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  1. ntroduction
  2.  
  3. Over the course of 2011, the authoritarian order of the Middle East was shaken by waves of protest that swept across the region. Often referred to as the Arab Spring, millions of people took to the streets and public squares to protest economic stagnation and official abuse, nepotism, and extortion. Across national boundaries, and fueled by social media, Arabs united under the rallying cries of dignity, peace, bread, and social justice. By year’s end, however, it was clear that the revolutionary moments in each country confronted their own complex balancing of various interests, as well as stiff resistance from counterrevolutionary forces. Dictators in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen had fallen, but the transitions to a new constitutional order still had a very long way to go. Bahrain forcibly quelled popular protests, while most of the rich Gulf monarchies sought to buy time, showering their populations with subsidies and clamping down on any sign of dissent. In Syria, the regime’s desperate and violent attempt to cling to power pushed the country into a protracted civil war.
  4.  
  5. Initial Reflections
  6.  
  7. Although the peaceful uprisings were overtaken by regional violence, it is important to recall the exhilaration captured by the immediate reflections on the dramatic events, when each day suggested new scenarios and trajectories. Dabashi 2012 and Bamyeh 2012 express optimism while also acknowledging the events as open-ended works in progress. Gause 2011 reflects on why academic specialists were caught by surprise, Khouri 2011 weighs the terminology used to describe the events, and Goldstone 2011 and Bayat 2013 draw comparisons with other revolutionary moments.
  8.  
  9. Bamyeh, Mohammed. “The Tunisian Revolution: Initial Reflections.” In The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an Old Order? Edited by Bassam Haddad, Rosie Bsheer, and Ziad Abu-Rish, 49–58. London: Pluto, 2012.
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  11. An engaged assessment both of the grievances felt by the citizens of Arab countries and of the emotional energy that was engulfing the region.
  12. Bamyeh, Mohammed. “The Tunisian Revolution: Initial Reflections.” In The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an Old Order? Edited by Bassam Haddad, Rosie Bsheer, and Ziad Abu-Rish, 49–58. London: Pluto, 2012.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. Bayat, Asef. “The Arab Spring and Its Surprises.” Development and Change 44.3 (2013): 587–601.
  15. DOI: 10.1111/dech.12030Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  16. Considers the Arab Spring distinct from other revolutionary moments because of its preoccupation with reform; coins the term “refo-lutions.”
  17. Bayat, Asef. “The Arab Spring and Its Surprises.” Development and Change 44.3 (2013): 587–601.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Béchir Ayari, Michaël, and Vincent Geisser. Renaissances arabes: 7 questions clés sur des révolutions en marche. Paris: Éditions de l’Atelier, 2011.
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  21. A collection of essays responding to what the authors identified at the time to be the seven key questions that needed to be addressed in order to understand the unfolding protests.
  22. Béchir Ayari, Michaël, and Vincent Geisser. Renaissances arabes: 7 questions clés sur des révolutions en marche. Paris: Éditions de l’Atelier, 2011.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Dabashi, Hamid. The Arab Spring: The End of Postcolonialism. New York: Zed Books, 2012.
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  26. Reflects the euphoria of the revolutionary moment, with its focus on the visible crafting of new identities and the evident dissolution of old divisions.
  27. Dabashi, Hamid. The Arab Spring: The End of Postcolonialism. New York: Zed Books, 2012.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Gause, F. Gregory, III. “Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of Authoritarian Stability.” Foreign Affairs 90.4 (2011): 81–90.
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  31. A political scientist reexamines the assumptions on which many studies of Arab politics have been based.
  32. Gause, F. Gregory, III. “Why Middle East Studies Missed the Arab Spring: The Myth of Authoritarian Stability.” Foreign Affairs 90.4 (2011): 81–90.
  33. Find this resource:
  34. Goldstone, Jack A. “Understanding the Revolutions of 2011: Weakness and Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies.” Foreign Affairs 90.3 (2011): 8–16.
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  36. A specialist in the history of revolutionary movements places the Arab uprisings in a comparative perspective.
  37. Goldstone, Jack A. “Understanding the Revolutions of 2011: Weakness and Resilience in Middle Eastern Autocracies.” Foreign Affairs 90.3 (2011): 8–16.
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  39. Khouri, Rami G. “Drop the Orientalist Term ‘Arab Spring’.” Daily Star, 17 August 2011.
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  41. Argues against adopting the metaphors inherent in the term “spring,” noting that the demonstrators themselves refer to “revolutions” (or thawra, in Arabic).
  42. Khouri, Rami G. “Drop the Orientalist Term ‘Arab Spring’.” Daily Star, 17 August 2011.
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  44. General Overviews
  45.  
  46. The growing literature on the Arab Spring reveals a wide range of analysis, much of which necessarily focuses on specific factors in individual countries. Comprehensive overviews of the Arab Spring offer opportunities to draw connections and engage in comparative analysis, and thus can be a useful place to start.
  47.  
  48. Newspapers and Online Forums
  49.  
  50. Throughout the Arab Spring, the Internet has been the first port of call for most observers: the websites of newspapers such as The Guardian and The Economist deliver well-informed reports from the field as well as helpful interactive media; Middle East Research and Information Project provides independent analysis of key developments; organizations such as International Crisis Group (Middle East & North Africa) and the Carnegie Middle East Center, based in Beirut, Lebanon, provide insightful analyses by top researchers in the field; and openDemocracy, Bidayat Magazine, Jadaliyya, and Al Jazeera provide articles in Arabic as well as English.
  51.  
  52. Al Jazeera.
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  54. One of the largest global news organizations, Al Jazeera coverage of the Arab Spring both propelled and reported on the waves of protests.
  55. Al Jazeera.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Bidayat Magazine: Beginnings for All Seasons of Change.
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  59. Inspired by the outbreak of the Arab Spring, this multidisciplinary quarterly in Arabic focuses on giving voice to the Left and the youth.
  60. Bidayat Magazine: Beginnings for All Seasons of Change.
  61. Find this resource:
  62. Carnegie Middle East Center.
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  64. See especially Yezid Sayigh’s research on the political role of Arab armies, and their transformations during the periods of transition.
