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Caribbean (Anthropology)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Caribbean region, also at times referred to as the Atlantic World, consists of populations residing in the islands in the Caribbean Sea (the Greater and Lesser Antilles and the Netherlands Antilles), along the Atlantic coast of Central and South America (Belize, Honduras, Nicaragua, Colombia, Venezuela), and in the South American countries of Guyana, Suriname, and French Guyana. From about the mid-20th century, identifying the Caribbean as a geographic, historical, and cultural region has been expanded to include its crucially important population diasporas, notably in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and, to a lesser extent, in parts of Central and South America. Discovered and populated originally by indigenous Amerindians from the Amazon’s Orinoco Delta, it was in 1492, when Christopher Columbus chanced upon what was for Europeans a New World, that the Caribbean began to be fashioned into the place with which we are familiar today. Subject to European colonialism’s economic agenda of monocrop production for a world market, notably sugar, beginning in the 16th century, the Caribbean has been populated by enslaved Africans (from West and Central Africa), free Europeans (primarily from western Europe), and indentured Asians (Indians, Chinese, Javanese). Free Africans, indentured Europeans, and free peoples from the Levant (today Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan) have also contributed to the region’s populations. All of these communities, and the new communities that have arisen over the centuries from their interactions together, created in the Caribbean a cultural mosaic of diverse peoples and lifeways, along with economic and political structures that reflect persistent colonial pasts as well as local forms of resistance to them. This simultaneous persistence and challenge is seen in all arenas of life, from the ways the region has been imagined (fantasized, represented) by both outsiders and locals, to its role as colonies and then as independent nation-states, to its strategies for development (among the most significant, out-migration and tourism), to the kinds of cultural and social transformations it has undergone, whether in terms of the region’s spectacular array of visual, musical, and folk arts, or numerous ways of categorizing and presenting racial, ethnic, gender, sexual, or religious identities.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. The complexity and diversity of Caribbean histories, cultures, and societies means that understanding the specifics of a particular colony/country, people, or moment in time also requires knowing how these specifics create and fit into a broader picture. Mintz 2010 reflects on fifty years of research on the cultural histories of three islands. Knight and Martínez-Vergne 2005 presents new scholarship on globalization emphasizing the creolization of cultural production and performance. Reddock and Barrow 2001, Higman 2011, and Palmié and Scarano 2011 are works that provide general surveys of the region and are an invaluable resource in providing both broad context and local detail. Other works included here also emphasize key themes in Caribbean studies (e.g., Cullen and Fuentes 2012 on the arts, Dubois and Scott 2010 on the Afro-Atlantic, and Mintz and Price 1992 on cultural continuity and change).
  8.  
  9. Cullen, Deborah, and Elvis Fuentes, eds. 2012. Caribbean: Art at the crossroads of the world. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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  11. Comprehensive volume looking at modern (beginning with the 18th century) and contemporary art in the Caribbean, from individual islands to their diasporas.
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  13. Dubois, Laurent, and Julius S. Scott, eds. 2010. Origins of the Black Atlantic. New York: Routledge.
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  15. Emphasizes the imaginaries and everyday lives of enslaved Africans in the Caribbean and their contributions to the making of the region.
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  17. Higman, B. W. 2011. A concise history of the Caribbean. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  19. A comparative, general history of the region from the earliest period of settlement to the present.
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  21. Knight, Franklin W., and Teresita Martínez-Vergne, eds. 2005. Contemporary Caribbean cultures and societies in a global context. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.
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  23. Focuses on social and cultural change within the context of contemporary globalization, emphasizing economics, politics, and the commodification of popular culture.
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  25. Mintz, Sidney W. 2010. Three ancient colonies: Caribbean themes and variations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  27. Mintz returns to his early researches in Jamaica, Haiti, and Puerto Rico and considers the changes these societies and peoples have experienced over a fifty-year period, including revisiting his arguments about globalization and creolization.
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  29. Mintz, Sidney W., and Richard Price. 1992. The birth of African-American culture: An anthropological perspective. Boston: Beacon.
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  31. A classic, foundational treatise on African American cultures in the Americas—their sites of generation, processes change, and significance for understanding historical, social, and cultural connections between Africa and the Americas and, more broadly, the nature and meaning of cultural transformation within unequal relations of power.
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  33. Palmié, Stephan, and Francisco A. Scarano, eds. 2011. The Caribbean: A history of the region and its peoples. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  34. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226924649.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35. From the pre-Columbian era to current events, this volume offers a comparative and detailed survey of the most important themes in Caribbean social and cultural history from an interdisciplinary perspective and diverse range of approaches
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  37. Reddock, Rhoda, and Christine Barrow, eds. 2001. Caribbean sociology. Kingston, Jamaica: Randle.
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  39. A collection of in-print, out-of-print, and difficult-to-find works on the region providing an interdisciplinary resource that covers a range of topics and issues including social and cultural theory, economic development, identities, religion, modernization, and domestic violence.
