
  518.  
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520.  
  521. This catalog of an exhibition held in Washington, DC, has long since become a standard work on the locus amoenus and the rural idyll in 16th-century Italian painting, relating these pictorial genres to the literary and philosophical revivals of the pastoral themes of the time.
  522.  
  523. Find this resource:
  524.  
  525.  
  526. Lagerlöf, Margaretha Rossholm. Ideal Landscape: Annibale Carracci, Nicolas Poussin and Claude Lorrain. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. The locus amoenus, the ideal landscape, is one of the traditional topoi in landscape painting. In her groundbreaking study, Lagerlöf characterizes this traditional notion by using the paintings of Carracci, Poussin, and Claude as paradigms. This book is not merely a chronicle of classic landscape painting, but aims at an interpretation within contemporary sociocultural history.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Pächt, Otto. “Early Italian Nature Studies and the Early Calendar Landscape.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 13.1/2 (1950): 13–47.
  536.  
  537. DOI: 10.2307/750141Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. An older but still useful article devoted to the roots of mimesis in landscape art. Pächt shows in detail how early landscape images drew on pharmacological calendar illustrations to enrich their work with plant imagery. Available online for purchase or by subscription. Also available as an offprint from Amazon Books (Courtauld Institute of Art, 1950).
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Salerno, Luigi. Pittori di paesaggio del Seicento a Roma. 3 vols. Rome: Bozzi, 1977–1980.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. An extensive compendium of information about the landscape painters of 17th-century Rome.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. Trezzani, Ludovica, and Anna Cavina, eds. La pittura di paesaggio in Italia: Il Seicento. Milan: Electa, 2004.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. This richly illustrated volume creates a vivid impression of style and tendencies in Italian landscape painting of the 17th century.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Art Market and Collectors
  563. The increasing production in panel paintings catered to the demand of an expanding collectors’ market, within which landscape painting became a popular genre in the late 15th century. The image compositions of the German Albrecht Altdorfer, which were influenced by inspirational aesthetics, are just as significant as the very sparsely decorated landscape paintings of Joachim Patinir and his successors. Generally, not only the Italians saw landscape painting as a Flemish peculiarity that was also despised by practitioners of art theory. During the 16th century, the city of Antwerp was the center of an export market for landscape paintings, which was supplied by a growing number of painters who specialized in this segment, as is shown in Vermeylen 2003 and Silver 2006. For the evolution of the market and for the depictions of landscapes in the Dutch Republic, see Chong 1987 and North 1997.
  564.  
  565. Chong, Alan. “The Market for Landscape Painting in 17th Century Holland.” In Masters of Seventeenth Century Dutch Landscape Painting. Edited by Peter C. Sutton, 104–120. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1987.
  566.  
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. Chong’s groundbreaking study, which is still relevant today, was the first to suggest that more than one-third of all Flemish art of the early 17th century belonged to the landscape genre and that the sales prices were sometimes as low as one or two guilders.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573.  
  574. North, Michael. Art and Commerce in the Dutch Golden Age: A Social History of Seventeenth-Century Netherlandish Painting. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. This extensive study examines the art market in the Netherlands in the “Golden Age” and illustrates the impact of landscape art at the time.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: The Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Market. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
  584.  
  585. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  586.  
  587. Silver presents a useful and well-organized survey of the vast material on the rise of pictorial genres, while giving us a great deal of up-to-date information. Two chapters deal with the development of landscape painting.
  588.  
  589. Find this resource:
  590.  
  591.  
  592. Vermeylen, Filip. Painting for the Market: Commercialization of Art in Antwerp’s Golden Age. Studies in European Urban History (1100–1800) 2. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2003.
  593.  
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. Research into the Antwerp art market has revealed how much the trade in paintings and graphic works was connected to themes and motifs. Flemish landscape paintings in particular were highly desirable on the international market.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600.  