  65. Carnegie Middle East Center.
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  67. The Economist.
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  69. Weekly updates, with helpful interactive, multimedia graphics, maps, and indexes. See, for example, “Unrest in the Arab World: The Shoe-Thrower’s Index.”
  70. The Economist.
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  72. The Guardian.
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  74. Daily reporting, with excellent interactive data visualization. See, for example, “Arab Spring: An Interactive Timeline” and “Friends and Enemies in the Middle East: Who Is Connected to Whom?.”
  75. The Guardian.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Jadaliyya.
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  79. Established shortly before the Arab uprisings began, Jadaliyya quickly established itself as an important resource. Most of the contributors either live in the Arab world or travel there regularly.
  80. Jadaliyya.
  81. Find this resource:
  82. Middle East & North Africa. International Crisis Group.
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  84. Timely reports and policy prescriptions written by well-informed analysts operating in the field.
  85. Middle East & North Africa. International Crisis Group.
  86. Find this resource:
  87. Middle East Research and Information Project.
  88. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  89. One of the most valuable websites for those who teach the Middle East. Publishes the journal Middle East Report.
  90. Middle East Research and Information Project.
  91. Find this resource:
  92. openDemocracy.
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  94. An open and free website and e-zine stimulating debate on international politics. Prominent contributors include Mohammed Ayoob, Dawn Chatty, Volker Perthes, and Sami Zubaida. Includes the web page Arab Awakening.
  95. openDemocracy.
  96. Find this resource:
  97. Books
  98.  
  99. In the ever-expanding number of published texts that provide an overview of the revolutionary wave of protests, some of the early texts remain very useful: Brynen, et al. 2012; Filiu 2011; Gelvin 2012; Noueihed and Warren 2012; and Lynch 2012 provide immediate but thoughtful and clear explanations of the revolutionary events. More-recent work on the challenges of the transitions includes Brownlee, et al. 2015.
  100.  
  101. Bishara, Marwan. The Invisible Arab: The Promise and Peril of the Arab Revolutions. New York: Nation Books, 2012.
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  103. A senior political analyst with Al Jazeera English describes the ways in which the uprisings marked such a decisive break with the past.
  104. Bishara, Marwan. The Invisible Arab: The Promise and Peril of the Arab Revolutions. New York: Nation Books, 2012.
  105. Find this resource:
  106. Brownlee, Jason, Tarek Masoud, and Andrew Reynolds. The Arab Spring: Pathways of Repression and Reform. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
  107. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199660063.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  108. Focuses on the transitions, asking why only four regimes fell and why democratic change has proved so elusive.
  109. Brownlee, Jason, Tarek Masoud, and Andrew Reynolds. The Arab Spring: Pathways of Repression and Reform. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
  110. Find this resource:
  111. Brynen, Rex, Pete W. Moore, Bassel F. Salloukh, and Marie-Joëlle Zahar. Beyond the Arab Spring: Authoritarianism & Democratization in the Arab World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2012.
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  113. This multiauthored, highly theoretical book both charts the trajectory of authoritarianisms in the Arab world and examines their collapse or weakening in 2011. Includes a valuable article on Islam and democracy by Janine Clark. Extensive bibliography.
  114. Brynen, Rex, Pete W. Moore, Bassel F. Salloukh, and Marie-Joëlle Zahar. Beyond the Arab Spring: Authoritarianism & Democratization in the Arab World. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2012.
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  116. Filiu, Jean-Pierre. The Arab Revolution: Ten Lessons from the Democratic Uprising. Comparative Politics and International Studies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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  118. With chapters organized around “lessons learned,” this short book is an early and insightful account of the unfolding events.
  119. Filiu, Jean-Pierre. The Arab Revolution: Ten Lessons from the Democratic Uprising. Comparative Politics and International Studies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  120. Find this resource:
  121. Gelvin, James L. The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
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  123. Engagingly organized around a “question and answer” format, this book is aimed at the general reader.
  124. Gelvin, James L. The Arab Uprisings: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  125. Find this resource:
  126. Lynch, Marc. The Arab Uprising: The Unfinished Revolutions of the New Middle East. New York: PublicAffairs, 2012.
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  128. Well-known blogger guides the reader through the first year of the uprisings; draws on firsthand access to the Obama administration to consider the implications for American foreign policy.
  129. Lynch, Marc. The Arab Uprising: The Unfinished Revolutions of the New Middle East. New York: PublicAffairs, 2012.
  130. Find this resource:
  131. Noueihed, Lin, and Alex Warren. The Battle for the Arab Spring: Revolution, Counter-revolution and the Making of a New Era. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012.
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  133. A clear survey; a very useful primer for undergraduate students.
  134. Noueihed, Lin, and Alex Warren. The Battle for the Arab Spring: Revolution, Counter-revolution and the Making of a New Era. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012.
  135. Find this resource:
  136. Edited Collections
  137.  
  138. Edited volumes that provide a wide spectrum of voices, while covering broad thematic and regional studies, include Haddad, et al. 2012; Haas and Lesch 2012; Amar and Prashad 2013; Kamrava 2014; Lynch 2014; and Sadiki 2015. Gerges 2014 stands out in terms of the prominence of the scholars, while al-Saleh 2015 is notable for its concentration of personal stories.
  139.  
  140. Amar, Paul, and Vijay Prashad, eds. Dispatches from the Arab Spring: Understanding the New Middle East. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
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  142. Authors identify and assess the transformative factors in country-by-country case studies across the region, from Morocco to Iraq and Syria to Sudan.
  143. Amar, Paul, and Vijay Prashad, eds. Dispatches from the Arab Spring: Understanding the New Middle East. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Gerges, Fawaz A., ed. The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
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  147. Leading scholars contribute both thematic essays and regional and comparative perspectives. One of the best guides available.
  148. Gerges, Fawaz A., ed. The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  149. Find this resource:
  150. Haas, Mark L., and David W. Lesch, eds. The Arab Spring: Change and Resistance in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2012.
