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Cosmology, Near East (Biblical Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The terms “cosmology” and “cosmogony” are sometimes used inconsistently within Near Eastern studies. A cosmology is usually understood to be a conception of the world and universe, possibly thought of as a cognitive map of the Earth in relation to various celestial bodies and other features. Cosmogony, in scientific use, usually refers to any account of the origins and creation of the universe. In Near Eastern studies, cosmogonies usually take the form of mythological texts, and generally, our clearest evidence of ancient cosmology comes in the form of cosmogonies preserved in literature (see also the Oxford Bibliographies article “Myth in the Hebrew Bible”). While there is evidence of cosmology present in art and material culture, interpretations are less clear-cut. Cosmologies are distinct from anthropogonies, which are accounts of the origin (usually creation) of humans, although these separate topics are often linked (for more on biblical anthropogonies, see the Oxford Bibliographies article “Adam and Eve”). Similarly, theogonies are accounts about the origins of gods, usually primeval deities. Evidence for cosmological beliefs can also be found in some scientific texts, especially those dealing with astronomical or calendrical issues. In those instances, however, cosmological beliefs usually need to be inferred, as the ancient authors did not tend to provide extensive background descriptions for their observations. Some types of divination texts, especially astrological texts, also provide evidence for cosmological conceptions. The relationship between cosmology and religious ritual is more controversial. Scholars from the “myth and ritual” school tend to see many rituals as evocative of cosmological conceptions; other scholars heavily contest these ideas. Whatever the specific relationship between myth and ritual is or was, some religious ritual texts, such as Egyptian funerary texts, certainly preserve evidence about ancient cosmology indirectly.
  4.  
  5. Cosmology and Religious Studies
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  7. Cosmology was a topic of particular interest to those engaged in comparative religious studies at the end of the 19th century and in the early 20th century. While many of these older analyses are outdated, some of the main arguments continue to be influential. Frazer 1968 provides an easy entry point into James Frazer’s voluminous early discussions of cosmology from an explicitly comparative perspective. Durkheim 2008 provides the famous sociologist’s important arguments about how myth functioned as the foundation for ancient science. The three works by Mircea Eliade that are listed present different aspects of that scholar’s thinking on the relationship between cosmology and religion from a cross-cultural perspective; the most important of these is Eliade 1971, where he argues that religious practice is a means through which worshippers participate in creation, and is not just a commemoration of those events. Frye 1980 provides a comparative literary perspective on cosmogony. Smith 1988 offers an updated approach to the comparative study of religion in a postmodern context, as well as examples of how the studies of cosmogonies of different cultures can help better understand biblical conceptions of the universe. Geller and Schipper 2008 provides a comparative overview of different traditions about creation from around the world, each written by a specialist in that area of study.
  8.  
  9. Durkheim, Émile. The Elementary Forms of Religious Life: A New Translation by Carol Cosman. Oxford’s World Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  11. Durkheim’s influential treatment of religion (through the specific case study of Australian Aboriginal beliefs) argues that religion is fundamentally entangled with cosmology and provides the basis for scientific thinking; this edition is slightly abridged, but the introduction is very useful for first-time readers.
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  13. Eliade, Mircea. The Quest: History and Meaning in Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
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  15. An important general work that tackles the issue of the relationship between cosmogonies and history in world religions from a comparative perspective, with some discussion of creation in biblical and Near Eastern accounts.
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  17. Eliade, Mircea. The Myth of the Eternal Return, or Cosmos and History. Bollingen Series 46. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971.
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  19. A seminal work for the comparative study of cosmology; Eliade argues for the “deep meanings” of various cosmogonies (including ancient Near Eastern) and suggests ways in which cosmologies are manifest in ritual practice. Most influential here has been his idea that rituals allow individuals to participate in the act of creation.
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  21. Eliade, Mircea. Gods, Goddesses, and Myths of Creation: A Thematic Source Book of the History of Religions. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.
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  23. An anthology of creation accounts from various traditions. The translations offered are uniformly outdated, but Eliade’s commentary offers a cross-cultural comparison of cosmogony that includes the ancient Near East.
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  25. Frazer, James George. Creation and Evolution in Primitive Cosmogonies, and Other Pieces. London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1968.
