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Scandinavia (Anthropology)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Scandinavia, a region of Northern Europe, includes Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. In English, the term Scandinavia is often used to refer to a broader geographic area that also encompasses Iceland, Finland, and the Faroe Islands, although this larger group is perhaps more accurately referred to as the Nordic countries, following usage of the terms in Northern Europe. To avoid repetition, the two terms will be used interchangeably in this article, according to the common English usage. Historically and culturally, Scandinavia proper—Denmark, Norway, and Sweden—is closely linked, and Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish are mutually intelligible. Icelandic and Faroese—like Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish—are North Germanic languages, while Finnish along with Sámi—the group of languages spoken by the indigenous Northern European Sámi peoples—are Uralic languages. The Nordic countries share important political and economic characteristics, sometimes referred to internationally as the “Nordic model,” including traditionally powerful Social Democratic political parties, universalist welfare states, expansive social safety nets, strong labor unions as well as policy emphases on gender, socioeconomic, and other forms of equality. Early empirical research in the Nordic countries, which has historically been conducted within the fields of ethnology and folklife studies, often focused on indigenous Sámi peoples or was situated in small maritime or agricultural villages. Nordic anthropologists, in contrast, traditionally conducted their fieldwork abroad. However, these older distinctions between these two disciplines have become less relevant over time (see also Anthropology, Ethnology, and Folklife). Beginning in the 1970s and 1980s, anthropologists and ethnologists of the Nordic region have increasingly expanded the purview of their research to include urban communities, institutional and bureaucratic settings, medical encounters, and financial markets, to name just a few areas of inquiry. Anthropologists have also addressed cultural and demographic changes corresponding to urbanization and increased rates of immigration to the Scandinavian countries, particularly since the 1970s, examining articulations and transformations of understandings of race and ethnicity in relation to cultural logics of gender, sexuality, and national belonging. Scholarship on globalization has also highlighted the changing place of Nordic national and regional imaginaries as transnational movements of persons, objects, and values map out new connections between the local and the global.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. There are important similarities and shared histories linking the Nordic countries, and anthropologists working in this geographical region have long been in conversation, both with other Scandinavian scholars and with transnational developments in the social sciences. However, there are also divergences and differences in the specific theoretical directions and institutional structures that have developed in the anthropologies of Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Iceland. Nicolaisen 1980 provides insight into some of these national intellectual histories. As noted in Gullestad 1989—probably the most ambitious work that collects and reviews work in the anthropology of Scandinavia—anthropological communities in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway have been particularly well connected, partly due to the mutual intelligibility and readability of their national languages, and partly for cultural and political reasons. Byron 2002 helpfully situates Nordic anthropology within the larger field of European anthropology and includes a discussion of the most Influential Early Works in this field. Although Bruun, et al. 2011 draws most heavily on scholarship about Denmark, it also uses Marianne Gullestad’s work on “equality as sameness” in Norway as a window into themes of egalitarianism and hierarchy that connect a wide-reaching body of anthropological work on Scandinavia. Durrenberger and Pálsson 1995, an edited volume, surveys some of the major themes and preoccupations animating Icelandic anthropology, including special attention to kinship, gender, and national identity. In comparison to American and British anthropologists, Nordic anthropologists are generally more active participants in public intellectual life. Norwegian anthropologists in particular have played a prominent part in their national intellectual community, frequently contributing to popular media and participating in public debates. Eriksen 2008 describes some of the factors contributing to the development of this robust form of public anthropology in Norway.
  8.  
  9. Bruun, Maja Hojer, Gry Skrædderdal Jakobsen, and Stine Krøijer. 2011. Introduction: The concern for sociality-practicing equality and hierarchy in Denmark. Social Analysis 55.2: 1–19.
  10. DOI: 10.3167/sa.2011.550201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. Editors’ introduction to a special issue of Social Analysis, titled “The concern for sociality: Practicing Equality and Hierarchy in Denmark,” which is in critical conversation with influential Norwegian anthropologist Marianne Gullestad’s work on Nordic egalitarianism and sociality. Includes a comprehensive genealogy of major works in Scandinavian anthropology, particularly those dealing with ideas of equality.
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  13. Byron, Reginald. 2002. The anthropology of Northern Europe. In Encyclopedia of social and cultural anthropology. Edited by Alan Barnard and Jonathan Spencer, 208–209. London: Routledge.
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  15. Situates the development of Scandinavian anthropology in the context of European anthropology more broadly, and gives a useful compendium of important early works in the anthropology of Northern Europe.
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  17. Durrenberger, Edward Paul, and Gísli Pálsson. 1995. The anthropology of Iceland. Iowa City: Univ. of Iowa Press.
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  19. Divided into four thematic sections, this edited volume contains a cross section of anthropological work in Iceland across topics of ideology and action; kinship and gender; culture, class, and ethnicity; and the historical commonwealth period.
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  21. Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. 2008. The otherness of Norwegian anthropology. In Other people’s anthropologies: Ethnographic practice on the margins. Edited by Aleksandar Bošković, 169–185. New York: Berghahn.
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  23. This chapter explores the influence of British social anthropology on Norwegian anthropology, and describes some of the trajectories leading to the unusually prominent position of many contemporary Norwegian anthropologists as public intellectuals.
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  25. Gullestad, Marianne. 1989. Small facts and large issues: The anthropology of contemporary Scandinavian society. Annual Review of Anthropology 18.1: 71–93.
  26. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.an.18.100189.000443Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. This review article offers an exhaustive overview of the most important anthropological scholarship of Scandinavia through the late 1980s, and is an essential resource in this field.
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  29. Nicolaisen, Johannes. 1980. Scandinavia: All approaches are fruitful. In Anthropology: Ancestors and heirs. Edited by Stanley Diamond, 259–273. The Hague: Walter de Gruyter.
  30. DOI: 10.1515/9783110807462Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Gives an overview of the historical development of the field of anthropology in the Scandinavian countries, and is particularly strong on Danish anthropology.
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  33. Journals
  34.  
  35. Anthropological research on Scandinavia is published in a number of peer-reviewed international journals. In addition to the general and international anthropology journals, ethnographic research on Scandinavia appears in regional and specialized journals as well. Reflecting the divergent historical development of ethnology and anthropology within the Nordic countries, ethnological journals, such as Ethnologia Scandinavica: A Journal of Nordic Ethnology, have traditionally published research about Scandinavia, while anthropological journals—such as the Norwegian Anthropological Association’s Norsk antropologisk tidsskrift, Suomen Antropologi of the Finnish Anthropological Society, and the Danish Tidsskriftet antropologi—have featured scholarly work by Scandinavian anthropologists, irrespective of geographical specialization. However, in more recent years, these geographical and disciplinary distinctions have become somewhat blurred with some Nordic anthropologists conducting fieldwork “at home,” while some ethnologists have adopted a more international perspective, including comparative studies. This shift is exemplified by the well-known anthropological journal Ethnos that was founded in 1936 by the Swedish Ethnographical Museum with the aim of primarily covering extra-European ethnology and archaeology, and was published in Scandinavia until 1998. The editorial office remains in Scandinavia, but over the years the focus of the journal has expanded to include the full range of contemporary research in sociocultural anthropology internationally. Two other journals—Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies and Arctic Anthropology—delineate their geographical specialization somewhat differently, publishing a range of ethnographic, historical, and archaeological scholarship emphasizing ecological, sociopolitical, and cultural aspects of life above the Arctic Circle. Anthropological work that specifically addresses migration, integration, and intercultural relations is often published in the multidisciplinary Nordic Journal of Migration Research, which prioritizes disseminating research focused on the Nordic countries.
  36.  
  37. Acta Borealia: A Nordic Journal of Circumpolar Societies. 1984–.
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  39. This is a multidisciplinary, peer-reviewed cultural studies journal published by Taylor and Francis Group and edited by researchers at the University of Tromsø. Acta Borealia is biannually published and in English.
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  41. Arctic Anthropology. 1962–.