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  152. Built as a reader for undergraduate students, this volume adopts a country-by-country approach, with a conclusion that connects key themes. In her noteworthy explanation of the Tunisian revolution, Julia Clancy-Smith adopts a “longue durée” approach locating the upheavals in the ongoing discrepancies between the wealthy coastal areas and the impoverished interior.
  153. Haas, Mark L., and David W. Lesch, eds. The Arab Spring: Change and Resistance in the Middle East. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2012.
  154. Find this resource:
  155. Haddad, Bassam, Rosie Bsheer, and Ziad Abu-Rish, eds. The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an Old Order? London: Pluto, 2012.
  156. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  157. Originally written for the online journal Jadaliyya, these commentaries capture well the immediacy of the revolutionary events. With a foreword by Roger Owen and an epilogue by Madawi al-Rasheed.
  158. Haddad, Bassam, Rosie Bsheer, and Ziad Abu-Rish, eds. The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an Old Order? London: Pluto, 2012.
  159. Find this resource:
  160. Kamrava, Mehran, ed. Beyond the Arab Spring: The Evolving Ruling Bargain in the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
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  162. Both from thematic and case study perspectives, scholars contextualize the Arab Spring as part of the unraveling of the “ruling bargains” that Arab regimes had imposed on their populations.
  163. Kamrava, Mehran, ed. Beyond the Arab Spring: The Evolving Ruling Bargain in the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  164. Find this resource:
  165. Lynch, Marc, ed. The Arab Uprisings Explained: New Contentious Politics in the Middle East. Columbia Studies in Middle East Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
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  167. Organized thematically, this volume is aimed more at political scientists, journalists, and policymakers than the general reader.
  168. Lynch, Marc, ed. The Arab Uprisings Explained: New Contentious Politics in the Middle East. Columbia Studies in Middle East Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
  169. Find this resource:
  170. Sadiki, Larbi, ed. Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge Handbooks. London and New York: Routledge, 2015.
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  172. Of immense scope, the forty-nine chapters map the transitions of the Arab Spring from multiple angles.
  173. Sadiki, Larbi, ed. Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge Handbooks. London and New York: Routledge, 2015.
  174. Find this resource:
  175. al-Saleh, Asaad. Voices of the Arab Spring: Personal Stories from the Arab Revolutions. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.
  176. DOI: 10.7312/columbia/9780231163187.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  177. Collects personal reflections that share the experiences of Arab citizens who participated in the events.
  178. al-Saleh, Asaad. Voices of the Arab Spring: Personal Stories from the Arab Revolutions. New York: Columbia University Press, 2015.
  179. Find this resource:
  180. Historical Background
  181.  
  182. The common backdrop for all protest movements was the glaring failure of authoritarian regimes to meet the expectations of bulging youth populations. All the previously mentioned books consider to some extent the political, social, and economic factors that underlay the protests, but these sections provide more in-depth analysis.
  183.  
  184. Authoritarian Regimes
  185.  
  186. In the immediate wake of the uprisings, political scientists such as in Anderson 2014 and Bellin 2012 reflected on how regimes that once appeared so robust to political scientists were shaken so suddenly. Owen 2012 shows how regimes that first rose to power decades ago on the promise of meeting the socioeconomic demands of the population became increasingly nepotistic and reliant on the brutality of a security apparatus as well as rigged elections.
  187.  
  188. Anderson, Lisa. “Authoritarian Legacies and Regime Change: Towards Understanding Political Transition in the Arab World.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 41–59. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
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  190. Focusing on the differing trajectories of the transitions faced by different states, reflects more generally on the political science of authoritarian rule and its legacy.
  191. Anderson, Lisa. “Authoritarian Legacies and Regime Change: Towards Understanding Political Transition in the Arab World.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 41–59. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Bellin, Eva. “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring.” Comparative Politics 44.2 (2012): 127–149.
  194. DOI: 10.5129/001041512798838021Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Reconsiders her own earlier writing on the robustness of authoritarianism in the Middle East, in light of the new dynamics and empirical realities.
  196. Bellin, Eva. “Reconsidering the Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Lessons from the Arab Spring.” Comparative Politics 44.2 (2012): 127–149.
  197. Find this resource:
  198. Owen, Roger. The Rise and Fall of Arab Presidents for Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
  199. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674065413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  200. With a focus on what he describes as the “demonstration effect,” Owen shows how Arab leaders systematically shared techniques in exercising and maintaining authoritarian power.
  201. Owen, Roger. The Rise and Fall of Arab Presidents for Life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012.
  202. Find this resource:
  203. Thompson, Elizabeth F. Justice Interrupted: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in the Middle East. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.
  204. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674076099Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  205. Thompson unearths the Middle East’s long history of debates and conflicts over constitutional issues, in which a wide variety of interests were engaged.
  206. Thompson, Elizabeth F. Justice Interrupted: The Struggle for Constitutional Government in the Middle East. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2013.
  207. Find this resource:
  208. Demography
  209.  
  210. As the ruling regimes grew older and more predatory, their populations were becoming younger, poorer, more dynamic, and more aware. Their frustrations are examined in detail in Khalaf and Khalaf 2011 (especially in the chapter by Diane Singerman), while the role played by youth movements in launching the uprisings is studied in Cole 2014. The significance of gender roles in the revolutionary (as well as counterrevolutionary) movements is covered in al-Ali 2012, Johansson-Nogués 2013, and Hafez 2014. Beinin and Vairel 2013 offers perspectives on the history of a broad range social movements, including Islamist organizations.
  211.  
  212. al-Ali, Nadje. “Gendering the Arab Spring.” Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication 5.1 (2012): 26–31.
  213. DOI: 10.1163/187398612X624346Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  214. Examines with a gendered lens various hierarchies and inequalities both within the state and civil society.
  215. al-Ali, Nadje. “Gendering the Arab Spring.” Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication 5.1 (2012): 26–31.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Beinin, Joel, and Frédéric Vairel, eds. Social Movements, Mobilization, and Contestation in the Middle East and North Africa. 2d ed. Stanford Studies in Middle Eastern and Islamic Societies and Cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013.