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  27. Frazer’s essay was originally published as part of a fiftieth anniversary celebration of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, and although now outdated, it offers an accessible entry point for Frazer’s very influential comparative approach to ancient and “primitive” cosmologies.
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  29. Frye, Northrop. Creation and Recreation. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1980.
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  31. A series of lectures on literary approaches to the study of creation stories. Although there is little here specific to the ancient Near East, Frye’s ruminations illustrate how other traditions have informed his own study of the Bible from a comparative perspective.
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  33. Geller, Markham J., and Mineke Schipper, eds. Imagining Creation. Introduction by Mary Douglas. IJS Studies in Judaica 5. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
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  35. Originating as a conference, this is a collection of essays by different specialists on creation stories from various times and places, including Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Indian, sub-Saharan African, Jewish, Slavonic, Arabic, and Lurianic cosmogonies.
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  37. Smith, Jonathan Z. Imagining Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
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  39. Although the section on cosmology deals specifically with Maori cosmogony, Smith’s case-study approach to the study of religion has much to offer those interested in a comparative approach to biblical cosmology.
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  41. General Overviews
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  43. Scholarship on cosmology used to revolve around the collection and juxtaposition of different Near Eastern and classical cosmogonies in order to identify similarities and differences between the traditions. Blacker and Loewe 1975, Brandon 1963, and Frankfort 1946 all are examples of this kind of enterprise, and while outdated, they are still useful sources on comparative cosmology for those new to the topic. Wyatt 2001 represents a more modern example of this kind of approach; it is a well-organized sourcebook providing translations of texts related to cosmology from various Near Eastern and classical sources. Keel and Schroer 2002 provides a similar overview, but with more emphasis on iconographic evidence. Cross 1976 compares the specific issue of primeval deities and theogonic myths and provides a good introduction to definitional issues.
  44.  
  45. Blacker, Carmen, and Michael Loewe, eds. Ancient Cosmologies. London: Allen and Unwin, 1975.
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  47. Ancient Cosmologies is a collection of essays on various cosmologies from around the world, including the Near East. The treatments of different cultures are somewhat outdated, but they were written by experts in each area and are useful introductions for a comparative study of the topic.
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  49. Brandon, S. G. F. Creation Legends of the Ancient Near East. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1963.
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  51. A comparative-religion perspective on the cosmogonies of Egypt, Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece, with an introductory chapter on evidence for cosmology in the Upper Paleolithic and Neolithic periods. Although outdated, it provides introductions to the various sources on the topic.
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  53. Cross, Frank Moore. “The Olden Gods in Ancient Near Eastern Creation Myths.” In Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God; Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright. Edited by Frank Moore Cross, Werner E. Lemke, and Patrick D. Miller, 329–338. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976.
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  55. Cross compares and contrasts theogonic and cosmogonic creation myths, considering the issue of primeval deities in biblical, classical, and other traditions.
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  57. Frankfort, Henri, ed. Before Philosophy: The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man; An Essay on Speculative Thought in the Ancient Near East. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946.
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  59. An outdated but classic series of essays on the philosophical thinking of Mesopotamia and Egypt, most of which, as presented here, relates to cosmology.
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  61. Keel, Othmar, and Silvia Schroer. Schöpfung: Biblische Theologien im Kontext altorientalischer Religionen. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 2002.
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  63. A comparative study of biblical cosmology (beyond the cosmogonies in Genesis) within the context of Canaanite, Mesopotamian, and Egyptian traditions; contains significant discussion of the art-historical text as well as treatments of specific texts.
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  65. Wyatt, Nick. Space and Time in the Religious Life of the Near East. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield University Press, 2001.
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  67. A useful sourcebook on the explicit and implicit beliefs about space and time apparent in Mesopotamian, Egyptian, biblical, Greek, early Christian, early Jewish, and other writings. For those interested in cosmology, the book contains important selections of translations of ancient texts that deal with the nature of time, cartography, cosmogony, cosmic waters, cosmic mountains, and cosmic temples.
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  69. Astral Science
  70.  