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  41. Bibliographies and Reference Works
  42.  
  43. Reference work collections are also good guides through the vast literature on the Caribbean. Although all have their own categorization of subject matter, some are comprehensive (Digital Library of the Caribbean, Goslinga 1996), and other works are devoted to more specific topics such as individual countries (Hall 2012), regional languages (Allsopp 2003), cultural traditions (Glazier 2001, Gray 2010), and academic disciplines (Rumney 2012, on Caribbean geography). Price and Price 2012 provides succinct, pan-Caribbean descriptions of recent publications and is a regular feature of the New West Indian Guide (cited under Journals).
  44.  
  45. Allsopp, Richard, ed. 2003. Dictionary of Caribbean English usage. Kingston, Jamaica: Univ. of the West Indies Press.
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  47. Using data from written texts and speech recordings, this extensive dictionary surveys English language usage in the English speaking Caribbean, including Creole and Formal forms and loan-words from other languages. This edition includes a French and Spanish supplement, edited by Jeanette Allsopp. Originally published in 1996.
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  49. Digital Library of the Caribbean.
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  51. A digital library of Caribbean region research materials located in a variety of libraries, archives, and private collections.
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  53. Glazier, Stephen D., ed. 2001. Encyclopedia of African and African-American religions. New York: Routledge.
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  55. A vast and diverse array of individual entries, including Rastafari, Islam, Kardecism, and Pentecostalism, that, in combination, suggest a reconsideration of key questions about the Americas: colonialism, nationalism, pan-Africanism, immigration, civil rights, proselytization, and conversion.
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  57. Goslinga, Marian. 1996. A bibliography of the Caribbean. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
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  59. An overview of sources on the Caribbean covering islands as well as mainland countries.
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  61. Gray, John. 2010. From Vodou to Zouk: A bibliographic guide to music of the French-speaking Caribbean and its diaspora. Nyack, NY: African Diaspora.
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  63. An interdisciplinary humanities and social sciences look at Francophone Caribbean musical traditions (including mainland French Guiana and overseas enclaves) and their practitioners.
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  65. Hall, Michael R. 2012. Historical dictionary of Haiti. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
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  67. Covering 1492 to the present, offers entries on Haitian history and a bibliography about Haiti organized by subject.
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  69. Price, Richard, and Sally Price, eds. 2012. Book reviews. New West Indian Guide 86.3–4: 309–407.
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  71. A useful annual review of books that are not otherwise reviewed in the New West Indian Guide, covering works published about the Caribbean in English as well as French, Dutch, and other European languages, on fiction, the arts, and such scholarly concerns as historiography, anthropology, literary criticism, and diaspora.
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  73. Rumney, Thomas A. 2012. Caribbean geography: A scholarly bibliography. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow.
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  75. A collection of published and unpublished works (e.g., doctoral theses) on Caribbean geography, covering the discipline’s numerous subfields: cultural, social, economic, historical, political, and physical.
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  77. Journals
  78.  
  79. Articles on the Caribbean are found in journals dedicated specifically to the region and also in journals concerned with other regions (e.g., Latin America) or topics (e.g., slavery, Atlantic history) that involve Caribbean histories and peoples. The best of these journals are interdisciplinary, with some including Anthurium, CLR James Journal, the Caribbean Review of Gender Studies, and Atlantic Studies taking a particular topic, such as arts and letters or intellectual history or gender and considering it through a range of approaches, while others, including New West Indian Guide and Small Axe, are more encompassing in their subject matter. Discipline-specific journals including the Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology focus on interregional and diasporic comparative research.
  80.  
  81. Anthurium: A Caribbean Studies Journal. 2003–.
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  83. An interdisciplinary e-journal featuring Caribbean literature and culture among diverse writers and scholars. Includes fiction, critical essays, cultural studies, interviews, visual art, book reviews, and bibliographies.
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  85. Atlantic Studies: Literary, Cultural and Historical Perspectives. 2004–.
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  87. Emphasizes the Atlantic World as an area of exchange rather than comprising distinct nation-states, cultures, and histories. Offers research and debate on historical, cultural, and literary issues.
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  89. Caribbean Review of Gender Studies. 2007–.
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  91. An interdisciplinary e-journal offering a forum for scholarship and creative work done within the framework of feminist and gender theorizing that is for and about the Caribbean.
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  93. CLR James Journal: A Review of Caribbean Ideas. 1990–.
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  95. The journal of the Caribbean Philosophical Association emphasizing South–South dialogue in any historical era and philosophy generated within the Caribbean or through the exchange of ideas with other regions.
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  97. Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology. 1976–.
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  99. Publishes anthropological research undertaken in Latin America and the Caribbean, with an emphasis on comparative research across geographies, cultures, and societies.
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  101. New West Indian Guide/Nieuwe West-Indische Gids. 1919–.