  218. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. This collection of case studies, all drawing on social movement theory, provides important historical background to the 2011 uprisings.
  220. Beinin, Joel, and Frédéric Vairel, eds. Social Movements, Mobilization, and Contestation in the Middle East and North Africa. 2d ed. Stanford Studies in Middle Eastern and Islamic Societies and Cultures. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2013.
  221. Find this resource:
  222. Cole, Juan. The New Arabs: How the Millennial Generation Is Changing the Middle East. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014.
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  224. Well known for his blog on Middle Eastern history called “Informed Comment,” Cole provides an optimistic assessment of the transformative power of Arab youth.
  225. Cole, Juan. The New Arabs: How the Millennial Generation Is Changing the Middle East. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014.
  226. Find this resource:
  227. Hafez, Sherine. “The Revolution Shall Not Pass through Women’s Bodies: Egypt, Uprising and Gender Politics.” In Special Issue: Women, Gender and the Arab Spring. Journal of North African Studies 19.2 (2014): 172–185.
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  229. Shows how women’s bodies became the source of contention and debate in the Egyptian post-revolutionary context.
  230. Hafez, Sherine. “The Revolution Shall Not Pass through Women’s Bodies: Egypt, Uprising and Gender Politics.” In Special Issue: Women, Gender and the Arab Spring. Journal of North African Studies 19.2 (2014): 172–185.
  231. Find this resource:
  232. Johansson-Nogués, Elisabeth. “Gendering the Arab Spring? Rights and (In)security of Tunisian, Egyptian and Libyan Women.” Security Dialogue 44.5–6 (2013): 393–409.
  233. DOI: 10.1177/0967010613499784Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  234. Explores the negative impact of the upheavals in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya on established women’s rights.
  235. Johansson-Nogués, Elisabeth. “Gendering the Arab Spring? Rights and (In)security of Tunisian, Egyptian and Libyan Women.” Security Dialogue 44.5–6 (2013): 393–409.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Khalaf, Samir, and Roseanne Saad Khalaf, eds. Arab Youth: Social Mobilisation in Times of Risk. London: Saqi, 2011.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Timely collection of essays by leading experts, on the marginalization and mobilization of Arab youth. Noteworthy contribution by Singerman on “The Negotiation of Waithood,” in which she discusses the social and political consequences of delayed marriage.
  240. Khalaf, Samir, and Roseanne Saad Khalaf, eds. Arab Youth: Social Mobilisation in Times of Risk. London: Saqi, 2011.
  241. Find this resource:
  242. Political Economy
  243.  
  244. A thorough examination of the impact of the regimes’ economic reforms—which aimed at liberalizing their state-run economies by reducing social programs and selling off state assets to friends—is provided in Cammett, et al. 2015, as well as in Armbrust 2012 and Haddad 2012. The crucial issue of food security is examined in Zurayk and Gough 2014 and Johnstone and Mazo 2011.
  245.  
  246. Armbrust, Walter. “The Revolution against Neoliberalism.” In The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an Old Order? Edited by Bassam Haddad, Rosie Bsheer, and Ziad Abu-Rish, 113–123. London: Pluto, 2012.
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  248. Describes the broad outlines of Egypt’s neoliberal political economy, scrutinizing the roles played by military officers and technocrats, in addition to the regime’s friends and cronies.
  249. Armbrust, Walter. “The Revolution against Neoliberalism.” In The Dawn of the Arab Uprisings: End of an Old Order? Edited by Bassam Haddad, Rosie Bsheer, and Ziad Abu-Rish, 113–123. London: Pluto, 2012.
  250. Find this resource:
  251. Cammett, Melani, Ishac Diwan, Alan Richards, and John Waterbury. A Political Economy of the Middle East. 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2015.
  252. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  253. This popular, comprehensive political-economy textbook has been fully updated to cover the Arab Spring.
  254. Cammett, Melani, Ishac Diwan, Alan Richards, and John Waterbury. A Political Economy of the Middle East. 4th ed. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2015.
  255. Find this resource:
  256. Haddad, Bassam. “Syria, the Arab Uprisings, and the Political Economy of Authoritarian Resilience.” In The Arab Spring: Will It Lead to Democratic Transitions? Edited by Clement Henry and Ji-Hyang Jang, 211–227. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
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  258. Combines a broad comparison of the political economies of the region, with an description of the complexity of the Syrian situation and an assessment of the resilience of its regime.
  259. Haddad, Bassam. “Syria, the Arab Uprisings, and the Political Economy of Authoritarian Resilience.” In The Arab Spring: Will It Lead to Democratic Transitions? Edited by Clement Henry and Ji-Hyang Jang, 211–227. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Johnstone, Sarah, and Jeffrey Mazo. “Global Warming and the Arab Spring.” Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 53.2 (2011): 11–17.
  262. DOI: 10.1080/00396338.2011.571006Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. The authors locate climate change, and the consequent rise in food prices, in the chain of events leading to the outbreak of protests in 2011.
  264. Johnstone, Sarah, and Jeffrey Mazo. “Global Warming and the Arab Spring.” Survival: Global Politics and Strategy 53.2 (2011): 11–17.
  265. Find this resource:
  266. Zurayk, Rami, and Anne Gough. “Bread and Olive Oil: The Agrarian Roots of the Arab Uprisings.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 107–131. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
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  268. Underlines how rural poverty and the politics of food production were significant factors in the uprisings of Egypt, Tunisia, Yemen, and Syria.
  269. Zurayk, Rami, and Anne Gough. “Bread and Olive Oil: The Agrarian Roots of the Arab Uprisings.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 107–131. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  270. Find this resource:
  271. The Revolutionary Moment
  272.  
  273. The protests themselves consisted of acts of mass resistance that unified, if only momentarily, the Arab public sphere. Tripp 2014 shows how Arab demonstrators reclaimed ownership and sovereignty over public space. El-Ghobashy 2012 and Pearlman 2013 explore the conditions under which people defied authority, while Colla 2012 and Swedenburg 2012 look at the roles played by poetry and music in bringing various segments of society together. The role played by modern communication technologies is examined in Castells 2012, Ghonim 2012, and Howard and Hussain 2013.
