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Sarekat Islam (Islamic Studies)

jonstond2
Feb 6th, 2017
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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union, or SI) was the largest pre-independence Muslim political organization in the Dutch East Indies and the colony’s first mass nationalist movement. It started in 1911 as a small anti-Chinese commercial organization called Sarekat Dagang Islam (Islamic Commercial Union), which was dominated by merchants in the batik industry. By the end of World War I, it had expanded greatly and changed its name to Sarekat Islam. By the early 1920s, total membership was variously reported to be between 350,000 and 800,000 (SI itself claimed two million members). In 1921 it became the Partai Sarekat Islam, symbolizing the organization’s more political agenda. The leadership favored social, economic, and political reform and was influenced by Modernist Islam, which had entered the Indies at the turn of the century. The membership was more attuned to traditional mysticism, local grievances, Islam, and, later, social justice and economic inequalities. Sarekat Islam was loosely organized and its branches had considerable autonomy. This organizational weakness and the adoption of more radical policies allowed the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) to infiltrate local branches and fostered dissension and fragmentation. Disputes within Sarekat Islam and government pressure eroded its base by the mid-1920s, and by the 1930s there were less than 50,000 members. The party lasted into the independence era, but its power and influence were already severely diminished and in the 1955 general elections its successor, the PSII (Party Sarekat Islam Indonesia), gained less than 3 percent of the popular vote. The coming of the military-dominated “New Order” led it to a forced amalgamation with other religious parties in 1973, creating the Partai Persatuan Pembangunan Indonesia (PPP, or United Development Party).
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  5. Political and Social Context
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  7. It is important to recognize the environment that framed the development of Sarekat Islam, including attitudes towards local Chinese, social and economic inequalities, and new religious ideas. Blumberger 1931 and Furnivall 1939 are considered classics in detailing political, social, and economic conditions in the colony.
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  9. Blumberger, John Theodor Petrus. De Nationalistische Beweging in Nederlandsch Indie. Haarlem, The Netherlands: Willink and Zoon, 1931.
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  11. Written by a former colonial administrator, this description of the first decades of the nationalist movement in the colony (title translates as “The nationalist movement in The Netherlands Indies”) has been widely cited in scholarly books and articles. It includes a major contribution to our understanding of Sarekat Islam.
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  13. Chandra, Siddarth. “Race, Inequality, and Anti-Chinese Violence in The Netherlands Indies.” Explorations in Economic History 39, no. 1 (2002): 88–112.
  14. DOI: 10.1006/exeh.2001.0777Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. An exploration of wage differentials in the Indies from 1908 to 1917, including an analysis of how inequalities related to the rise of Sarekat Islam. Available online from Scientific Commons and other providers.
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  17. Furnivall, J. S. Netherlands India: A Study of a Plural Economy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1939.
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  19. While this book does not address Sarekat Islam, it is a very good encyclopedic source for social and economic information of the Indies in the interwar period.
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  21. Noer, Deliar. The Modernist Muslim Movement in Indonesia, 1900–1942. Singapore: Oxford Univ. Press, 1973.
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  23. Provides an in-depth understanding of the place of Modernism in Indonesia in the first half of the twentieth century and a good analysis of the rise and decline of Sarekat Islam.
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  25. Ricklefs, M. C. Polarizing Javanese Society: Islamic and Other Visions (c. 1830–1930). Honolulu: Univ. of Hawaii Press. 2007.
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  27. An excellent analysis of different religious visions in Java over a century, including a discussion on the role of Sarekat Islam in this environment.
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  29. van Dijk, Kees. The Netherlands Indies and the Great War 1914–1918. Leiden, The Netherlands: KITLV Press, 2007.
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  31. Offers a detailed analysis of the economic and social conditions in the colony during the years when Sarekat Islam was expanding into a mass movement.
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  33. History, Policies, and Structure of Sarekat Islam
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  35. Without question, the best sources for analyzing the history and activities of Sarekat Islam are the contributions made by Dutch scholars, newspapers, and colonial administration reports over the years. In addition, journals such as De Indische Gids (1879–1941) and Koloniale Studien (1916–1941) provided abstracts from the Indonesian press during the period of the rise of Sarekat Islam. The better English-language sources from this time relied heavily upon this Dutch work. Korver 1982, in Dutch, is the most complete recent study of Sarekat Islam.
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  37. Amelz. H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, Hidup dan Perjuangannja. Jakarta, Indonesia: Bulan Bintang, 1952.
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  39. This is a short two-volume collection on the most important leader of Sarekat Islam, Omar (or Umar) Said Tjokroaminoto (or Cokroaminoto). The work (which translates as “H.O.S. Tjokroaminoto, his life and struggles”) includes tributes by a range of political figures who called Tjokroaminoto their political godfather.
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  41. Blumberger, John Theodor Petrus. De Communistische Beweging in Nederlandsch-Indie. Haarlem, The Netherlands: Willink and Zoon, 1928.
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  43. A good history of the early Communist Party in the Indies, with a discussion of the role of the Comintern and its relations with Sarekat Islam. This is the most comprehensive study of Sarekat Islam published during the colonial period.
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  45. De Indische Gids.
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  47. From 1879 to 1941, the journal De Indische Gids (The Indies Guide), Amsterdam: J.H. deBussy. This journal provided surveys of events and articles from East Indies Dutch and Indonesian newspapers of the time. Although usually only one or two pages, these summaries offer considerable information on events of the time. Available in various university libraries.