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  103. Published continuously since 1919, this publication is the oldest scholarly journal on the Caribbean. Features interdisciplinary coverage of anthropology, art, archaeology, economics, geography, geology, history, international relations, linguistics, literature, music, political science, and sociology. Also offers a review section on Caribbean books that covers about 150 books a year (see Price and Price 2012, cited under Bibliographies and Reference Works).
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  105. Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism. 1997–.
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  107. An interdisciplinary journal devoted to social, cultural, and political criticism. Also features interviews, special theme issues, book reviews, and fiction.
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  109. Colonialism, Capitalism, and Modernity
  110.  
  111. The Caribbean of today began with European colonial expansion and the massive enslavement of Africans, harnessed to nascent capitalism and resource extraction centered on sugar plantations producing for a global market, thoughtfully analyzed in Mintz 1985 and Kincaid 1988. After slavery these processes were continued by indentured labor schemes, discussed in Look Lai 1993. One particularly important consequence of colonialism, capitalism, slavery, and indenture in the Caribbean was the rise of new social forms that contributed to European and local ideas about modernity, theorized early in James 1963 in connection to the relation between African and European modes of thought and forms of resistance. Mignolo 2005 examines these connections in regards to the creation of the idea of Latin America, and Palmié 2002 addresses the comparability and integration of Caribbean and European modernities. Scott 2004 takes up the importance of context in interpreting such seminal Caribbean texts, a continuing key debate in Caribbean studies.
  112.  
  113. James, Cyril L. R. 1963. The black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo revolution. 2d ed. New York: Vintage.
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  115. Classic, foundational text on the Haitian Revolution. Draws parallels and comparisons with the French Revolution, highlighting the significance of the Haitian Revolution for Caribbean peoples, the Americas, and Europe. Originally published in 1938.
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  117. Kincaid, Jamaica. 1988. A small place. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
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  119. Part memoire, part polemic, a productive and provocative rumination on the impact of British colonialism on Antigua and, by extension, the Caribbean region. Particular reference to economic development, cultural change, tourism, and locals’ perceptions of these.
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  121. Look Lai, Walton. 1993. Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  123. Detailed look at post-slavery plantation economies based on Asian indentured labor, and indenture’s social, cultural, and economic ramifications.
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  125. Mignolo, Walter D. 2005. The idea of Latin America. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
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  127. Although most interested in the Latin American mainland, provides a useful discussion about the emergence of the idea of Latin America applicable to the Caribbean’s own colonial experience. Looks in particular at the concept of modernity and its role in characterizations of the region still recognizable today.
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  129. Mintz, Sidney W. 1985. Sweetness and power: The place of sugar in modern history. New York: Penguin.
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  131. Classic, foundational text exploring the rise and importance of sugar as an industry and commodity, including Caribbean sugar production and its importance to the development of capitalism and globalization.
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  133. Palmié, Stephan. 2002. Wizards and scientists: Explorations in Afro-Cuban modernity and tradition. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  135. Analysis of a particular case, Afro-Cuba, to argue that science and wizardry are parts of the same historical and logical processes, that modernity and tradition must be understood in relation to each other rather than as oppositional, and that Afro-Caribbean cultures cannot be traced back to traditional African or European antecedents but rather are produced by constant reinvention in both Old and New Worlds.
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  137. Scott, David. 2004. Conscripts of modernity: The tragedy of colonial enlightenment. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  139. Reflection on the 1938 and 1963 editions of Cyril L. R James’s The Black Jacobins, arguing they must be interpreted in terms of the historical conditions and ideological premises that formed the contexts in which they were published and read. Addresses the political relationship between the colonial past and the postcolonial present and the discontinuities between them that shape how futures are imagined.
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  141. Geographical Imaginaries
  142.  
  143. As soon as it was chanced upon by European exploration and colonialism, the Caribbean was fed into existing ideas about nature, culture, Eden, the wild, and the other, covered through different analytical lenses by Khan 2003 (memoir-biographical), Mohammed 2009 (visual-iconographic), and Thompson 2006 (visual-photographic). Although altering somewhat over time, these persistent themes drew the Caribbean into discourses that revealed more about the imaginations of colonial and contemporary observers (the latter including local residents of the region) than about the geography, flora, fauna, and peoples encountered there, as seen in Puri 2004 and Sheller 2003. Trouillot 1995 also addresses the problem of the imaginary but focuses on power and knowledge as manifest in historiography.
  144.  
  145. Khan, Aisha. 2003. Portraits in the mirror: Nature, culture, and women’s travel writing in the Caribbean. Women’s Writing 10.1: 93–118.
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  147. Discusses the published memoirs of late Victorian women travelers to the Caribbean, exploring connections between colonial women’s travel writing and the construction of knowledge about the region, looking particularly at Euro-American representations of nature and culture. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  149. Mohammed, Patricia. 2009. Imaging the Caribbean: Culture and visual translation. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
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  151. An interdisciplinary study of five hundred years of visual representation and iconography in the Caribbean. Regional coverage emphasizes Haiti, Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados.