  71. There has been a tendency in the scholarship of the ancient Near East to try to separate ancient science from religious thinking. In relation to cosmology, these attempts are somewhat misguided, since empirical observations were often related to divination practices and beliefs about divinities. The separation of the study of ancient science and religion is also partially due to the nature of scientific texts, which, in order to be studied, require a sophisticated understanding of astronomy and mathematics on top of training in ancient languages. Cooley 2013, Halpern 2009, and Livingstone 2007 offer arguments on the literary manifestations of celestial science. Hunger and Pingree 1999 provides an introduction to Mesopotamian science organized according to genre, and Neugebauer 1975 is a seminal presentation of ancient scientific astronomy. Wells 2001 introduces Egyptian astral science. Taylor 1993 summarizes the major arguments regarding the relationship between Yahwism and astral worship; although not intended as a study of Israelite science, it provides important information on conceptions of astral bodies.
  72.  
  73. Cooley, Jeffrey L. Poetic Astronomy in the Ancient Near East: The Reflexes of Celestial Science in Ancient Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, and Israelite Narrative. History, Archaeology, and Culture of the Levant. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013.
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  75. Cooley investigates the manifestations of celestial sciences (including cosmology and astronomy) as a literary phenomenon in cuneiform and biblical texts. This revised doctoral dissertation is organized by region (Mesopotamia, Ugarit, and Israel) and contains translations and transliterations of many of the important text sources. Although technical, it is suitable for nonspecialists.
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  77. Halpern, Baruch. From Gods to God. Edited by Matthew J. Adams. Forschungen zum Alten Testament 63. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.
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  79. The last two essays in this collection of previously published works reflect Halpern’s arguments about astral science as found in the biblical text, within the context of Mesopotamian and Greek traditions.
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  81. Hunger, Hermann, and David Pingree. The Astral Sciences in Mesopotamia. Handbuch der Orientalistik 44. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
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  83. This is a technical overview of the most-important sources on Mesopotamian scientific astronomy (excluding omen texts), organized primarily according to genre. Although aimed at specialists, this is a good starting point for research on scientific astronomy, and a good source for explaining the scientific elements of some of the major cosmogonies.
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  85. Livingstone, Alasdair. Mystical and Mythological Explanatory Works of Assyrian and Babylonian Scholars. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2007.
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  87. A classic study of Mesopotamian “explanatory” literature—that is to say, literature in which ancient scholars described the world and their beliefs about it. The volume is important for understanding the link between Mesopotamian cosmology and various aspects of ancient intellectual life, though perhaps a bit too technical for those with limited background in cuneiform studies. Originally published in 1986.
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  89. Neugebauer, Otto. A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy. 3 vols. Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences 1. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1975.
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  91. Neugebauer was one of the pioneering experts on Mesopotamian mathematics and astronomy, and this three-volume work presents a detailed discussion of the most-important scientific (as opposed to mythological) texts relating to astronomy. It is a very technical work that offers substantial commentary on Babylonian, Greek, and Roman astronomy (and their relationships to one another), with some brief discussion of Egypt.
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  93. Taylor, J. Glen. Yahweh and the Sun: Biblical and Archaeological Evidence for Sun Worship in Ancient Israel. JSOT Supplement 111. Sheffield, UK: JSOT, 1993.
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  95. Study of the biblical and archaeological evidence for solar worship associated with Yahweh in the Iron Age; not directly related to cosmology, but a good introduction to the literature that considers early beliefs about relationships between the divine and natural world.
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  97. Wells, Ronald. “Astronomy.” In Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 1. Edited by Donald Redford, 145–151. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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  99. This introductory-level encyclopedia article explains the basics of Egyptian cosmology within a chronological framework. It is particularly useful in explaining the changes in Egyptian astronomical thinking that are evident in different periods of Egyptian history.
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  101. Calendars and the Reckoning of Time
  102.  
  103. Although perhaps this topic may seem out of place, the reckoning of time is fundamental to conceptualizations of cosmology. Brown 2000 discusses the complex relationship between understandings of time and space in the cuneiform record. Those wanting an introduction to time as measured in the Bible are advised to read Miano 2010 or Rochberg 2000. Jaubert 1957 presents an influential intertextual analysis of different biblical calendars (see also Jaubert 1953, cited under Genesis as Calendrical Literature). Steele 2007 is a collection of more-complex essays on time reckoning in different places. Cohen 1994 surveys time in Mesopotamian cultic calendars.
  104.  
  105. Brown, David. “The Cuneiform Conception of Celestial Space and Time.” Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10.1 (2000): 103–122.