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  43. Published by the University of Wisconsin Press, Arctic Anthropology is a peer-reviewed biannual journal with a four-field approach to the cultures and peoples of the arctic, subarctic, and contiguous regions.
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  45. Ethnologia Scandinavica: A Journal of Nordic Ethnology. 1971–.
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  47. Based in Sweden, this peer-reviewed journal publishes Nordic ethnological research articles. Published annually, Ethnologia Scandinavica includes scholarship examining life and culture throughout Scandinavia. In English, and aimed at an international audience.
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  49. Ethnos. 1936–.
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  51. A peer-reviewed journal of sociocultural anthropology that is editorially based in Scandinavia. Founded in 1936 by the Swedish Ethnographical Museum and published four times a year. In English.
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  53. Jordens Folk: Journal of the Danish Ethnographic Society.
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  55. Jordens Folk, the peer-reviewed journal of the Danish Ethnographic Society, publishes ethnographic studies with an accessible, popular-scientific orientation. Articles are primarily in Danish.
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  57. Nordic Journal of Migration Research. 2011–.
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  59. Founded in 2011, this open-access multidisciplinary journal publishes empirical research on migration, integration, and ethnic and intercultural relations. While not exclusively focused on the Nordic region, greater emphasis is placed on the publication of research in the Nordic context. In English.
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  61. Norsk antropologisk tidsskrift.
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  63. This is the Norwegian Anthropological Association’s peer-reviewed quarterly journal. The primarily Norwegian-language journal publishes empirical and theoretical work in social anthropology as well as book reviews and debate pieces.
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  65. Scandinavian Studies. 1911–.
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  67. This peer-reviewed journal is published by the US-based Society for the Advancement of Scandinavian Studies, and accepts scholarly work examining Scandinavian languages and literatures as well as historical, social, and cultural research focused on the Nordic region.
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  69. Suomen Antropologi: Journal of the Finnish Anthropological Society. 1997–.
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  71. This is the (primarily) English-language, peer-reviewed journal of the Finnish Anthropological Society. Published quarterly, Suomen Antropologi accepts ethnographic articles, reviews, critical essays, conference reports, and interviews.
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  73. Tidsskriftet antropologi. 1977–.
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  75. The biannually published, peer-reviewed journal of the Danish Anthropological Association. Each issue is organized around a topical theme, with research articles in Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian.
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  77. Influential Early Works
  78.  
  79. From the 1950s to the 1970s, several significant ethnographic studies of Scandinavia were published. These early works, many of which take a structuralist perspective, have had an enduring influence on the development of Nordic anthropology and ethnology—even as theoretical directions have changed—and can be considered classic works in this field. Daun 1969, a study of social tension and labor disputes surrounding the closure of a sawmill in Northern Sweden; Daun 1974, describing social and economic change in a suburban town; and Yngvesson 1978, an analysis of decision-making processes in a small fishing village community, are foundational ethnographies of Sweden. Swedish ethnographers in this period remained indebted to Berg and Svensson 1934, a classic ethnological survey of Swedish peasant culture. In Norway, Barth 1952—a cultural ecological study based on fieldwork in a mountain farming community, and Barnes 1954—a social network analysis of the social relations and organization of an island community, are noteworthy mid-century applications of ethnographic methods to Norwegian society. Social change and conflict—dominant themes in anthropological work in this era—are also central questions in Anderson and Anderson 1964, an ethnographic study of a transformative period in a Danish maritime village.
  80.  
  81. Anderson, Robert Thomas, and Barbara Gallatin Anderson. 1964. The vanishing village: A Danish maritime community. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
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  83. Based on ethnographic fieldwork with a small Danish island community, this study analyzes the seeming absence of conflict during processes of social change in a village.
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  85. Barnes, John A. 1954. Class and committees in a Norwegian island parish. Human Relations 7:39–58.
  86. DOI: 10.1177/001872675400700102Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. This analysis of the social relations and organization of a small Norwegian village and its occupants offers an important early conceptualization of social network theory.
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  89. Barth, Fredrik. 1952. Subsistence and institutional system in a Norwegian mountain valley. Rural Sociology 17.1: 28–38.
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  91. A classic ethnography of a small mountain community of farmers in Norway that takes a cultural ecological approach to the community’s adaptation to their environment, taking into account kinship, social structure, labor, and economy.
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  93. Berg, Gösta, and Sigfrid Svensson. 1934. Svensk bondekultur. Stockholm: Bonnier.
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  95. A foundational ethnological study of Swedish peasant culture, focusing on religious beliefs, customs, and material culture. In Swedish.
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  97. Daun, Åke. 1969. Upp till kamp i Båtskärsnäs! En etnologisk studie av ett samhälle inför industrinedläggelse. Stockholm: Bokfrlaget Prisma.
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  99. An ethnological examination of the labor dispute surrounding the closure of a sawmill in northern Sweden in the 1960s, which remains a classic in the field. In Swedish.
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  101. Daun, Åke. 1974. Förortsliv: En etnologisk studie av kulturell forändring. Lund, Sweden: Bokförlaget Prisma.
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  103. Focuses on individual and group consequences of economic and social change in Vårberg, a Swedish suburb. In Swedish.
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  105. Yngvesson, Barbara. 1978. Leadership and consensus: Decision-making in an egalitarian community. Ethnos 43.1–2: 73–90.
  106. DOI: 10.1080/00141844.1978.9981148Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Drawing on ethnographic research in a Swedish fishing community in the late 1960s, this article offers a pragmatic view of the process by which groups arrive at consensus through distributing responsibility for controversial decisions.
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  109. Anthropology, Ethnology, and Folklife
  110.  
  111. In Scandinavia, as in Europe more generally, the fields of ethnology and folklife studies have historically been distinguished from the discipline of anthropology. Traditionally, European ethnologists, including Nordic ethnologists, were known for their focus on the cultures and lifeways of their own countries as well as for a more historical approach. In contrast, Nordic anthropologists conducted fieldwork further afield, often studying non-European societies. However, in more recent years, these geographical and disciplinary distinctions have become somewhat blurred, with some Nordic anthropologists conducting fieldwork “at home,” while some ethnologists have adopted a more international perspective, including comparative studies. Frykman 2012 offers a thorough overview of the relationship between ethnology and anthropology in Europe, with a particular emphasis on the Scandinavian perspective, while Eriksen 2011 gives a careful comparison of the emergence of the study of folk culture, open-air museums, ethnology, and, later, the field of cultural history in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Hannerz 1985 introduces a special issue of Ethnos reviewing developments in the history, ethnology, and anthropology of Scandinavia. Klein 2000 and Klein 2006 discuss the trajectory of folklife and ethnological research in the Swedish context, and the way these fields have been caught up in nationalist projects in different periods. For a comprehensive discussion of the development of Finnish ethnology, folklore, and anthropology, see Siikala 2006 and Salmi 2011. Pálsson and Guðbjörnsson 2011 describes the historical construction of “the Icelanders” within physical and biological anthropological scholarship over the 20th century, and explains some of the ways that biological materials and texts have been used to support particular visions of the Icelandic past and present.
  112.  
  113. Eriksen, Anne. 2011. From ethnology and folklore studies to cultural history in Scandinavia. In Cultural history in Europe: Institutions—themes—perspectives. Edited by Jörg Rogge, 31–44. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag.
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  115. Compares the emergence of the study of folk culture, open-air museums, ethnology, and the field of cultural history in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
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  117. Frykman, Jonas. 2012. A tale of two disciplines: European ethnology and the anthropology of Europe. In A companion to the anthropology of Europe. Edited by Jonas Frykman, Ullrich Kockel, and Mairead Nic Craith, 572–589. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  118. DOI: 10.1002/9781118257203.ch33Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. A thorough overview of the relationship between ethnology and anthropology in Europe, with a particular emphasis on the Scandinavian perspective.
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  121. Hannerz, Ulf. 1985. History and anthropology in Scandinavia: An introduction. Ethnos 50.3–4: 165–167.
  122. DOI: 10.1080/00141844.1985.9981300Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. A concise introduction to a special issue reviewing major themes in history, ethnology, and anthropology in Scandinavia. Also describes the development of Nordic historical anthropology in the 1980s.