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  153. Puri, Shalini. 2004. The Caribbean postcolonial: Social equality, post-nationalism, and cultural hybridity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
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  155. Examines the concept of Caribbean cultural hybridity, arguing that it conceals more than it reveals about the diversity of Caribbean political and aesthetic practices (including literature, music, theater, carnival, and religious ritual) and their relevance for nationalist projects.
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  157. Sheller, Mimi. 2003. Consuming the Caribbean: From Arawaks to zombies. London: Routledge.
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  159. Critiques the Western imagination’s creation of the Caribbean, looking at the history of the ways Europeans and North Americans have imagined and developed consumer cultures around the Caribbean’s natural environment, peoples, and cultures.
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  161. Thompson, Krista A. 2006. An eye for the tropics: Tourism, photography, and framing the Caribbean picturesque. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  163. Looks at the history and creation of visual representations, particularly photography associated with tourism, to explain the Caribbean’s predominant aesthetic as consumer culture’s tropical paradise.
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  165. Trouillot, Michel-Rolph. 1995. Silencing the past: Power and the production of history. Boston: Beacon.
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  167. Foundational and brilliant text reflecting on the ways that power silences and marginalizes certain actors and events from historical significance and how scholars themselves are implicated in the complex relation between power and knowledge. Illustrated with case studies from the Caribbean (particularly Haiti).
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  169. Migration, Diaspora, Globalization, Transnationalism, Citizenship
  170.  
  171. The Caribbean has always been a sender and receiver of populations on the move, from its earliest settlement by South American indigenous peoples, to the mass importation of labor from Africa, Europe, and Asia, to the circulation of individuals and families. Olwig 2007 discusses these populations on the move, and Hall 1990 and Yelvington 2006 looks at people from both within the region as well as outside it. Migration and diaspora in the context of globalization and transnationalism and changing forms of citizenship, which remain hallmarks of the region, have early and important implications. Basch, et al. 1994; Gregory 2007; Kempadoo 2004; Sheller 2012; and Thomas 2011 provide analysis.
  172.  
  173. Basch, Linda G., Nina Glick Schiller, and Christina Szanton Blanc. 1994. Nations unbound: Transnational projects, postcolonial predicaments and deterritorialized nation-states. Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach.
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  175. An investigation of the ways that immigrants build transnational social networks and political affiliations across the geographic boundaries of their home countries and migration destinations. The majority of the study is taken from Caribbean case material. In occupying spaces of livelihood and loyalty that span borders, transnationals require revisiting the meaning of nation and citizenship.
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  177. Gregory, Steven. 2007. The devil behind the mirror: Globalization and politics in the Dominican Republic. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
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  179. A critique of the consequences of globalization and neoliberal economic pressures on working people in the Dominican Republic, highlighting the contradictions created by the promises and disappointments of transnational flows of capital and culture and the ways that locals contend with them.
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  181. Hall, Stuart. 1990. Cultural identity and diaspora. In Identity: Community, culture, difference. Edited by Jonathan Rutherford, 222–237. London: Lawrence and Wishart.
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  183. Seminal essay arguing that identity be approached as a production in process rather than an established fact and that elemental to formations of Caribbean identity is the dialogic relationship between cultural continuity and rupture generated by its diasporas.
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  185. Kempadoo, Kamala. 2004. Sexing the Caribbean: Gender, race, and sexual labor. New York: Routledge.
  186. DOI: 10.4324/9780203338087Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. Classic work focusing on the social construction of prostitution as the means to analyze the linkages among race, class, gender, and sexuality in the Caribbean and their consequences for women’s lives and the ways we understand sex, power, and labor.
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  189. Olwig, Karen Fog. 2007. Caribbean Journeys: An ethnography of migration and home in three family networks. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  191. An ethnographic study of migration among three West Indian families within the Caribbean and to North America and the United Kingdom. Argues that the immediate intimacies of kinship are central to the formation and maintenance of transnational ties.
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  193. Sheller, Mimi. 2012. Citizenship from below: Erotic agency and Caribbean freedom. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  195. Examines the articulation of the state, the body, race, and sexuality in theorizing citizenship in the Caribbean, where citizenship “from below” sheds light on the disavowed arenas of lived experience, notably through the intimate arenas of bodily performance. Looks specifically at activism, gender identities, nationalism, arts, and civil rights.
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  197. Thomas, Deborah A. 2011. Exceptional violence: Embodied citizenship in transnational Jamaica. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  199. A study centered in Jamaica and addressing the wider Caribbean about the phenomenon of violence as historical legacy, structural condition, and social imaginary. Argues culturalist explanations need to be abandoned in favor of a reemphasis on the probing of historical and structural foundations of Caribbean societies.
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  201. Yelvington, Kevin A., ed. 2006. Afro-Atlantic dialogues: Anthropology in the diaspora. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research.