  274.  
  275. Castells, Manuel. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Cambridge, UK, and Malden, MA: Polity, 2012.
  276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277. Placing the Arab uprisings in a broader comparative perspective, this book explores various forms of networking and stresses the role of the Internet and social media.
  278. Castells, Manuel. Networks of Outrage and Hope: Social Movements in the Internet Age. Cambridge, UK, and Malden, MA: Polity, 2012.
  279. Find this resource:
  280. Colla, Elliott. “The Poetry of Revolt.” In The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt. Edited by Jeannie Sowers and Chris Toensing, 47–52. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2012.
  281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  282. Explains how the collective chanting of slogans played a galvanizing role in the revolutionary moment.
  283. Colla, Elliott. “The Poetry of Revolt.” In The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt. Edited by Jeannie Sowers and Chris Toensing, 47–52. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2012.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. el-Ghobashy, Mona. “The Praxis of the Egyptian Revolution.” In The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt. Edited by Jeannie Sowers and Chris Toensing, 21–40. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2012.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A close, and contemporaneous, examination of the days of protest in Egypt, underlining the significance of the street clashes in restoring politics to the country.
  288. el-Ghobashy, Mona. “The Praxis of the Egyptian Revolution.” In The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt. Edited by Jeannie Sowers and Chris Toensing, 21–40. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2012.
  289. Find this resource:
  290. Ghonim, Wael. Revolution 2.0: The Power of the People Is Greater Than the People in Power; A Memoir. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012.
  291. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  292. Memoir of a young Google marketing executive who created a Facebook page that helped mobilize Egyptian protesters, and was arrested for it by the secret police.
  293. Ghonim, Wael. Revolution 2.0: The Power of the People Is Greater Than the People in Power; A Memoir. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2012.
  294. Find this resource:
  295. Howard, Philip N., and Muzammil M. Hussain. Democracy’s Fourth Wave? Digital Media and the Arab Spring. Oxford Studies in Digital Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  296. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199936953.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  297. Argues how and why new Arab media have transformed politics.
  298. Howard, Philip N., and Muzammil M. Hussain. Democracy’s Fourth Wave? Digital Media and the Arab Spring. Oxford Studies in Digital Politics. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  299. Find this resource:
  300. Pearlman, Wendy. “Emotions and the Microfoundations of the Arab Uprisings.” Perspectives on Politics 11.2 (2013): 387–409.
  301. DOI: 10.1017/S1537592713001072Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  302. Grounding its argument in findings from the neurosciences, this article compares the empowering role played by emotion in the uprisings of Tunisia and Egypt (while simultaneously considering its absence in Algeria).
  303. Pearlman, Wendy. “Emotions and the Microfoundations of the Arab Uprisings.” Perspectives on Politics 11.2 (2013): 387–409.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Swedenburg, Ted. “Egypt’s Music of Protest: From Sayyid Darwish to DJ Haha.” Middle East Report 265.42 (2012).
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Describes the role of music in unifying and moving the crowds of protesters.
  308. Swedenburg, Ted. “Egypt’s Music of Protest: From Sayyid Darwish to DJ Haha.” Middle East Report 265.42 (2012).
  309. Find this resource:
  310. Tripp, Charles. “The Politics of Resistance and the Arab Uprisings.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 135–154. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  311. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  312. Describes the reclamation by leaderless uprisings of public space as the main achievement of the Arab Spring, while concluding that these features have also complicated the transition to a more institutionalized public order.
  313. Tripp, Charles. “The Politics of Resistance and the Arab Uprisings.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 135–154. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  314. Find this resource:
  315. Country Studies
  316.  
  317. Shared grievances against similar power structures resonated widely across the Arab world in the spring of 2011. But the navigation of successful political and economic transitions has required a complex balancing act of various revolutionary interests in each individual country.
  318.  
  319. Tunisia and Egypt
  320.  
  321. Many of the overviews listed in this article place their analyses of the Tunisian and Egyptian uprisings into a comparative perspective: in addition to being the first two regimes to fall, both these countries have long-standing and functioning state structures (bureaucracy, army, etc.). Gana 2013 and Perkins 2014 provide more in-depth analysis on Tunisia, while Willis 2012 provides perspective on North Africa as a whole. For Egypt, a wide range of articles can be found in Korany and el-Mahdi 2012; Sowers and Toensing 2012; and Tschirgi, et al. 2013, while Kandil 2014 offers a book-length analysis of the interactions of the military and security forces and Sedra 2013 explains the rise of sectarianism.
  322.  
  323. Gana, Nouri, ed. The Making of the Tunisian Revolution: Contexts, Architects, Prospects. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013.
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325. A collection of interdisciplinary approaches that set the uprisings in a longer historical context.
  326. Gana, Nouri, ed. The Making of the Tunisian Revolution: Contexts, Architects, Prospects. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2013.
  327. Find this resource:
  328. Kandil, Hazem. Soldiers, Spies, and Statesmen: Egypt’s Road to Revolt. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2014.
  329. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  330. Assesses the longer history of contentious relations among the state’s main institutions: the military, security services, and the government.
  331. Kandil, Hazem. Soldiers, Spies, and Statesmen: Egypt’s Road to Revolt. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2014.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Korany, Bahgat, and Rabab el-Mahdi, eds. Arab Spring in Egypt: Revolution and Beyond. Cairo, Egypt, and New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2012.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Analyzes the group dynamics of a wide range of factions, including labor, gender, and varieties of Islamism.
  336. Korany, Bahgat, and Rabab el-Mahdi, eds. Arab Spring in Egypt: Revolution and Beyond. Cairo, Egypt, and New York: American University in Cairo Press, 2012.
  337. Find this resource:
  338. Perkins, Kenneth. A History of Modern Tunisia. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340. Updated second edition provides useful historical context.
  341. Perkins, Kenneth. A History of Modern Tunisia. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  342. Find this resource:
  343. Sedra, Paul. “The ‘Sectarianization’ of Egyptian Society.” openDemocracy, 22 August 2013.
  344. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  345. Explains the historical circumstances that have contributed to anti-Coptic attitudes in Egypt.