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  125. Klein, Barbro. 2000. The moral content of tradition: Homecraft, ethnology, and Swedish life in the twentieth century. Western Folklore 59.2: 171–195.
  126. DOI: 10.2307/1500158Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. Focuses on the development of an anthropologically and sociologically influenced discipline of ethnology in Sweden, and the ambivalent relationship between the increasingly theoretically oriented field of ethnology and the popular Swedish homecraft movement.
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  129. Klein, Barbro. 2006. Cultural heritage, the Swedish folklife sphere, and the others. Cultural Analysis 5:57–80.
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  131. Describes some of the distinctions between the fields of culture heritage, folk life studies, and related disciplines in Sweden.
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  133. Pálsson, Gísli, and Sigurður Örn Guðbjörnsson. 2011. Make no bones about it: The invention of Homo islandicus. Acta Borealia 28.2: 119–141.
  134. DOI: 10.1080/08003831.2011.626933Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  135. A theoretical discussion of various anthropological uses of Icelandic history and biological materials in relation to ideas of the nation and memory, drawing on Ludwik Fleck’s concept of “thought styles.”
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  137. Salmi, Hannu. 2011. Traditions of cultural history in Finland, 1900–2000. In Cultural history in Europe: Institutions—themes—perspectives. Edited by Jörg Rogge, 45–61. Bielefeld, Germany: Transcript Verlag.
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  139. A history of the study of culture in Finland, with thorough attention to connections between individuals and institutions over time.
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  141. Siikala, Jukka. 2006. The ethnography of Finland. Annual Review of Anthropology 35.1: 153–170.
  142. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123206Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. A detailed overview of the institutional and theoretical relationships between ethnology, folklore, and anthropology in Finland as well as their entanglements with nationalist discourses. Also discusses political and epistemological questions surrounding the development of Finnish and Finno-Ugric studies.
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  145. Sámi
  146.  
  147. The Sámi are an indigenous people of Northern Europe, with a population of around 80,000. Many Sámi live in the territory known as Sápmi, which stretches across the upper regions of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia. While missionaries, travelers, and scholars have written earlier accounts of the Sámi (once referred to as “Lapps,” an etic term that is now considered derogatory), comprehensive, empirically based reports generally date to the early to mid-20th century. Ethnologists, folklorists, and anthropologists in the Nordic region took an early interest in the customs, beliefs, and practices of the Sámi. While many of these initial studies can be considered examples of salvage ethnography, the collaborative work of Johan Turi, a Sámi man, and Emilie Demant Hatt, a Danish artist, offers an interesting example of early participatory ethnography in the region. The works described under the heading of Early Research offer important documentation of the history of Scandinavian anthropology and ethnology as well as the historical relationship between the Sámi and their Nordic neighbors. Contemporary Perspectives reviews more recent work on Sámi concerns, such as repatriation claims, cultural heritage, political movements, and climate change.
  148.  
  149. Early Research
  150.  
  151. Reuterskiöld 1912 and Solem 1933 are two influential early studies of Sámi communities. Reuterskiöld, a Swedish religious historian and theologian, wrote a well-known work on Sámi religion and mythology, while Solem, a Norwegian lawyer, produced an exhaustive report on Sámi systems of law and justice. By the 1940s and 1950s, a large number of anthropological accounts of the Nordic Sámi had been published, appearing in English, German, Russian, and the Scandinavian languages. Lowie 1945 provides an overview of some of the earliest of these works, and can be seen as indicative of the growing international interest in Sámi cultural forms. In the 1950s and 1960s, several ethnographic monographs of the Sámi were written. Gjessing 1954 and Paine 1965 are prominent works from this period, written by a Norwegian anthropologist and an English anthropologist, respectively. Both ethnographies examine the significant transformations in Sámi societies (primarily in Norway) in the postwar era, a period associated with an increased presence of the state in Sámi lives and communities. The first Sámi-language text about Sámi life and culture was Turi 2011 (originally published 1910), which presented a fascinating personal and ethnographic account of tradition and change in northern Sweden, written by Johan Turi—a Sámi man. Turi worked on the book with Emilie Demant Hatt, a Danish artist who translated his text, a process that Kuutma 2011 analyzes as an interesting early example of collaborative ethnography.
  152.  
  153. Gjessing, Gutorm. 1954. Changing Lapps: A study of culture relations in northernmost Europe. London: London School of Economics and Political Science.
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  155. An early monograph surveying the history, culture, and religion of the indigenous people of northern Scandinavia.
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  157. Kuutma, Kristin. 2011. The making of Sami ethnography: Contested authorities and negotiated representations. Journal of Ethnology and Folkloristics 2.1: 55–65.
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  159. Analyzes the collaborative relationship of Johan Turi, the Sámi author of An Account of the Sami, and Emilie Demant Hatt, a Danish artist who worked with Turi on the project and translated his text into Danish.
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  161. Lowie, Robert H. 1945. A note on Lapp culture history. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 1:447–454.
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  163. Synthesizes a selection of historical and contemporary scholarship on the Sámi and calls for a more comprehensive work combining the insights of existing Sámi scholarship.
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  165. Paine, Robert. 1965. A coast Lapp society II: A study of economic development and social values. Tromsø, Norway: Tromsøs Museum Skrifter.
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  167. An ethnographic monograph of coastal Sámi communities in northern Norway, with a particular focus on economic and social change in the community after the Second World War, and on the communities’ interactions with the Norwegian state.
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  169. Reuterskiöld, Edgar. 1912. De nordiske Lapparnas religion. Stockholm: Cederquists Grafiska Aktiebolag.
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  171. Examines the religious beliefs and practices of the Nordic Sámi. In Swedish.
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  173. Solem, Erik. 1933. Lappiske rettstudier. Oslo, Norway: H. Aschehoug.
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  175. A comprehensive survey of the legal, juridical, and political structures of Sámi, including comparative materials. In Norwegian.
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  177. Turi, Johan. 2011. An account of the Sami. Translated by Tomas A. duBois. Chicago: Nordic Studies.
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  179. An English translation of the first secular book published in a Sámi language. An ethnography of the Mountain Sámi written by a Sámi author. Originally published in 1910 as Muitalus sámiid birra.
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  181. Whitaker, Ian. 1955. Social relations in a nomadic Lappish community. Oslo, Norway: Norsk Folkemuseum.
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  183. An empirically based study of a nomadic indigenous community in northern Sweden, describing the group’s religion, kinship system, economic relations, and social relations with neighboring peasant villages.
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  185. Contemporary Perspectives
  186.  
  187. Lantto 2010 gives detailed descriptions of the historical complexities of Sámi negotiations concerning indigenous rights, citizenship rights, and transnational movement, while Hansen and Olsen 2004 covers earlier Sámi history and archaeology. Especially because reindeer husbandry and herding have been traditional livelihoods of the Sámi people, the partitioning of Sápmi through the institution and enforcement of borders between the Scandinavian nation-states has been an ongoing source of conflict in the region. The relationship between these states and Sámi populations has varied considerably across the Nordic region. Falch and Skandfer 2004 provides an in-depth overview of Sámi interactions with the Norwegian state, and Jomppanen 2002 offers perspective on issues relevant to Finnish Sámi. Lantto and Mörkenstam 2008 explicates conflicts within contemporary Swedish Sámi politics by tracing their development for over a century. In recent years, debates about repatriation, representation, and cultural heritage have been central to Sámi political movements, and have become important issues for Nordic museums to address. Levy 2006 examines the treatment of Sámi prehistory and archaeological materials in museum displays in Sweden, Norway, and Finland, revealing the politicization of these forms of representation. Mulk 2009 gives a thoughtful account of the tensions between the Swedish state, museums, and the Swedish Sámi population over repatriation of cultural objects and skeletal remains in Sweden. Climate change is also a major concern, as most of Sápmi lies north of the Arctic Circle. As Beach 2012 explains, for indigenous Sámi, Sápmi is a site of both material and cultural resources, and as environmental changes open new possibilities for mineral extraction and shipping routes, the rights to these resources are subject to new forms of contestation.