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  203. A diverse group of anthropologists examine the historical, cultural, and philosophical dimensions of the African diaspora in the Atlantic World and in the process consider the meaning and efficacy of the concept of diaspora in Caribbean/Atlantic studies.
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  205. Creolization
  206.  
  207. From its colonization, the Caribbean has represented newness, which Europeans captured in the term creole. When applied to the region, the Spanish word criollo and the Portuguese word crioulo (derived from the verb criar; to raise or bring up) signified something or someone originating in Europe or Africa and reproducing itself in the New World. The abiding questions about creolization are concerned with the nature of cultural change, discussed in the early treatment Ortiz 1947 as well as in Stewart 2007 and Sidbury and Cañizares-Esguerra 2011. The expressions and consequences of cultural encounters among diverse groups within certain regimes of power are the focus of Crichlow and Northover 2009, Khan 2007, and Price 2009. The character of and relationships within and among particular social formations, notably regions and nation-states, are discussed from a Francophone Caribbean vantage point in Bernabé, et al. 1989 and from an Anglophone Caribbean point of view in Munasinghe 2001.
  208.  
  209. Bernabé, Jean, Patrick Chamoiseau, and Raphaël Confiant. 1989. Eloge de la Creolite/In praise of creoleness. Translated by M. B. Taleb-Khyar. Paris: Gallimard.
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  211. Classic and controversial work from the Francophone Caribbean calling for a revision of the idea of creole history, identity, and literature. Argues for a completely new syncretic, creole culture made possible by cultural mixing over time but without antecedents, for example, Old World cultural traditions. Bilingual edition.
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  213. Crichlow, Michaeline, and Patricia Northover. 2009. Globalization and the post-creole imagination: Notes on fleeing the plantation. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
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  215. Critiques the concept of creolization, arguing that its conventional setting in the Caribbean confines it to old debates about creole identity. Argues that creolization is a continuous process not to be relegated to the past and thus questions whether it is unique to the Caribbean.
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  217. Khan, Aisha. 2007. Good to think? Creolization, optimism, and agency. Current Anthropology 48.5: 653–673.
  218. DOI: 10.1086/522318Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Looks at the concept of creolization by focusing on the ways it is informed by notions of agency and consciousness to explore the utility of creolization for theory-building and ethnographic research. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  221. Munasinghe, Viranjini. 2001. Callaloo or tossed salad? East Indians and the cultural politics of identity in Trinidad. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press.
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  223. Draws on theories of creolization, offering a case study of identity politics among Indo-Trinidadian and Afro-Trinidadians in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, particularly in terms of struggles over political representation and the construction of identity in national and cultural terms. Argues that Indo and Afro must both be considered creole peoples.
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  225. Ortiz, Fernando. 1947. Cuban counterpoint: Tobacco and sugar. Translated by Harriet de Onís. New York: Knopf.
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  227. Classic, foundational text in Caribbean studies examining the literal and metaphoric significance of sugar and tobacco on Cuban society. Offers the model of transculturation as a way to interpret the region’s multiplicity of histories, cultures, languages, and worldviews in which culture change is a dynamic process among subjugated peoples, not a passive submission to dominant, colonizing cultures.
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  229. Price, Richard. 2009. Travels with Tooy: History, memory, and the African American imagination. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
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  231. Ethnographic study of the multiple worlds recognized and inhabited by Tooy, a Saramaka Maroon healer. Explores processes of creolization in Saramaka society through Tooy’s healing and cosmology as he travels through time and space, past and present.
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  233. Sidbury, James, and Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra. 2011. Mapping ethnogenesis in the early modern Atlantic 2011. William and Mary Quarterly 68.2: 181–208.
  234. DOI: 10.5309/willmaryquar.68.2.0181Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Sidbury and Cañizares-Esguerra offer the lead article in a useful exchange among scholars debating the concept of creolization and discussing some alternative theoretical frameworks in a special forum on ethnogenesis within this issue of the William and Mary Quarterly (see pp. 181–246).
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  237. Stewart, Charles C., ed. 2007. Creolization: History, ethnography, theory. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast.
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  239. Good introduction to the concept of creolization as historical process, theoretical concept, and ethnographic practice. Argues against monolithic definitions and approaches the concept emphasizing its flexible meanings and applications within and outside the Caribbean.
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  241. The Cultural and Environmental Impacts of Tourism
  242.  
  243. Since at least the 19th century imagined as a place of leisure and fantasy, the Caribbean today is heavily dependent on international tourism, which significantly shapes local culture and politics as well as economies. Daye, et al. 2008 and Pattullo 2005 are good overview introductions to tourism in the Caribbean as a problematic. Baver and Lynch 2006 and Siegel and Righter 2011 highlight current trends in the study of Caribbean tourism, focusing on environmental impact; Gmelch 2003 and Padilla 2007 look at the lived experience of tourism on the part of local populations from, respectively, the Anglophone and Hispanophone Caribbean; and Cohen 2010 is concerned with the development of tourism in response to increasing globalization and shifting national agendas.