  346. Sedra, Paul. “The ‘Sectarianization’ of Egyptian Society.” openDemocracy, 22 August 2013.
  347. Find this resource:
  348. Sowers, Jeannie, and Chris Toensing, eds. The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2012.
  349. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  350. This important collection of essays situates Egypt’s uprisings in terms of key socioeconomic trends of the previous decade.
  351. Sowers, Jeannie, and Chris Toensing, eds. The Journey to Tahrir: Revolution, Protest, and Social Change in Egypt. London and Brooklyn, NY: Verso, 2012.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Tschirgi, Dan, Walid Kazziha, and Sean F. McMahon, eds. Egypt’s Tahrir Revolution. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2013.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Wide-ranging analysis from members of the political-science department of the American University of Cairo.
  356. Tschirgi, Dan, Walid Kazziha, and Sean F. McMahon, eds. Egypt’s Tahrir Revolution. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2013.
  357. Find this resource:
  358. Willis, Michael J. Politics and Power in the Maghreb: Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring. London: C. Hurst, 2012.
  359. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  360. An introductory comparative textbook on the political history of North Africa (excluding Libya).
  361. Willis, Michael J. Politics and Power in the Maghreb: Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco from Independence to the Arab Spring. London: C. Hurst, 2012.
  362. Find this resource:
  363. Syria
  364.  
  365. The violent response by the Assad regime to the Syrian protests resulted in a violent civil war. The bitter stalemate operates also as a proxy war for outside actors. Lesch 2013 and Scheller 2013 provide crucial insights into Assad’s regime, while Lefèvre 2013 focuses on its struggle with the Islamist opposition. Robinson 2012 and Hashemi and Postel 2013 consider international responses to the intractable conflict.
  366.  
  367. Hashemi, Nader, and Danny Postel, eds. The Syria Dilemma. Boston Review Book. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2013.
  368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  369. This collection includes a broad range of informed voices weighing in on whether and how the international community can intervene in the Syrian tragedy.
  370. Hashemi, Nader, and Danny Postel, eds. The Syria Dilemma. Boston Review Book. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2013.
  371. Find this resource:
  372. Lefèvre, Raphaël. Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  373. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  374. Provides important historical context for understanding what is at stake in the Syrian civil war, which began in early spring 2011.
  375. Lefèvre, Raphaël. Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Lesch, David W. Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad. New ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. An exploration of Assad’s recourse to repression during the uprising, written by a scholar who has interviewed the Syrian leader multiple times.
  380. Lesch, David W. Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad. New ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013.
  381. Find this resource:
  382. Robinson, Glenn E. “Syria’s Long Civil War.” Current History 111.749 (2012): 331–336.
  383. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  384. Clearly argued assessment of the well-entrenched stalemate in the Syrian civil war.
  385. Robinson, Glenn E. “Syria’s Long Civil War.” Current History 111.749 (2012): 331–336.
  386. Find this resource:
  387. Scheller, Bente. The Wisdom of Syria’s Waiting Game: Foreign Policy under the Assads. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  388. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  389. Explores how Syria’s foreign policy has contributed to the resiliency of the Assad regime, as well as to the uprising that seeks to remove it.
  390. Scheller, Bente. The Wisdom of Syria’s Waiting Game: Foreign Policy under the Assads. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  391. Find this resource:
  392. Libya and Yemen
  393.  
  394. The protests in Libya and Yemen were complicated greatly by regional rivalries and international intervention. Hilsum 2012 and Vandewalle 2012 provide well-informed background to Muammar Qaddafi’s deposition in Libya, and Gazzini 2011 weighs the legitimacy of external intervention. On Yemen, International Crisis Group 2011 gives a contemporaneous assessment of the unfolding revolution, while vom Bruck, et al. 2014 reflects back on how the trajectory of the transition was determined by the power struggles among the elite, and Yadav 2013 provides a comparative perspective on Islamist politics.
  395.  
  396. Gazzini, Claudia. “Was the Libya Intervention Necessary?” Middle East Report 261.41 (2011).
  397. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  398. Weighs NATO’s successful removal of Qaddafi against the costs of intervention, including the exacerbation of violence.
  399. Gazzini, Claudia. “Was the Libya Intervention Necessary?” Middle East Report 261.41 (2011).
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Hilsum, Lindsey. Sandstorm: Libya in the Time of Revolution. New York: Penguin, 2012.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Veteran journalist combines day-to-day reporting with historical analysis of Libya’s unique circumstances.
  404. Hilsum, Lindsey. Sandstorm: Libya in the Time of Revolution. New York: Penguin, 2012.
  405. Find this resource:
  406. International Crisis Group. “Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (II): Yemen between Reform and Revolution.” Middle East / North Africa Report 102 (10 March 2011).
  407. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  408. Written prior to the removal of Yemen’s president from office, this report assesses the positions and options of domestic, regional, and international actors.
  409. International Crisis Group. “Popular Protest in North Africa and the Middle East (II): Yemen between Reform and Revolution.” Middle East / North Africa Report 102 (10 March 2011).
  410. Find this resource:
  411. Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  412. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139094580Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  413. Based on primary research and interviews with political elites; a standard source for the historical context for the revolution and civil war.
  414. Vandewalle, Dirk. A History of Modern Libya. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  415. Find this resource:
  416. vom Bruck, Gabriele, Atiaf Alwazir, and Benjamin Wiacek. “Yemen: Revolution Suspended?” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 285–308. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418. Explains how the demands of the protesters for reform were overtaken by elite rivalries.
  419. vom Bruck, Gabriele, Atiaf Alwazir, and Benjamin Wiacek. “Yemen: Revolution Suspended?” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 285–308. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Yadav, Stacey Philbrick. Islamists and the State: Legitimacy and Institutions in Yemen and Lebanon. Library of Modern Middle East Studies 138. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. This comparison of the political participation of Hezbollah and the Islah Party adds significantly to the discussion of how and why Islamist parties moderate their political strategies.