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  49. Koloniale Studien.
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  51. From 1916 to 1941, in the “Pers Overzicht” (Press Overview). Weltevreden: Vereeniging voor studie van Koloniaal-maatschappelijk Vraagstukken.Section of this journal provided surveys of events and articles from East Indies Dutch and Indonesian newspapers of the time. Available in various university libraries.
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  53. Korver, A.P.E. Sarekat Islam, 1912-1916: opkomst, bloei en struktur van Indonesie’s eerste massabeweging. Amsterdamsche historische reek 3. Amsterdam: Historisch Seminarium, van de Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1982.
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  55. The most recent extended analysis of the formative years of Sarekat Islam, providing a detailed and integrated assessment that goes beyond much previous scholarship. (Title translates as “Islamic Union, 1912–1916: emergence, blooming, and structure of Indonesia’s first mass movement.”)
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  57. Tjokroaminoto, Umar Said. Islam dan Socialisme. 4th ed. Jakarta, Indonesia: Bulan Bintang, 1950.
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  59. Provides views on the interrelationship between Islam and socialism, which was a central part of Tjokroaminoto’s platform as president of Sarekat Islam.
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  61. Van Niel, Robert. The Emergence of the Modern Indonesian Elite. The Hague, The Netherlands: W. van Hoeve. 1960.
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  63. A well-done analysis of cultural and political changes in The Netherlands East Indies from 1900 to 1917. Chapter II provides an in-depth exploration of the role of Sarekat Islamincluding interviews with elder statesmen of the movement.
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  65. Vlekke, Bernard H.M. Nusantara: A History of the East Indian Archipelago. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1944.
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  67. A well-respected history of the Indies that has a section on Sarekat Islam and the conditions of the period.
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  69. von der Mehden, Fred R. Religion and Nationalism in Southeast Asia. Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1963.
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  71. Includes chapters dealing with the history of Sarekat Islam, its leadership, and its confrontation with Marxism.
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  73. Official Colonial Administrative Reports
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  75. There are a profusion of government reports on Sarekat Islam activities, including those on the organization’s annual meetings, debates in the colonial legislature (the Volksraad), and annual reports on political activities in the Indies. These were part of an effort by authorities to obtain intelligence on what was perceived as a serious political issue and danger to colonial authority. In a number of cases, these reports were marked “secret” or “restricted” and only became available to the general public much later. Good examples of government observations can be seen in Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia 1975 (Sarekat Islam Lokal).
  76.  
  77. Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia. Sarekat Islam Lokal. Jakarta, Indonesia: Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia, 1975.
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  79. This book (Local Islamic Unions) has short abstracts in English and Indonesian, but the bulk of its contents are colonial documents and reports in Dutch. It is primarily a resource book.
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  81. Dutch East Indies Government. “Official Report of the Dutch Government on the Communist Revolt in November, 1926.” Annuiare Documente Compare Coloniale. Brussels: General Printing Office, 1928.
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  83. Provides the official account of the communist-led uprising.
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  85. Sarekat Islam: Overzicht van de kwestie der Centraal Sarekat-Islam in het jaar 1921 Indonesia: Landsdrukkerij, 1922.
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  87. A once secret report (Overview of the question of Central Sarekat-Islam in the year 1921) on the activities of Sarekat Islam at a significant year of its history, when it faced the newly formed PKI.
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  89. Sarekat Islam and Marxism
  90.  
  91. The infiltration of Marxism into Sarekat Islam led to the fragmentation and weakening of the party. There were also repercussions in China, where the Comintern representative, Henk Sneevliet Archive, advised the Chinese Communist Party to cooperate with the Kuomintang, based upon his experience in the seemingly successful Marxist infiltration of a nationalist party in the Indies. Benda and McVey 1960 and McVey 1965 are the most complete sources for this topic.
  92.  
  93. Benda, Harry, and Ruth McVey, eds. Communist Uprisings of 1926-1927 in Indonesia: Key Documents. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Southeast Asia Program, 1960.
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  95. A selection of documents on communist uprisings, including material on Sarekat Islam and the role of Islam. A new edition was published in 2005 by Equinox Publishing (Jakarta) but is now out of print.
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  97. Henk Sneevliet Archive. International Institute of Social History, Amsterdam.
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  99. Covers Sneevliet’s years as a leader in the Marxist movement in the Netherland Indies when Sarekat Islam was expanding. See also IISH website.
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  101. McVey, Ruth. The Rise of Indonesian Communism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1965.
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  103. A frequently cited volume that concentrates on the activities of the Indonesian Communist Party from the initial organization of Marxists in 1914 to its temporary demise after the 1926–1927 uprisings. The author’s analysis gives consideration to the relationship between communism and Islam. Reprinted by Equinox Press (Jakarta) in 2006.
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  105. von der Mehden, Fred R. “Marxism and Early Indonesian Nationalism.” Political Science Quarterly 73, no. 3 (1958): 335–351.
  106. DOI: 10.2307/2145843Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. An analysis of the interaction between Marxists—particularly the PKI (Partai Communist Indonesia, or Indonesian Communist Party)—and Sarekat Islam. Also explores Marxist influences within the leadership of Sarekat Islam.
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