  188.  
  189. Beach, Hugh. 2012. Nordic reflections on northern social research. In A companion to the anthropology of Europe. Edited by Ullrich Kockel, Mairead Nic Craith, and Jonas Frykman, 32–49. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
  190. DOI: 10.1002/9781118257203Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Reviews major social scientific questions about colonialism, ethnicity, and political ecology as pertaining to northern indigenous peoples, drawing on anthropological case studies and fieldwork.
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  193. Falch, Torvald, and Marianne Skandfer. 2004. Sámi cultural heritage in Norway: Between local knowledge and the power of the state. In Northern ethnographic landscapes: Perspectives from circumpolar nations. Edited by Igor Krupnik, Rachel Mason, and Tonia W. Horton, 356–375. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
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  195. Gives an overview of the relationship between Norway’s Sámi population and the state, with a particular focus on questions relating to archaeological materials and the evaluation of epistemological claims.
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  197. Hansen, Lars Ivar, and Bjørnar Olsen. 2004. Samenes historie fram til 1750. Oslo, Norway: Cappelen.
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  199. An exhaustive survey of archaeological and historical research on the lives of the Sámi from the earliest records up through the mid-18th century, tracing the origins of concepts of Sámi ethnicity, rights, and resources. In Norwegian.
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  201. Jomppanen, Tarmo. 2002. Current situation of the Sámi heritage in Finland. In Vem äger kulturarvet? Anföranden vid konferens om återföringsfrågor vid Ájtte, Svenskt fjäll- och samemuseum 6–8 juni 2000. Edited by Inga-Maria Mulk, 35–39. Rapportserie Duoddaris 20. Lapland, Sweden: Ájtte.
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  203. A report describing challenges for Sámi cultural heritage projects in Finland, compiled as part of a conference on repatriation questions held at the Ájtte museum in Sweden. Copies of the full conference report can be ordered from the museum.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Lantto, Patrik. 2010. Borders, citizenship and change: The case of the Sami people, 1751–2008. Citizenship Studies 14.5: 543–556.
  206. DOI: 10.1080/13621025.2010.506709Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. Analyzes ongoing conflicts between indigenous rights and citizenship rights affecting Sámi people, tracing these issues historically for the past 250 years.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Lantto, Patrik, and Ulf Mörkenstam. 2008. Sami rights and Sami challenges: The modernization process and the Swedish Sami movement, 1886–2006. Scandinavian Journal of History 33.1: 26–51.
  210. DOI: 10.1080/03468750701431222Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Relates contemporary Sámi political efforts and public debates to the historical development of an established policy approach to “the Sámi” in Sweden.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Levy, Janet E. 2006. Prehistory, identity, and archaeological representation in Nordic museums. American Anthropologist 108.1: 135–147.
  214. DOI: 10.1525/aa.2006.108.1.135Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. Through an ethnographic analysis of museum displays about Sámi prehistory and archaeology in Swedish, Finnish, and Norwegian museums, this article looks at the cultural politics of representation and indigeneity in the Nordic context.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Mulk, Inga-Maria. 2009. Conflicts over the repatriation of Sami cultural heritage in Sweden. Acta Borealia 26.2: 194–215.
  218. DOI: 10.1080/08003830903372092Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. This article places current tensions between Sámi people and the Swedish state—particularly conflicts about cultural objects and skeletal remains—in the context of international scholarship on colonialism and assimilation policy.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Ethnographies of Everyday Life
  222.  
  223. Scandinavian ethnographers have produced a rich body of scholarship exploring everyday life and ordinary situations as anthropological routes into the profundities of lived experience. This work has revealed the complex ways that seemingly mundane moments and gestures both reflect and partake in the construction of individual identities, hopes, aspirations, and dreams, as well as forming the substance of social relations, friendships, and communities—even nations. Anthropological interest in the everyday first flourished in the 1980s in the Nordic countries. Gullestad 1983—a moving ethnography of working-class women’s daily experiences in Bergen, Norway—is one of the most well-known works in this area, demonstrating that anthropologists interested in core disciplinary questions such as the configuration of kinship or the maintenance of group morality can—and should—look closely at people’s quotidian activities, from getting together with close friends or decorating the house, to going out for a drink in the evening. Frykman and Löfgren 1987 traces ordinary Swedish preoccupations—walking in nature, cleaning the home—back in time, using this cultural history to shed light on the production of the idea of the Swedish nation. O’Dell 1997 also looks to the everyday to illuminate larger transformations in Sweden, in this case, the rising influence of American culture. Roberts 1989 looks to the past to illuminate the present, using the ubiquitous daily ritual of the coffee ceremony to examine ongoing rifts between cultural ideologies of individual autonomy and egalitarianism in Finland. More recently, the everyday has reemerged as an area of anthropological concern in Scandinavia. Ehn and Löfgren 2010 attends to the significance of in-between spaces and times, pointing out that understandings and experiences of not only productive activity, but also downtime, are culturally constituted. Haldrup, et al. 2006; Jenkins 2011; and Linnet 2011 scrutinize microlevels of Danish identity formation, showing how divisions between self and other are demonstrated, reproduced, or challenged through subtle signifiers and embodied practices, including conversation styles, social interactions, body movements, and habits. As the authors of these works point out, in the political context of an uneasy Scandinavian “multiculturalism,” the effects of such distinctions are far from mundane.
  224.  
  225. Ehn, Billy, and Orvar Löfgren. 2010. The secret world of doing nothing. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  226. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Analyzes the often-overlooked cultural significance of in-between moments and situations, examining the meaning of activities like waiting and daydreaming. English translation of När ingenting särskilt händer, published in Swedish in 2007 by Brutus Östlings Bokförlag Symposion.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Frykman, Jonas, and Orvar Löfgren. 1987. Culture builders: A historical anthropology of middle-class life. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press.
  230. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. This classic ethnography of Swedish middle-class culture discusses the historical origins of Swedish cultural fixations, from ideas about hygiene to the meaning of nature. Originally published in Swedish in 1979 as Den kultiverade människan.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Gullestad, Marianne. 1983. Kitchen-table society: A case study of the family life and friendships of young working-class mothers in urban Norway. Oslo, Norway: Universitetsforlaget.
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. An important and very influential ethnographic study of social relations and daily practices among young working-class Norwegian women, considered a hallmark in the development of “anthropology at home.”
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Haldrup, Michael, Lasse Koefoed, and Kirsten Simonsen. 2006. Practical orientalism—Bodies, everyday life and the construction of otherness. Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 88.2: 173–184.
  238. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  239. Offers an analysis of the construction of national and cultural identities through seemingly mundane bodily practices and gestures in the context of the increasingly multicultural Danish society.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Jenkins, Richard. 2011. Being Danish: Paradoxes of identity in everyday life. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum.
  242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  243. Drawing on archival and ethnographic research, this book explores transformations in the meaning of Danish identity in the 1990s through the present, including discussions of the Muhammad cartoon controversy and Denmark’s relation to the European Union.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Linnet, Jeppe Trolle. 2011. Money can’t buy me hygge: Danish middle-class consumption, egalitarianism, and the sanctity of inner space. Social Analysis 55.2: 21–44.
  246. DOI: 10.3167/sa.2011.550202Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Analyzes the ubiquitous Danish notion of hygge, sometimes translated into English as coziness, as emblematic and expressive of cultural values about egalitarianism and inner space, and how this notion contributes to both cohesiveness and exclusion.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. O’Dell, Tom. 1997. Culture unbound: Americanization and everyday life in Sweden. Lund, Norway: Nordic Academic.
  250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. Uses ethnographic examples to illustrate some of the ways that American cultural forms have been adopted, appropriated, and transformed in Swedish society, and offers a theory of how transnational and globalizing processes are encountered at an everyday level.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Roberts, Fredric M. 1989. The Finnish coffee ceremony and notions of self. Arctic Anthropology 26.1: 20–33.