  424. Yadav, Stacey Philbrick. Islamists and the State: Legitimacy and Institutions in Yemen and Lebanon. Library of Modern Middle East Studies 138. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.
  425. Find this resource:
  426. Gulf Monarchies
  427.  
  428. The younger generations in the Gulf countries represent the same demographic challenges as elsewhere, and, as Welsh 2012 shows, Bahrain was wracked with protests. However, as Gause 2011 explains, the Gulf monarchies hold certain advantages, not least the ability to deflect opposition by spending money. Al-Rasheed 2011 and Wehrey 2014 provide useful guides to how counterrevolutionary strategies in the Gulf also rely heavily on the politicization of religious differences and the development of sectarian politics.
  429.  
  430. Gause, F. Gregory, III. “Rageless in Riyadh: Why the Al Saud Dynasty Will Remain.” In The New Arab Revolt: What Happened, What It Means, and What Comes Next. By Council on Foreign Relations, 205–209. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2011.
  431. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432. Differentiates the Saudi context from the revolutionary events unfolding elsewhere in early 2011. Originally published in Foreign Affairs on 16 March 2011; available online by registration or subscription.
  433. Gause, F. Gregory, III. “Rageless in Riyadh: Why the Al Saud Dynasty Will Remain.” In The New Arab Revolt: What Happened, What It Means, and What Comes Next. By Council on Foreign Relations, 205–209. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2011.
  434. Find this resource:
  435. al-Rasheed, Madawi. “Sectarianism as Counter-revolution: Saudi Responses to the Arab Spring.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 11.3 (2011): 513–526.
  436. DOI: 10.1111/j.1754-9469.2011.01129.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437. Describes Saudi Arabia’s main concern as the demand for political rights by a national opposition composed both of Sunnis and Shiʿas.
  438. al-Rasheed, Madawi. “Sectarianism as Counter-revolution: Saudi Responses to the Arab Spring.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 11.3 (2011): 513–526.
  439. Find this resource:
  440. Wehrey, Frederic M. Sectarian Politics in the Gulf: From the Iraq War to the Arab Uprisings. Columbia Studies in Middle East Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
  441. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  442. A detailed examination of sectarian politics in Bahrain, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia, situating Shiʿa-Sunni tensions within specific political contexts.
  443. Wehrey, Frederic M. Sectarian Politics in the Gulf: From the Iraq War to the Arab Uprisings. Columbia Studies in Middle East Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Welsh, May Jing, dir. Bahrain: Shouting in the Dark. Doha, Qatar: Al Jazeera, 19 June 2012.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. Television documentary produced by Al Jazeera English, the Qatar-based news channel.
  448. Welsh, May Jing, dir. Bahrain: Shouting in the Dark. Doha, Qatar: Al Jazeera, 19 June 2012.
  449. Find this resource:
  450. Regional Reverberations
  451.  
  452. The complex interconnections between the uprisings in the Arab countries (Tunisia and Egypt, Syria, Libya and Yemen, Gulf Monarchies) with other Arab and non-Arab countries have been the subject of much analysis. Pelham 2012 and Ryan 2011 examine the response of the two non-Gulf monarchies, Morocco and Jordan. Al-Ali 2014 analyzes the ever-increasing sectarianism in Iraq in the shadow of the Arab Spring, and Brown 2011 assesses the significance of the Arab Spring for Israel and Palestine. Ayoob 2014 focuses on the dominant role Turkey and Iran play in the aftermath of the Arab Spring, and Tuğal 2013 places Turkey’s own Taksim demonstrations into a comparative perspective.
  453.  
  454. al-Ali, Zaid. The Struggle for Iraq’s Future: How Corruption, Incompetence and Sectarianism Have Undermined Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014.
  455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456. Written by an Iraqi constitutional lawyer, this analysis of Iraq’s troubled transition to democracy since the 2003 American invasion offers important insights to the constitutional struggles faced by other Arab countries.
  457. al-Ali, Zaid. The Struggle for Iraq’s Future: How Corruption, Incompetence and Sectarianism Have Undermined Democracy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014.
  458. Find this resource:
  459. Ayoob, Mohammed. “Turkey and Iran in the Era of the Arab Uprisings.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 402–417. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  460. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  461. Argues that, given the preoccupations of Arab countries for the foreseeable future, regional politics will be determined by the policies of Turkey and Iran, and their mostly mutual interests.
  462. Ayoob, Mohammed. “Turkey and Iran in the Era of the Arab Uprisings.” In The New Middle East: Protest and Revolution in the Arab World. Edited by Fawaz A. Gerges, 402–417. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  463. Find this resource:
  464. Brown, Nathan J. “The Palestinians’ Receding Dream of Statehood.” Current History 110.740 (2011): 345–351.
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466. Considers the way the Arab Spring might affect Palestinian politics by inspiring young Palestinians to rally more around “rights” and “freedom” than a separate, independent state.
  467. Brown, Nathan J. “The Palestinians’ Receding Dream of Statehood.” Current History 110.740 (2011): 345–351.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Pelham, Nicolas. “How Morocco Dodged the Arab Spring.” New York Review of Books, 5 July 2012.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. An experienced journalist evaluates the constitutional amendments and other immediate responses by the Moroccan monarchy to the Arab Spring.
  472. Pelham, Nicolas. “How Morocco Dodged the Arab Spring.” New York Review of Books, 5 July 2012.
  473. Find this resource:
  474. Ryan, Curtis R. “Identity Politics, Reform, and Protest in Jordan.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 11.3 (2011): 564–578.
  475. DOI: 10.1111/j.1754-9469.2011.01135.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  476. Contextualizes the eruption of Jordanian demonstrations by addressing the impact of tensions between Palestinians and East Jordanians.
  477. Ryan, Curtis R. “Identity Politics, Reform, and Protest in Jordan.” Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 11.3 (2011): 564–578.
  478. Find this resource:
  479. Tuğal, Cihan. “‘Resistance Everywhere’: The Gezi Revolt in Global Perspective.” New Perspectives on Turkey 49 (2013): 157–172.