  244.  
  245. Baver, Sherrie L., and Barbara Deutsch Lynch, eds. 2006. Beyond sun and sand: Caribbean environmentalisms. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Provides studies of the Caribbean’s environmental issues and the social movements concerned with them.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Cohen, Colleen Ballerino. 2010. Take me to my paradise: Tourism and nationalism in the British Virgin Islands. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Analyzes the ways that tourism, nationalism, and globalization are linked in a series of processes that created the British Virgin Islands out of the goals and workings of the tourism industry and inquires into the uneven benefits that this form of development brings to local communities.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Daye, Marcella, Donna Chambers, and Sherma Roberts, eds. 2008. New perspectives in Caribbean tourism. New York: Routledge.
  254. DOI: 10.4324/9780203931271Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Good introduction to new turns in Caribbean tourism studies, emphasizing the widespread influence of tourism that exceeds its image as an industry or career. Argues that tourism has beneficial impacts and that its critique must include perspectives of those within the region.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Gmelch, George. 2003. Behind the smile: The working lives of Caribbean tourism. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. Introduces the multiple sides of tourism in the Caribbean, particularly the ways it is experienced by individuals. Focusing on Barbados, presents first-person narratives of twenty people working in the industry, from managerial staff, to bartenders, to beach venders.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Padilla, Mark. 2007. Caribbean pleasure industry: Tourism, sexuality, and AIDS in the Dominican Republic. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  262. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226644370.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. An ethnographic study of Dominican men and foreign male tourists, focusing on the connections among the tourism industry, sex work, homoeroticism, and HIV/AIDS.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Pattullo, Polly. 2005. Last resorts: The cost of tourism in the Caribbean. New York: Monthly Review.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Overview of the impact of Caribbean tourism as a development strategy that exploits local resources and creates and sustains forms of social inequality among host populations.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Siegel, Peter E., and Elizabeth Righter, eds. 2011. Protecting heritage in the Caribbean. Tuscaloosa: Univ. of Alabama Press.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Overview of the ways that Caribbean countries work to protect cultural heritage within the context of economic development and globalization.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Race, Color, and Ethnicity
  274.  
  275. From the earliest days of colonial rule, the Caribbean social and moral order was based on ranked gradations of “races,” “colors,” and ethnicities (or cultural heritages) represented by skin color, hair texture, facial features, and associated customs and traditions. Good introductions to the structural and ideological forces originating and sustaining these hierarchies are in Moore 1995 on racial ideologies among Indo-Trinidadians and Afro-Trinidadians; Oostindie 2005 on pan-Caribbean forms of ethnic and racial identity; and Yelvington 1993, whose anthology focuses on the meanings and significance of ethnicity in Trinidad and Tobago. Also useful are Nicholls 1996 and Candelario 2007 as case studies of Haiti and the Dominican Republic, respectively. Good inquiries into the production of knowledge and its critique are found in James 1963, which provides a cultural analysis of cricket, and Price and Price 2003, which examines a moment in the history of Afro-American anthropology. An important work on Guyana is Williams 1991, an analysis of social inequality through the frame of ethnicity and class.
  276.  
  277. Candelario, Ginetta E. B. 2007. Black behind the ears: Dominican racial identity from museums to beauty shops. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Case study of racial and gender formations among Dominicans in the Dominican Republic and Dominican diaspora in the United States. Focuses on construction of identities through visual representation, particularly in beauty shops and museums.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. James, Cyril L. R. 1963. Beyond a boundary. New York: Pantheon.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Classic, foundational text analyzing Caribbean politics, including racial politics, through the subject of cricket.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Moore, Dennison. 1995. Origins and development of racial ideology in Trinidad: The black view of the East Indian. Tunapuna, Trinidad: Chakra.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. Interested in the ideologies and worldviews that underlie racism in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and, by extension, the Caribbean. Focuses on the historical conflict between Afro-Trinidadians and Indo-Trinidadians—recipients, sustainers, and challengers of Euro-colonial racist ideologies.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Nicholls, David. 1996. From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, colour and national independence in Haiti. Rev. ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Historical study tracking the role of ideas about race and color in Haiti since its 1804 revolution, and the relevance of race and color to Haiti’s national independence. Argues that race and color worked differently as factors in processes of independence, where color was divisive and race was unifying.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Oostindie, Gert, ed. 2005. Ethnicity in the Caribbean: Essays in honor of Harry Hoetink. Amsterdam: Amsterdam Univ. Press.