  254. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Takes the coffee ceremony, a widespread Finnish ritual of hospitality, as a point of entry in order to analyze cultural conflicts between autonomy and community, and egalitarianism and hierarchy.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
  258.  
  259. The Nordic model of gender equality has long been heralded internationally, with the Scandinavian welfare states often ranking highest on global lists of “women-friendly” nations. Political scientists and economists have studied the effects of Nordic gender policies on labor-market participation and economic growth, while anthropological investigations have attended to how laws and discourses of gender equality may intersect with, or even help to produce, other forms of social difference and exclusion, whether along lines of sexuality, ethnicity, socioeconomic class, or religion. In the Nordic region, critical gender studies developed in conversation with contemporary European and Anglo-American scholarship, but as works such as Kulick and Bjerén 1987 and Hirdman 1988 have suggested, Nordic gender issues must be understood and theorized in and through the cultural and political context of the Nordic welfare states. For a thorough general overview of critical Nordic scholarship on gender and gender equality, see Holli, et al. 2005 and Borchorst and Siim 2008. Scholars of Nordic gender have increasingly adopted an intersectional approach, situating gender in relation to other social categories, such as race and ethnicity, as in Keskinen, et al. 2009, and in relation to ideologies of sexuality and national imaginaries, as in Kulick 2003. If early work in gender studies tended to focus on the experience of women and the cultural work of notions of femininity, more recent scholarship has also brought attention to the discursive production of masculinity in Nordic societies. Hearn, et al. 2012 describes the development of masculinity studies as an academic field in its own right in Sweden, while Vuori 2009 examines Finnish understandings of masculinity and fatherhood.
  260.  
  261. Borchorst, Anette, and Birte Siim. 2008. Woman-friendly policies and state feminism: Theorizing Scandinavian gender equality. Feminist Theory 9.2: 207–224.
  262. DOI: 10.1177/1464700108090411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. In conversation with Helge M. Hernes’s influential work on Scandinavian “state feminism,” this article critically reassesses notions of gender equality in light of ongoing and significant changes in the Scandinavian social welfare systems.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Hearn, Jeff, Marie Nordberg, Kjerstin Andersson, et al. 2012. Hegemonic masculinity and beyond 40 years of research in Sweden. Men and Masculinities 15.1: 31–55.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. A thorough survey of developments in the Swedish field of masculinity studies, which also situates the concept of hegemonic masculinity in the context of gender relations, public discourse, and policy in Sweden.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Hirdman, Yvonne. 1988. Genussystemet- reflexioner kring kvinnors sociala underordning. Kvinnovetenskaplig Tidskrift 3:49–63.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. Drawing in part on Gayle Rubin’s work on the sex/gender system, this classic essay calls for a more precise conceptual vocabulary within Swedish gender studies, and also questions the direct translation of terms developed in Anglo-American feminist scholarship. In Swedish.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Holli, Anne Maria, Eva Magnusson, and Malin Rönnblom. 2005. Critical studies of Nordic discourse on gender and gender equality. Nordic Journal for Women’s Studies 13.3: 148–152.
  274. DOI: 10.1080/08038740600590442Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. This article analyzes the discursive and ideological uses of Nordic gender equality notions and introduces a special journal issue on the same theme (with the same title), which is a useful overview of critical gender studies scholarship across the region. The special issue is edited by Eva Magnusson and Malin Rönnblom.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Keskinen, Suvi, Salla Tuori, Sari Irni, and Diana Mulinari, eds. 2009. Complying with colonialism: Gender, race and ethnicity in the Nordic region. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. This edited volume explores intersections between Nordic models of gender equality, discourses of “European values” and multiculturalism, and Northern European involvement in colonial and postcolonial projects and logics.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Kulick, Don. 2003. Sex in the new Europe: The criminalization of clients and Swedish fear of penetration. Anthropological Theory 3.2: 199.
  282. DOI: 10.1177/1463499603003002005Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. An analysis of Sweden’s 1998 law criminalizing the purchase of sex as indicative of particularly Swedish cultural anxieties, both about the boundaries of “appropriate” sexuality and about Sweden’s status within the European Union.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Kulick, Don, and Gunilla Bjerén, eds. 1987. Från kön till genus: Kvinnligt och manligt i ett kulturellt perspektiv. Stockholm: Carlsson.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. An important early contribution to the development of gender and sexuality studies in Sweden, with chapters examining ideologies of gender, sex, and power in a range of geographical contexts from Papua New Guinea to rural Sweden. In Swedish.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Vuori, Jaana. 2009. Men’s choices and masculine duties: Fathers in expert discussions. Men and Masculinities 12.1: 45–72.
  290. DOI: 10.1177/1097184X07306720Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. A discussion of public debates about fathering and fatherhood in Finland, with particular attention to the contributions of professionally trained “family experts” in national conversations about the appropriate gendered division of parenting labor.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Nordic Medical Anthropology
  294.  
  295. Medical anthropology is a relatively new, but growing subfield of anthropology in Scandinavia. As compared with Nordic anthropology more generally, a greater proportion of Nordic medical anthropologists have conducted ethnographic work in their home societies. A special issue of Medical Anthropology Quarterly on the topic of “Nordic Medical Anthropology” is a useful resource surveying some of the dominant themes of contemporary work in this area. The introduction to this journal issue, Ingstad and Talle 2009, is particularly helpful in this regard, outlining key directions in the field and offering a brief history of the development of medical anthropology in the Scandinavian context. In all of the Nordic countries, health care delivery is intimately connected with the infrastructure of the social welfare state, and a significant body of Nordic medical anthropology addresses questions of power, agency, and subjectivity in interactions between healthcare providers and patients—relationships that are importantly mediated by the state. For example, Sachs 1983, Lundin 1999, Ingstad and Christie 2001, Einarsdóttir 2009, and Funahashi 2013 describe the negotiation of potentially divergent perspectives, experiences, expectations, roles, and understandings in communication and interactions between or among patients, families, medical experts, and authorities. With advances in genomic medicine and diagnostic technologies, new ways of calculating risk and living with uncertainty have emerged—not least in the Nordic countries, often early adopters of medical technologies—and medical anthropologist works such as Sachs 2004, Svendsen 2006, and Honkasalo 2009 have taken up related questions of the management of contingent health and indeterminate futures.
  296.  
  297. Einarsdóttir, Jónína. 2009. Emotional experts: Parents’ views on end-of-life decisions for preterm infants in Iceland. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 23.1: 34–50.
  298. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1387.2009.01036.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. An ethnographic study of Icelandic parents’ decision-making processes about continuing or withdrawing treatment for babies with a low birth weight.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Funahashi, Daena Aki. 2013. Wrapped in plastic: Transformation and alienation in the new Finnish economy. Cultural Anthropology 28.1: 1–21.
  302. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1360.2012.01170.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Situates the diagnosis and treatment of Finnish workers’ suffering from the mental disorder known as burnout in the larger social, economic, and political context of the neoliberalizing Finnish state.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Honkasalo, Marja-Liisa. 2009. Grips and ties: Agency, uncertainty, and the problem of suffering in North Karelia. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 23.1: 51–69.
  306. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1387.2009.01037.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Theorizes questions of suffering and agency through an ethnographic examination of patients’ perspectives and experiences with heart disease in Finnish North Karelia.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Ingstad, Benedicte, and Vigdis Moe Christie. 2001. Encounters with illness: The perspective of the sick doctor. Anthropology & Medicine 8.2–3: 201–210.
  310. DOI: 10.1080/13648470120101372Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A case study of Norwegian doctors suffering from serious illness, looking at how doctors’ experiences of illness affect their understandings and expectations of the role of the doctor.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Ingstad, Benedicte, and Aud Talle. 2009. Introduction to Nordic Medical Anthropology. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 23.1: 1–5.
  314. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1387.2009.01033.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Editors’ introduction to a special issue of Medical Anthropology Quarterly titled “Nordic Medical Anthropology.” The editors give an overview of a group of medical anthropological studies situated in the Nordic region and introduce the main issues explored in the scholarly community of Nordic medical anthropologists.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Lundin, Susanne. 1999. The boundless body: Cultural perspectives on xenotransplantation. Ethnos 64.1: 5–31.