  480. DOI: 10.1017/S0896634600002077Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  481. Places the 2013 Taksim demonstrations in a global perspective, drawing comparisons with Brazil and Spain as well as with Egypt and Tunisia.
  482. Tuğal, Cihan. “‘Resistance Everywhere’: The Gezi Revolt in Global Perspective.” New Perspectives on Turkey 49 (2013): 157–172.
  483. Find this resource:
  484. International Implications
  485.  
  486. Equally taken by surprise, the United States and Europe have been forced to reconsider their engagement in the Middle East and North Africa. Kahl and Lynch 2013 identifies the challenges facing US foreign policy, and Hollis 2012 evaluates European Union (EU) policy. Dodge and Hokayem 2014 offers a more global perspective.
  487.  
  488. Dodge, Toby, and Emile Hokayem, eds. Middle Eastern Security, the US Pivot and the Rise of ISIS. Adelphi 447–448. New York: Routledge, 2014.
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490. Focuses especially on the regional and international ramifications of the civil war in Syria, including the geostrategic consequences for the Asian Pacific, as well as Europe and America.
  491. Dodge, Toby, and Emile Hokayem, eds. Middle Eastern Security, the US Pivot and the Rise of ISIS. Adelphi 447–448. New York: Routledge, 2014.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Hollis, Rosemary. “No Friend of Democratization: Europe’s Role in the Genesis of the ‘Arab Spring.’” International Affairs 88.1 (2012): 81–94.
  494. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01058.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Argues that the foreign policies of the EU will hinder efforts at Arab reform as long as their security interests trump their promotion of democracy.
  496. Hollis, Rosemary. “No Friend of Democratization: Europe’s Role in the Genesis of the ‘Arab Spring.’” International Affairs 88.1 (2012): 81–94.
  497. Find this resource:
  498. Kahl, Colin H., and Marc Lynch. “US Strategy after the Arab Uprisings: Toward Progressive Engagement.” Washington Quarterly 36.2 (2013): 39–60.
  499. DOI: 10.1080/0163660X.2013.791081Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  500. Concludes that in the changing strategic landscape, US policy must empower and support democratic actors and push their autocratic allies to respect human rights.
  501. Kahl, Colin H., and Marc Lynch. “US Strategy after the Arab Uprisings: Toward Progressive Engagement.” Washington Quarterly 36.2 (2013): 39–60.
  502. Find this resource:
  503. Political Islam
  504.  
  505. In the years since the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Islamist politics has become one of the most enduring Middle Eastern phenomena. As shown in Cesari 2014, Hamid 2014, Masoud 2014, and Wickham 2013, the strongest, if not always united, opposition faced by the authoritarian Arab regimes came from Islamists (either as militant radical minorities or, increasingly, as moderate centrists). Their participation in the post-revolutionary transition, however, has subjected Islamist movements to new external challenges and internal tensions. Brown 2012, Hamid 2014, Ramadan 2012, and Wright 2012 consider the possibilities as Islamists join the electoral process. Maréchal and Zemni 2013 examines sectarian tensions (which are also studied in the works listed in the country studies, cited under Tunisia and Egypt, Syria, Libya and Yemen, and Gulf Monarchies).
  506.  
  507. Brown, Nathan J. When Victory Is Not an Option: Islamist Movements in Arab Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.
  508. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  509. Engaging look at how the policies and strategies of Islamist political organizations are shaped by the shifting relationships with dominant governments, described as a “cat and mouse game” between authoritarian regimes and shrewd movements.
  510. Brown, Nathan J. When Victory Is Not an Option: Islamist Movements in Arab Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012.
  511. Find this resource:
  512. Cesari, Jocelyne. The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  513. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781107359871Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514. A close analysis of how post–World War II state-building processes are responsible for Islam becoming a dominant political force.
  515. Cesari, Jocelyne. The Awakening of Muslim Democracy: Religion, Modernity, and the State. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Hamid, Shadi. Temptations of Power: Islamists and Illiberal Democracy in a New Middle East. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Drawing on interviews with Islamist leaders and activists in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, argues that the Muslim Brotherhood’s moderation and electoral participation marks more of a tactical shift in strategy than a sincere adoption of liberalism.
  520. Hamid, Shadi. Temptations of Power: Islamists and Illiberal Democracy in a New Middle East. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  521. Find this resource:
  522. Maréchal, Brigitte, and Sami Zemni, eds. The Dynamics of Sunni-Shia Relationships: Doctrine, Transnationalism, Intellectuals and the Media. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  523. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  524. This collection of essays considers the local regional and global contexts in which Sunni-Shiʿa relations are being rearticulated. A concluding chapter reflects on the impact of the Arab Spring.
  525. Maréchal, Brigitte, and Sami Zemni, eds. The Dynamics of Sunni-Shia Relationships: Doctrine, Transnationalism, Intellectuals and the Media. London: C. Hurst, 2013.
  526. Find this resource:
  527. Masoud, Tarek. Counting Islam: Religion, Class, and Elections in Egypt. Problems of International Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  528. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511842610Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529. Drawing on wide field research, explains the successful performance of Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood in the electoral process.
  530. Masoud, Tarek. Counting Islam: Religion, Class, and Elections in Egypt. Problems of International Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
  531. Find this resource:
  532. Ramadan, Tariq. Islam and the Arab Awakening. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  533. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  534. A leading Islamic thinker offers his perspective on the role of Islam and the Arab Spring.
  535. Ramadan, Tariq. Islam and the Arab Awakening. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky. The Muslim Brotherhood: Evolution of an Islamist Movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Draws on years of interviews and research to provide a detailed and comparative look at the complex evolution of the movement, and the tensions within.
  540. Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky. The Muslim Brotherhood: Evolution of an Islamist Movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013.
  541. Find this resource:
  542. Wright, Robin, ed. The Islamists Are Coming: Who They Really Are. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2012.
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544. Respected scholars survey the rise of Islamist groups—their history and the political positions they hold—in individual countries. Olivier Roy provides an introductory chapter on the interdependence of Islam and democracy (pp. 13–20).
  545. Wright, Robin, ed. The Islamists Are Coming: Who They Really Are. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2012.
  546. Find this resource:
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