  294. DOI: 10.5117/9789053568514Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Volume contributors look into pan-Caribbean forms of ethnicity, ethnic identity, race, and national identity within the region and among its diasporas.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Price, Richard, and Sally Price. 2003. The root of roots, or, how Afro-American anthropology got its start. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. A close look at the 1920s expedition diaries of anthropologists Melville and Frances Herskovits, revealing the problematics of race and racism and their relation to the academic pursuit of Africa in the Americas.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Williams, Brackette F. 1991. Stains on my name, war in my veins: Guyana and the politics of cultural struggle. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Important analysis of the relation between nationalism and ethnic group identities among people in Guyana, as they work to reconcile the homogenizing nationalist culture of independence and the draw of ethnic, class, and religious differences.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Yelvington, Kevin A., ed. 1993. Trinidad ethnicity. Knoxville: Univ. of Tennessee Press.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Featuring the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago as case study, interdisciplinary contributors analyze the historical genesis, social construction, and cultural significance of identities based on ideas about ethnicity.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Genders and Sexualities
  310.  
  311. Fantasies, anxieties, avowals, and denials of many kinds accompanied the gender roles and relations, and sexual imaginaries of the colonial project in the Caribbean. Henry 2011 and Shepherd 2002 offer good case studies of gender rights and sexuality and highlight specific transnational historical projects. Allen 2011, Curtis 2009, and Wekker 2006 offer good analyses of national contexts within processes of globalization and diaspora, focusing, respectively, on the Hispanophone Caribbean, the Anglophone Caribbean, and the Dutch Antilles. Other recent works on sexuality in the Caribbean, including Glave 2008, Reddock 2004, and Gosine 2009, approach it as multidimensional in its expression and central to understanding broader structures and relations of power.
  312.  
  313. Allen, Jafari S. 2011. Venceremos? The erotics of black self-making in Cuba. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Ethnographic study of desire, race, gender, queerness, and belonging among contemporary Afro-Cubans, at the cusp of Cuba’s expanded participation in the global economy. Argues for looking at desire as a means of potentially transforming racialized and sexualized identities.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Curtis, Debra. 2009. Pleasures and perils: Girls’ sexuality in a Caribbean consumer culture. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. An ethnographic investigation into the ideas and practices of young women’s and girls’ sexuality in Nevis. Argues that they simultaneously contend with the forces of Christianity, public health measures, and media-encouraged consumer culture.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Glave, Thomas, ed. 2008. Our Caribbean: A gathering of lesbian and gay writing from the Antilles. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. An anthology of writing from the Caribbean, including nonfiction, fiction, and memoir, that well exemplifies of the ongoing dialogue about lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered experiences among Caribbean peoples and their diasporas.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Gosine, Andil. ed. 2009. Special issue: Sexual desires, rights, and regulation. Caribbean Review of Gender Studies 3.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Online journal featuring scholarship and creative work on the Caribbean and its diasporas within the frameworks of feminist and gender theorizing. This special issue explores the regulation of sexual desire under colonialism, resistance, and forms of postcolonial government.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Henry, Paget. 2011. Gender and Africana phenomenology. CLR James Journal 17.1: 153–183.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Examines the mutually informing dialogue between Africana philosophy and black feminism, arguing that, despite the profeminist stances taken by male Africana philosophers, black feminist voices created the most effective spaces for women’s representation. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Reddock, Rhoda E., ed. 2004. Interrogating Caribbean masculinities: Theoretical and empirical analyses. Mona, Jamaica: Univ. of the West Indies Press.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A good interdisciplinary overview of theoretical and empirical approaches to masculinity in the Caribbean, emphasizing the significance of power and social inequality in shaping sexualities.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Shepherd, Verene A. 2002. Maharani’s misery: Narratives of a passage from India to the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: Univ. of the West Indies Press.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A study of gender in 19th-and 20th-century Caribbean Indian indenture. Focuses on Indian women’s exploitation aboard ship, particularly sexual exploitation, emphasizing one case study to argue that in the Caribbean, Indian indenture, and African slavery were comparable forms of exploitation.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Wekker, Gloria. 2006. The politics of passion: Women’s sexual culture in the Afro-Surinamese diaspora. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Ethnographic study of sexual practices and selfhood among women of African descent in Suriname. Focuses on “mati work,” the sexual and emotional bonds that connect women into relationships of mutual responsibility.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Expressive Culture
  346.  
  347. For centuries associated with indigenous and carnival arts and many forms of music, the Caribbean has also produced painters and sculptors as well as being the subject of the artistic imaginations of artists from other parts of the world. Green and Scher 2007 is a good introduction to carnival. Caribbean music is usefully discussed in Guilbault 2007; Manuel, et al. 2006; and Moore 2009. Cooper 2004 and Niranjana 2006 offer cultural analyses of Caribbean art forms. Daniel 2011 provides a thorough look at selective examples of dance in the region. An imperative reading in this area is Price and Price 1999 on Maroon arts.
  348.  