  106. DOI: 10.1017/S0959774300000044Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Brown’s article seeks to understand the cognitive background of Mesopotamian approaches to dividing up space and time. It is particularly concerned with the relationships among their sexagesimal mathematical system, astronomical observations, and divination. Those interested in cosmology will find it a useful introduction to practical conceptions of time and space.
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  109. Cohen, Mark E. The Cultic Calendars of the Ancient Near East. Bethesda, MD: CDL, 1994.
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  111. Not geared toward cosmology per se, this book provides an overview of the major sources on Mesopotamian calendars and their related ritual activities. Organized by time period, working from the oldest texts to the most recent, Cohen explains the astronomical foundations behind Mesopotamian reckoning of time in relation to religious practice.
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  113. Jaubert, Annie. La date de la Cène: Calendrier biblique et liturgie chrétienne. Paris: Libraire Lecoffre, 1957.
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  115. Arguing for a reunderstanding of the dates of the events of the Passion, Jaubert provides thorough discussions of ancient Jewish calendars, patristic interpretations of time, and a discussion of time in the Gospels. Appendixes include discussions on evidence for solar and lunar calendars within the biblical tradition.
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  117. Miano, David. The Shadow on the Steps: Time Measurement in Ancient Israel. Resources for Biblical Study 64. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2010.
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  119. Authoritative study on time reckoning in ancient Israel; although not specifically devoted to cosmology, is very useful for appreciating ancient ways of making sense of time.
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  121. Rochberg, Francesca. “Astronomy and Calendars in Ancient Mesopotamia.” In Civilization of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 3. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, 1925–1940. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
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  123. For those with little background in astronomy or mathematics, this overview of Mesopotamian astral science provides a good entry point. Although readers may still find some of the discussion too technical, it provides a thorough overview of Mesopotamian empirical concepts that were foundational for various cosmologies. Originally published in 1995 (New York: Scribner).
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  125. Steele, John, ed. Calendars and Years: Astronomy and Time in the Ancient Near East. Oxford: Oxbow, 2007.
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  127. A collection of essays discussing the development and use of calendars in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, and the relationship between these calendars and astronomical observations. Although some of the material may be too technical for nonspecialists, the bibliographies and careful approaches in the different chapters make this a useful starting point.
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  129. Anthologies
  130.  
  131. There are many anthologies of ancient Near Eastern texts that are suitable for nonspecialists or beginning students. Hallo and Younger 1997 is recommended as a fairly up-to-date collection with extensive annotations that provides translations of the major cosmogonic accounts. Pritchard 2011 is now quite out of date, but the translations offered are classics and the volume itself is very accessible. Other anthologies collect the literature of specific cultures. Lichtheim 1973–1980 presents key texts from ancient Egypt at an introductory level. Black, et al. 2004; Dalley 2000; and Foster 2005 provide introductory-level renderings of different Mesopotamian texts. The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature is a comprehensive database of Sumerian literature suitable for more-advanced users.
  132.  
  133. Black, Jeremy, Graham Cunningham, Eleanor Robson, and Gábor Zólyomi. The Literature of Ancient Sumer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  135. Thematically organized anthology of new translations of seventy Sumerian stories (including those that are most important for understanding Sumerian cosmology), with introductions and some notes. The volume is suitable for those with little background in Mesopotamian literature and culture.
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  137. Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Rev. ed. Oxford’s World Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
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  139. An accessible anthology of the major mythological narratives from Mesopotamia, including those related to cosmology. Suitable for undergraduates. Dalley provides translations, introductions, and some critical notes for each text. The glossary is a useful tool for those new to the study of Mesopotamian religion, although the bibliography may be too technical in orientation for those same readers.
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  141. Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature.
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  143. Also known as ETCSL, this website contains over four hundred works of Sumerian literature (most in transliteration and English translation), along with bibliographic information. Those new to Sumerology may find it difficult to identify those texts relevant to cosmology, so it may be best to approach this database with a list of primary texts already in mind.
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  145. Foster, Benjamin. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akkadian Literature. 2 vols. 3d ed. Bethesda, MD: CDL, 2005.
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  147. This two-volume set provides accessible translations and notes on over three hundred Akkadian texts, including the major cosmogonic works, as well as an introduction to Akkadian literature more generally.
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  149. Hallo, William H., and K. Lawson Younger, eds. The Context of Scripture. Vol. 1, Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1997.