  318. DOI: 10.1080/00141844.1999.9981588Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Based on fieldwork with Swedish patients who have received animal cells, a thoughtful analysis of the biological and cultural transformations entailed in biotechnological innovations, such as xenotransplantation.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Sachs, Lisbeth. 1983. Evil eye or bacteria: Turkish migrant women and Swedish health care. Stockholm: University of Stockholm.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. Describes a Turkish immigrant women’s experiences with the Swedish health care system, and discusses some of the divergent interpretations of and strategies for managing the body, health, and illness that emerge in these encounters.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Sachs, Lisbeth. 2004. The new age of the molecular family: An anthropological view on the medicalisation of kinship. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health 32.1: 24–29.
  326. DOI: 10.1038/14034940310007987Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Relates genetic notions of inheritance to popular ideas of family and kinship, drawing on ethnographic research in a Swedish clinic.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Svendsen, Mette Nordahl. 2006. The social life of genetic knowledge: A case-study of choices and dilemmas in cancer genetic counselling in Denmark. Medical Anthropology 25.2: 139–170.
  330. DOI: 10.1080/01459740600667120Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Examines the social movements and meanings of genetic knowledge and ideas about kinship and risk as they are articulated through cancer genetic counseling in Denmark.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Globalization and Transnationalism
  334.  
  335. Globalization—and its complex instantiations and transformations at local and national levels—has been an area of strong anthropological interest in the Nordic region. While research projects at several Nordic universities have helped drive this line of scholarly inquiry, much of this body of literature addresses theoretical problems of globalization in a general way without specifically discussing a Nordic perspective. Influential theoretical works include Friedman 1990, Hannerz and Löfgren 1994, and Löfgren 1996, all of which seek to develop analytical frameworks by which to understand the interplay between global and local, national and transnational cultural processes. Friedman 1990 outlines a general theory of globalization, suggesting the study of consumption as a possible point of entry, while the theoretical works in Hannerz and Löfgren 1994 and Löfgren 1996 are grounded in empirical analysis linking Swedish experiences with transnational transformations. If early scholarship on globalization heralded the declining significance of national borders in an increasingly interconnected world, anthropologists have pointed to the continuing cultural significance of the local and the national, even as meanings and practices appear in new guises or transform in unexpected directions. Hannerz 1992 makes a strong case for attending to “cultural flows,” arguing that globalization has reconfigured, rather than flattened, the complex linkages between meanings, forms, and interpretations across localities. A methodological contribution to this body of theoretical work can be found in Eriksen 2003, an excellent edited volume that offers a genealogy of anthropological approaches to globalization and addresses some of the methodological problems of conducting ethnography on a transnational scale.
  336.  
  337. Eriksen, Thomas Hylland, ed. 2003. Globalisation: Studies in anthropology. London: Pluto.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. An edited volume focusing on the methodological challenges of ethnographic studies of globalization, which includes contributions from many leading Nordic anthropologists.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Friedman, Jonathan. 1990. Being in the world: Globalization and localization. Theory, Culture and Society 7.2: 311–328.
  342. DOI: 10.1177/026327690007002018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Considers the study of consumption as a possible route for anthropology to come to terms with the interactions between global and local processes in producing meanings and practices of identity. Draws on a range of ethnographic material from disparate geographic settings.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Hannerz, Ulf. 1992. Cultural complexity: Studies in the social organization of meaning. New York: Columbia Univ. Press.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Develops the concept of “cultural flows” as a theoretical framework for analyzing the forms and meanings of culture in a globalized world.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Hannerz, Ulf. 1996. Transnational connections. New York: Routledge.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. This classic book from the major Swedish anthropologist includes a chapter on Stockholm.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Hannerz, Ulf, and Orvar Löfgren. 1994. The nation in the global village. Cultural Studies 8.2: 198–207.
  354. DOI: 10.1080/09502389400490391Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Outlines the development of a collaborative research project linking Swedish anthropologists and ethnologists with the aim of rethinking national cultures in light of increasing global interconnections, and describes some of the workings of globalization in the Swedish context.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Löfgren, Orvar. 1996. Linking the local, the national and the global. Ethnologia Europaea: Journal of European Ethnology 26.2: 157–168.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Gives a historical overview of Swedish and European ethnologists’ various theories of the local, the national, and the global, and makes a case for examining the multiple ways that these domains are connected, rather than treating them as separate analytical units.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Immigration, Ethnicity, and “Integration”
  362.  
  363. Of the Nordic countries, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark have seen the highest rates of immigration in recent decades. While immigration, as measured in absolute terms, has been less extensive in the Nordic countries, there have nevertheless been striking demographic changes in their relatively small populations. In Sweden, for example, 15 percent of the total population in 2011 was foreign born. The topic of immigration, although it has unfolded quite differently in each of the Nordic countries, has become a lightning rod for debate across the region. In particular, questions surrounding the cultural, political, and economic “integration” of immigrants and refugees in the Scandinavian countries have been much discussed, both in popular and academic outlets. Olwig 2011 (part of a special issue of the Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies on immigration and social incorporation in Scandinavia, a useful introduction to the topic) offers a thoughtful analysis of the relationship between Scandinavian welfare systems and policies and discourses around immigration and integration, comparing and contrasting the social and political climates in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. Andersen and Biseth 2013 is an ethnographic account of the experiences of young people with immigrant backgrounds living in Oslo, Norway, that challenges the notion of “failed integration” of foreign-born Norwegians and provides an important contrast to popular media representations. A more general overview of Norwegian “multiculturalism” can be found in Eriksen and Næss 2011, an edited volume. Immigration debates in Denmark are discussed in Hervik 2011, which gives a nuanced and detailed take on the social construction and othering of foreigners within Danish neoracist and neonationalist discourses, and also attends to the role of media in these processes. A number of scholars have written about immigration in the Swedish context in connection with analyses of cultural logics of exclusion, othering, and racialization. Pred 2000 is an influential early work in this vein, contrasting Sweden’s self-image of egalitarianism and progressive values with the proliferation of “cultural racism” toward recently arrived immigrants and refugees in the 1990s. Sawyer 2002 and Norman 2004 further explore the racialization of immigration and migration in Sweden, drawing on in-depth ethnographic research to highlight the ambiguities and contradictions of everyday forms of racism and exclusion. Housing segregation, especially in urban areas, has also been a major focus. Ristilaami 1994 is an important study of Rosengård, a neighborhood in Malmö that has come to symbolize Sweden’s troubled relationship with its foreign-born population. Magnusson 2001, an edited volume and excellent resource on this topic, takes up the spatialization of ethnicity and otherness within Scandinavia’s “divided cities.” Milani and Jonsson 2012 takes a linguistic anthropological perspective to the social performance of difference, analyzing standard and nonstandard forms of Swedish in relation to language ideologies.
  364.  
  365. Andersen, Bengt, and Heidi Biseth. 2013. The myth of failed integration: The case of eastern Oslo. City & Society 25.1: 5–24.
  366. DOI: 10.1111/ciso.12004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. An ethnographic account of the experiences of young people with immigrant backgrounds living in Oslo, Norway, that challenges the notion of “failed integration” of foreign-born Norwegians and provides an important contrast to popular media representations.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Eriksen, Thomas Hylland, and Hans Erik Næss, eds. 2011. Kulturell kompleksitet i det nye Norge. Oslo, Norway: Unipub.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. An edited volume presenting a range of scholarly perspectives on contemporary Norwegian culture, including several contributions that analyze aspects of Norwegian multiculturalism. In Norwegian.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Hervik, Peter. 2011. The annoying difference: The emergence of Danish neonationalism, neoracism, and populism in the post-1989 world. New York: Berghahn.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Describes the social construction and “othering” of foreigners within Danish neoracist and neonationalist discourses, and also attends to the role of media in these processes.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Magnusson, Lena, ed. 2001. Den delade staden: Segregation och etnicitet i stadsbygden. Umeå, Sweden: Boréa.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. This comprehensive, edited volume analyzes the social processes contributing to housing segregation and the construction of ethnicity in Scandinavia’s “divided cities.” In Swedish.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Milani, Tommaso M., and Rickard Jonsson. 2012. Who’s afraid of Rinkeby Swedish? Stylization, complicity, resistance. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 22.1: 44–63.