  349. Cooper, Carolyn. 2004. Sound clash: Jamaican dancehall culture at large. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  350. DOI: 10.1057/9781403982605Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Examines the social space of the dance hall and the dancehall culture produced there as arenas of creativity and resistance among the urban poor to the social inequalities of Caribbean postcolonial societies.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Daniel, Yvonne. 2011. Caribbean and Atlantic diaspora dance: Igniting citizenship. Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. A historical and cultural pan-Caribbean look at selected dance genres brought to the region by its European and African diasporas.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Green, Garth L., and Philip W. Scher, eds. 2007. Trinidad carnival: The cultural politics of a transnational festival. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. An interdisciplinary selection of essays looking at carnival in Trinidad as both a national and transnational cultural, political, and historical art form.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Guilbault, Jocelyne. 2007. Governing sound: The cultural politics of Trinidad’s carnival musics. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Historical, political, and musicological analysis of Trinidadian calypso music, arguing that its production and reception reveal the ways that national identity and belonging are constructed and expressed in Trinidad.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Manuel, Peter, Kenneth Bilby, and Michael Largey. 2006. Caribbean currents: Caribbean music from Rumba to Reggae. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Good survey of the many types of music of the Caribbean, covering their historical development and contemporary significance for politics, race, gender, and class.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Moore, Robin. 2009. Music in the Hispanic Caribbean: Experiencing music, expressing culture. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Good survey of the types of music of the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, covering the significance of slavery, creolization, and diaspora among these art forms.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Niranjana, Tejaswini. 2006. Mobilizing India: Women, music and migration between India and Trinidad. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Analyzes Indian cultural and gender identity among diaspora populations in the Caribbean, specifically the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, through the growth and popularity of chutney soca music.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Price, Sally, and Richard Price. 1999. Maroon arts. Boston: Beacon.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. Beautiful coverage of the arts of Maroon communities in Suriname and French Guiana, emphasizing the combination of pan-African aesthetics and creolized forms of expression.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Religious Expressions
  382.  
  383. Building on and combining the cosmologies and belief systems of antecedent indigenous peoples of South America, Africa, Europe, and Asia, Caribbean religions have undergone complex transformations for five hundred years, where institutionalized and vernacular religious traditions work together as mediums of healing, inspiration, divination, and relating the natural and supernatural worlds. Rommen 2007 deals with Christianity and its relation to gospel music, while Khan 2004 is concerned with Hinduism and Islam and their roles and meanings in identity politics. Haitian and transnational Vodou are the subjects of McCarthy Brown 2010, which focuses on an individual practitioner, Mama Lola, to introduce readers to this complex world. Orisha and Shakti Puja are syncretic religions common to the Anglophone Afro-Caribbean and Indo-Caribbean, discussed in McNeal 2011. Brown 2008, Paton and Forde 2012, and Palmié 2008 are good examples of studies grappling with the definition of belief, reality, otherworld, and religion itself, and the ways these are lived by Caribbean communities.
  384.  
  385. Brown, Vincent. 2008. The reaper’s garden: Death and power in the world of Atlantic slavery. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Explores the idea and experience of death during the era of slavery in the Atlantic World, focusing on Jamaica and arguing that the meaning of death was not limited only to destruction and finality but also included the creation of key aspects of social and political life.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Khan, Aisha. 2004. Callaloo nation: Metaphors of race and religious identity among south Asians in Trinidad. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Taking the foundational Caribbean trope of “mixing,” analyzes its meanings and uses among Muslim and Hindu Indo-Trinidadians as they interpret their diasporic pasts, authentic cultural heritages, and sociopolitical marginalization.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. McCarthy Brown, Karen. 2010. Mama Lola: A Vodou priestess in Brooklyn. Rev. ed. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Classic, foundational ethnography on Haitian Vodou in Haiti and in the New York diaspora. Beautifully written, discusses the meaning of Vodou in its everyday practice among practitioners, particularly through the work of priestess Mama Lola. Foreword by Claudine Michel.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. McNeal, Keith E. 2011. Trance and modernity in the Southern Caribbean: African and Hindu popular religions in Trinidad and Tobago. Gainesville: Univ. Press of Florida.
  398. DOI: 10.5744/florida/9780813037363.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Ethnographic study of ecstatic forms of worship among African and Hindu popular religions in the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, focusing on Orisha and Shakti Puja and their relationship to contemporary processes of globalization and the notion of modernity.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Palmié, Stephan, ed. 2008. Africas of the Americas: Beyond the search for origins in the study of Afro-Atlantic religions. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  402. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004164727.i-390Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Explores African diasporic religions through interdisciplinary case studies presenting Africa as not a geographical and cultural given but rather a context-contingent symbol whose multidimensional constructions are key to understanding Atlantic religious practice and traditions.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Paton, Diana, and Maarit Forde, eds. 2012. Obeah and other powers: The politics of Caribbean religion and healing. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Interdisciplinary analysis of historically and socially stigmatized religious and healing traditions in the Caribbean, examining their cultural and social histories and the creation of categories of knowledge that have defined them as marginal and dangerous.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Rommen, Timothy. 2007. “Mek some noise”: Gospel music and the ethics of style in Trinidad. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  410. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520250673.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Ethnographic study of the production, reception, ethical concerns, and style of Caribbean Christian gospel music, focusing on the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago.
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