  601. Artists
  602. Numerous artists are mainly famous for their landscape paintings. The monographic literature on their works, which also takes into account the historical and intellectual context of the time, forms a good introduction to the whole range of questions and topics concerning landscape. Since the landscape has become a specific subject matter of picture compositions, many artists have engaged themselves with this theme. A selection of relevant monographs is as follows: For Albrecht Altdorfer, see Wagner and Jehle 2012; for Joachim Patinir, see Vergara, et al. 2007; for Pieter Bruegel, see Silver 2011; for Giorgione, see Ferino-Pagden and Scirè 2004; for Titian, see Lucco and Palazzo Reale di Milano 2012; for Claude Lorrain, see Sonnabend and Whiteley 2011 and the exhibition catalog Claude Lorrain: The Enchanted Landscape; for Rembrandt, see Vogelaar 2006; and for Ruisdael, see Slive 2005.
  603.  
  604. Lucco, Mauro, and Palazzo Reale di Milano, eds. Tiziano e la nascita del paesaggio moderno. Florence: Giunti, 2012.
  605.  
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607.  
  608. This Milan exhibition catalog is dedicated to Titian’s interest in the campagna. The valuable essay by curator Mauro Lucco highlights changing perceptions of the countryside in 15th- and 16th-century Venice.
  609.  
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612.  
  613. Ferino-Pagden, Sylvia, and Giovanna Nepi Scirè, eds. Giorgione: Myth and Enigma: Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna, Vienna, 23 March to 11 July 2004. New York: Rizzoli, 2004.
  614.  
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. Giorgione’s work has given rise to various controversial interpretations. Yet his position in the history of landscape painting remains irrefutable, as it is particularly his landscape art that invites various new approaches and interpretations. The intriguing catalog is dedicated to Giorgione’s landscapes.
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621.  
  622. Silver, Larry. Pieter Bruegel. New York: Abbeville, 2011.
  623.  
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. This well-written introduction to the life and work of Pieter Bruegel offers new insights into the work of the landscape painter who was the first to recreate an accurate atmosphere of light and weather within the medium of panel painting.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630.  
  631. Slive, Seymour, ed. Jacob van Ruisdael: Master of Landscape. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
  632.  
  633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. This exhibition was curated by the leading expert on Ruisdael and offers an excellent introduction into the life and work of the best-known landscape painter in the 17th century.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Sonnabend, Martin, and Jon Whiteley, eds. Claude Lorrain: The Enchanted Landscape. Oxford: Ashmolean Museum, 2011.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. This catalog of a recent exhibition offers new insights, perspective and research literature on the significance of the landscape painter Lorrain.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Vergara, Alejandro, ed. Patinir: Essays and Critical Catalogue. Madrid: Museo Nacional del Prado, 2007.
  650.  
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. Catalogue published to coincide with the exhibition “Joachim Patinir and the Invention of Landscape,” held at the Museo Nacional Del Prado from 3 July to 7 October 2007. It is a comprehensive treatment and interpretation of the work of Joachim Patinir within the context of his time. Patinir was praised for his landscape paintings by his contemporary and fellow artist Dürer.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657.  
  658. Vogelaar, Christiaan, ed. Rembrandt’s Landscapes. Zwolle, The Netherlands: Waanders, 2006.
  659.  
  660. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661.  
  662. In contrast to many of his contemporaries, Rembrandt’s oeuvre was not limited to landscape painting; it actually includes few landscape paintings, but those are among the most remarkable image inventions of his time. The catalog offers insight into Rembrandt’s work and its theoretical background.
  663.  
  664. Find this resource:
  665.  
  666.  
  667. Wagner, Christoph, and Oliver Jehle, eds. Albrecht Altdorfer: Kunst als zweite Natur. Regensburg, Germany: Schnell & Steiner, 2012.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. The contributions to this volume are dedicated to Altdorfer’s treatment of religious and profane art and the central meaning of landscape in his work.
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
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