  382. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1395.2012.01133.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. A linguistic anthropological examination of the social performance of cultural difference, analyzing standard and nonstandard forms of Swedish in relation to language ideologies and ideas about immigration.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Norman, Karin. 2004. Equality and exclusion: “Racism” in a Swedish town. Ethnos 69.2: 204–228.
  386. DOI: 10.1080/0014184042000212867Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Draws on ethnographic research in a small Swedish town to explore the connections between everyday notions of exclusion, racism, equality, belonging, and inclusion, particularly in relation to the establishment of a refugee reception center in the town.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Olwig, Karen Fog. 2011. “Integration”: Migrants and refugees between Scandinavian welfare societies and family relations. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37.2: 179–196.
  390. DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2010.521327Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Analyzes the relationship between Scandinavian welfare systems and policies and discourses around immigration and integration, comparing and contrasting the social and political climates in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. This article is an introduction to a special issue with the same title, co-edited by Karen Fog Olwig, Birgitte Romme Larsen, and Mikkel Rytter.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Pred, Allan. 2000. Even in Sweden: Racisms, racialized spaces and the popular geographical imagination. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. An influential early work contrasting Sweden’s self-image of egalitarianism and progressive values with the proliferation of “cultural racism” toward recently arrived immigrants and refugees in the 1990s.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Ristilaami, Per-Markku. 1994. Rosengård och den svarta poesin: En studie av modern annorlundahet. Stockholm: Symposion.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A classic study of Rosengård, a Swedish “Million Program” neighborhood in the city of Malmö, describing the relationship between Swedish notions of modernity and otherness. In Swedish.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Sawyer, Lena. 2002. Routings: “Race,” African diasporas, and Swedish belonging. Transforming Anthropology 11.1: 13–35.
  402. DOI: 10.1525/tran.2002.11.1.13Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Traces the discursive construction of an African diasporic community in Stockholm in relation to cultural and moral understandings of racism, the local, and the national in Sweden.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Law, Bureaucracy, and the State
  406.  
  407. Anthropologists working in the Nordic region have turned an analytical gaze to the creation and reproduction of the state through everyday practice, examining how the state is brought into being within social relationships and institutional forms and discourses. As this scholarship suggests, the traditional Nordic political model of an expansive, universalist social welfare state—both as a powerful legacy and as a contested object of ongoing transformation—looms large in the everyday lives and imaginations of citizens. Questions of power and agency are central to this project, and anthropologists working in this area are attentive to the possibilities for critical engagement and political transformation, both at the level of ordinary interaction and through more traditional legal and bureaucratic channels. Ethnographic work situated in governmental and bureaucratic settings, such as Vike 2002 and Graham 2002, in Norway and Sweden, respectively, has revealed the instantiation of welfare state ideology through encounters between civil servants and clients of social services, pointing to the personal and affective dimensions of bureaucratically mediated relations. Cool 2013 provides an ethnographic examination of the intimate connection between knowledge production in the life sciences and social sciences and the politics of the Swedish welfare state, with attention to transformations in ideas about data collection, privacy, and trust in the state. Yngvesson 2010 analyzes the powerful role of the family as a political institution, showing the construction of both kinship and nation through Swedish families’ experiences with transnational adoption. Howell 2006, partly based on fieldwork in Norway, similarly examines kinship and transnational adoption, taking up the question of biological and social notions of relatedness. Taken together, these two works offer key insights into notions of kinship, family, and childhood in Scandinavia. As illustrated in the context of transnational adoption, emotional labor—often divided along gendered lines—is central to the production and reproduction of national identity. The work in Mack 2012 and Amouroux 2009 reveals how the state is materialized spatially, drawing on careful analyses of encounters between Swedish urban planners and Syriac immigrant home owners (Mack) and between Danish authorities and residents of Christiania, a Copenhagen squatter community (Amoroux). The materialization of welfare state ideologies is also explored in Murphy 2013, an examination of the political work of Swedish design. Although often especially far-reaching and potent in the Nordic context, ideologies and discourses of state power are by no means static or fully hegemonic. As suggested in Boyer 2013 on the rise of the Icelandic Best Party, emergent political discourses that are both parodic and sincere at the same time can be seen as offering an intriguing possibility for citizens to critically engage with and transform the state.
  408.  
  409. Amouroux, Christa. 2009. Normalizing Christiania: Project Clean Sweep and the normalization plan in Copenhagen. City & Society 21.1: 108–132.
  410. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-744X.2009.01017.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. An ethnographic study focusing on the Danish state’s efforts to manage and control political activities and alternative lifestyle choices within Christiania, a squatter community in Copenhagen, as well as the oppositional efforts and resistance of community members.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Boyer, Dominic. 2013. Simply the best: Parody and political sincerity in Iceland. American Ethnologist 40.2: 276–287.
  414. DOI: 10.1111/amet.12020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Analyzes the rise of Jón Gnarr’s Best Party in Iceland as an example of an emerging form of political performance that challenges distinctions between parody and sincerity, and offers a means of critically engaging with neoliberal political hegemony.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Cool, Alison. 2013. Translating twins: Twin research and the production of genetic and economic knowledge in the Swedish welfare state. PhD diss., New York University.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Based on ethnographic research in Sweden with economists, geneticists, and other experts in the area of twin studies, this dissertation describes the complex entanglements of scientific knowledge and the Swedish welfare state, with particular focus on the role of data, statistics, privacy, and trust.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Graham, Mark. 2002. Emotional bureaucracies: Emotions, civil servants, and immigrants in the Swedish welfare state. Ethos 30.3: 199–226.
  422. DOI: 10.1525/eth.2002.30.3.199Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. This article draws on ethnographic research with Swedish civil servants and their clients, particularly refugee clients, to reveal the emotional and expressive underpinnings of the bureaucratic encounter, and how such interactions contribute to the ideological reproduction of the welfare state.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Howell, Signe. 2006. The kinning of foreigners: Transnational adoption in a global perspective. New York: Berghahn.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. This book is a significant contribution to the study of transnational adoption as a global phenomenon as well as to the study of kinship, childhood, and national identity in Norway.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Mack, Jennifer. 2012. Producing the public: Architecture, urban planning, and immigration in a Swedish town, 1965 to the present. PhD diss., Harvard University.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. An ethnography of the Swedish town of Södertälje, home to a large diasporic Syriac Christian community, exploring the tensions between the community’s architectural projects and the visions of Swedish urban planners.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Murphy, Keith M. 2013. A cultural geometry: Designing political things in Sweden. American Ethnologist 40.1: 118–131.
  434. DOI: 10.1111/amet.12009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Ethnographically explores the way that the work of Swedish designers—and designed objects themselves—come to be imbued with particular cultural and political significance associated with Swedish social welfare state ideologies.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Vike, Halvard. 2002. Culminations of complexity: Cultural dynamics in Norwegian local government. Anthropological Theory 2.1: 57–75.
  438. DOI: 10.1177/1463499602002001288Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Offers a theory of bureaucratic work as entailing an “incorporation of complexity,” describing how the everyday work of Norwegian civil servants requires them to mobilize multiple, contradictory expectations, ideas, and narratives—a particularly challenging task given the idealistic and universalist ambitions of the Norwegian welfare state.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Yngvesson, Barbara. 2010. Belonging in an adopted world: Race, identity, and transnational adoption. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.
  442. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226964485.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Based on a long-term ethnographic study in the United States and Sweden exploring families’ experiences with transnational adoption, this book analyzes the constitution of kinship and nation within the everyday practices of adoptive families.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Consumption, Finance, and Economics
  446.  
  447. Early anthropological work on consumption looked at spending habits and notions of taste and value as a portal into the lived experience of capitalism. In the Scandinavian countries, which have historically maintained a particularly strong relationship between the state and the market, scholars have attended to the political and cultural aspects of consumption. Löfgren 1996 describes the Swedish state’s role in the realm of consumption, and explains how the academic field of consumption studies in Sweden has attended to these kinds of national inflections in everyday practice and in consumerist ideology. Hohnen 2007, drawing on qualitative research with Danish and Swedish households, adds to this body of work by offering a nuanced take on how consumerism fits into Scandinavian class relations and perpetuates forms of social and financial exclusion, and also gives a comprehensive survey of Nordic consumption research. These kinds of complex intersections between social and financial forms of exchange are further explored in Peebles 2011, which draws parallels between Scandinavian debates about entering transnational markets (specifically, whether to adopt the Euro) and debates about establishing transnational spaces (specifically, the Swedish-Danish Øresund Region). Economic life in Scandinavia, as elsewhere, often takes place outside of formal channels of exchange, operating according to logics other than that of pure economic rationality. Larsen 2013 contributes an ethnographic study of svart arbete, or under-the-table cash employment and barter exchange in Sweden, showing how these forms of economic transaction, although technically illegal, are guided by moral norms and situated within social relationships. The social, moral, political, and emotional valences of Scandinavian capitalism have attracted increasing scholarly attention in recent years. This body of work addresses controversial movements to privatize social services, as in the study of Sweden’s pension reform in Nyqvist 2011, and responds to the effects of international economic turbulence, as in Røyrvik 2011—a portrait of globalized capitalism in crisis through the lens of Norwegian-based transnational corporation Hydro—and the analysis in Loftsdóttir 2010 of the aftermath of the financial collapse in Iceland as articulated through discourses of national memory and identity.
  448.  
  449. Hohnen, Pernille. 2007. Having the wrong kind of money: A qualitative analysis of new forms of financial, social and moral exclusion in consumerist Scandinavia. Sociological Review 55.4: 748–767.
  450. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-954X.2007.00751.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. A qualitative study of consumption patterns among low-income households in Denmark and Sweden that analyzes connections between social exclusion and new forms of money and finance in Scandinavia.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Larsen, Lotta Björklund. 2013. Buy or barter? Illegal yet licit purchases of work in contemporary Sweden. Focaal 66:75–87.
  454. DOI: 10.3167/fcl.2013.660108Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. An ethnographic examination of the Swedish cash labor market that places under-the-table employment in the context of contemporary economic life and social relations in Sweden more generally.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Löfgren, Orvar. 1996. Konsumtion som vardaglig praktik och ideologiskt slagfält. Socialvetenskaplig Tidskrift 1–2:116–127.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. This article describes a larger research project examining consumption in Sweden, and offers a theory of consumption as a learned, socially transmitted behavior that is both an everyday practice and a locus of ideological transmission. In Swedish.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Loftsdóttir, Kristín. 2010. The loss of innocence: The Icelandic financial crisis and colonial past. Anthropology Today 26.6: 9–13.
  462. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8322.2010.00769.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Describes the rise of romanticized interpretations of the banking collapse and contemporary Icelandic identity, revealing how these interpretations draw on nationalist representations of the past and particular ways of remembering colonial histories in the region.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Nyqvist, Anette. 2011. Sweden’s national pension system as a political technology. In Policy worlds: Anthropology and the analysis of contemporary power. Edited by Cris N. Shore, Susan Wright, and Davide Pero. New York: Berghahn.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Gives an overview of how Sweden’s far-reaching pension reforms of the 1990s worked to relocate agency and responsibility from the state to the citizen, drawing on qualitative research with policymakers and experts involved in the transformation of the pension system.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Peebles, Gustav. 2011. The euro and its rivals: Currency and the construction of a transnational city. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Analyzes the construction of the Danish-Swedish Øresund region in relation to contemporaneous debates in Denmark and Sweden about monetary policy, providing an ethnography of competing visions of the future and transnationalism.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Røyrvik, Emil A. 2011. The allure of capitalism: An ethnography of management and the global economy in crisis. New York: Berghahn.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. An in-depth organizational ethnography of Hydro, a Norwegian-based transnational corporation, which analyzes the company’s international investment practices in order to shed light on the day-to-day workings of globalized capitalism.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Nature, Landscape, and Environment
  478.  
  479. Ideas about nature and landscape have been central in the construction of individual and national identities throughout the Nordic region. In this area, Hastrup 1990 and Frykman and Löfgren 1987, cited under Ethnographies of Everyday Life, were influential works tracking the historical production of linked concepts of nature and nation in Iceland (Hastrup) and Sweden (Frykman and Löfgren). Olwig 2003 and Jones and Olwig 2008 offer helpful overviews of the multivalent notion of the “Nordic landscape,” productively examining how various ways of imagining Scandinavia—as a place and as a region—have intersected with cultural and political projects over the years. Mels 2002, Vacher 2011, and Ween and Abram 2012 approach abstract questions of space, place, and nation through ground-level, historically informed analyses of particular geographical-national phenomena with the authors’ respective studies of Swedish national parks, Danish seaside cottages, and Norwegian trekking practices. Anthropological scholarship on the creation and uses of Nordic nature has also revealed how these cultural logics have informed environmental movements, as in Isenhour 2011—an insightful work on the moral and social underpinnings of the pursuit of sustainable living in Sweden.
  480.  
  481. Hastrup, Kirsten. 1990. Nature and policy in Iceland, 1400–1800: An anthropological analysis of history and mentality. Oxford: Clarendon.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A historical anthropological survey of relations between people and the environment in Iceland. An influential work for later scholarship on nature, culture, and landscape in the Nordic region.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Hjort, Anders, ed. 1983. Svenska livsstilar: Om naturen som resurs och symbol. Stockholm: Liber.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. An edited volume describing some of the ways that nature is used as a cultural and symbolic resource in Sweden. In Swedish.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Isenhour, Cindy. 2011. How the grass became greener in the city: On urban imaginings and practices of sustainable living in Sweden. City & Society 23.2: 117–134.
  490. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-744X.2011.01058.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Compares perspectives of urban and rural Swedes on issues of nature, sustainable living, ecology, and environmentalism, and argues that a concern for equality and social justice animates many Swedes’ decisions to pursue sustainable lifestyles.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Jones, Michael, and Kenneth Olwig, eds. 2008. Nordic landscapes: Region and belonging on the northern edge of Europe. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A comprehensive edited collection discussing the Nordic landscape as place, region, concept, and identity. Divided into sections covering each of the Nordic countries, as well as a section on the North Atlantic and one on the Nordic region as a whole.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Mels, Tom. 2002. Nature, home, and scenery: The official spatialities of Swedish national parks. Environment and Planning D 20.2: 135–154.
  498. DOI: 10.1068/d14sSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Analyzes contemporary and historic discourses about national parks in Sweden as indicative of particularly Swedish ideologies of nation, home, nature, and landscape.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Olwig, Kenneth R. 2003. In search of the Nordic landscape: A personal view. In Voices from the North: New trends in Nordic human geography. Edited by Jan Ohman and Kirsten Simonsen, 211–232. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Traces the historical emergence of a Nordic approach to landscape and place as well as surveys major works in Nordic human geography dealing with the relationship between humans and nature in Scandinavia.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Vacher, Mark. 2011. Consuming leisure time: Landscapes of infinite horizons. Social Analysis 55.2: 45–61.
  506. DOI: 10.3167/sa.2011.550203Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. This article examines the transformation of the Danish seaside from a location of small fishing villages to a holiday destination for the middle class, drawing on ethnographic research and an analysis of films to map changing perceptions of seaside landscapes and experiences.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Ween, Gro, and Simone Abram. 2012. The Norwegian trekking association: Trekking as constituting the nation. Landscape Research 37.2: 155–171.
  510. DOI: 10.1080/01426397.2011.651112Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Looks at how the Norwegian Trekking Association has produced a way of understanding Norwegian nature through the activity of trekking (hiking or cross-country skiing) and explains how these forms of moving through the natural world connect individuals with the nation, nature, and environmentalism.
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