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  151. This first volume of a three-volume series provides up-to-date translations, commentaries, and a bibliography for cosmogonies from Egypt, Ugarit, Mesopotamia, and the Hittites.
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  153. Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings. 3 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973–1980.
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  155. Accessible translations of Egyptian texts with few critical notes; contains some works relating to cosmology but is not exhaustive.
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  157. Pritchard, James B., ed. The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011.
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  159. A reprinted and abridged form of Pritchard’s Ancient Near Eastern Texts Related to the Old Testament (1950). This edition presents a number of idiosyncratic but classic translations of cosmogonic texts from the Near East, although it lacks the bibliography of the earlier version.
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  161. Egypt
  162.  
  163. The Egyptians held many different cosmological views, which is not surprising given the thousands of years of pharaonic history. Most of the cosmogonies, as they have been preserved, are thought of in relation to one particular city, and many reflect the power relationships of that particular context, especially in regard to the deities worshipped locally. It is not clear if there are any direct relationships between Egyptian and biblical cosmologies, but, at the very least, the study of Egyptian viewpoints provides an important comparative perspective.
  164.  
  165. Textual Studies of Egyptian Cosmogonies
  166.  
  167. There are many literary studies of Egyptian texts relating to the topic of cosmology. Introductory level studies are presented in van Dijk 2000, Lesko 1991, Pinch 2004, Quirke 1992, and Tobin 2001, and those who are not familiar with Egyptian cosmology will find those sources helpful. Allen 1988 is a very important work on major texts relating to the topic but is better suited for graduate-level researchers and above. Allen 1989 and Tobin 1989 are more-advanced studies on Egyptian cosmology that provide insights that have relevance beyond the specific texts under consideration.
  168.  
  169. Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient Egyptian Creation Accounts. Yale Egyptological Studies 2. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988.
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  171. Provides translations and commentary on sixteen important texts reflecting Egyptian cosmological thinking; the extended essays associated with each text focus on different aspects of the Egyptian understanding of the world, cosmos, and creation; also includes a final summary chapter.
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  173. Allen, James P. “The Cosmology of the Pyramid Texts.” In Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt. Edited by James P. Allen, Jan Assman, Alan B. Loyd, et al., 1–28. Yale Egyptological Studies 3. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.
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  175. Describes the cosmology of the afterlife as expressed in the Egyptian Coffin Texts (funerary spells written on coffins); makes much reference to Egyptian terminology but is still accessible for those with no knowledge of Egyptian language.
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  177. Lesko, Leonard H. “Ancient Egyptian Cosmogonies and Cosmology.” In Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice. Edited by Byron E. Shafer, 88–122. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991.
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  179. Lesko provides an introductory-level survey of the major Egyptian cosmological traditions and the major textual sources for them, with footnotes indicating the location of textual editions and some extended treatments.
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  181. Pinch, Geraldine. Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  182. DOI: 10.1093/actrade/9780192803467.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  183. A short and popular introduction to Egyptian myths. Chapter 4 is devoted to creation stories. While specialists will find this book too simplistic, those with little background in Egyptian religion will find it a useful and easy-to-understand introduction to the various cosmogonies.
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  185. Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. London: British Museum, 1992.
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  187. Quirke’s accessible description of Egyptian religion explores issues of cosmology as related to Egyptian religious beliefs.
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  189. Tobin, Vincent Arieh. Theological Principles of Egyptian Religion. American University Studies 7, Theology and Religion 59. New York: Peter Lang, 1989.
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  191. Contains a chapter on cosmogonies (pp. 57–75), with some comparison of Egyptian and Hebrew accounts; especially strong is the discussion on the multiplicity of creation stories and deities involved in creation, the discussion of the primeval waters, and the relationships between masculine and feminine deities in the acts of creation.
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  193. Tobin, Vincent Arieh. “Myths: Creation Myths.” In Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 2. Edited by Donald B. Redford, 469–472. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
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  195. A brief but clear and accurate introduction to the most-important Egyptian cosmogonies. Tobin also contextualizes these accounts within Egyptian religious thinking more broadly. This encyclopedia entry is suitable for student use.
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  197. van Dijk, Jacobus. “Myth and Mythmaking in Ancient Egypt.” In Civilization of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 3. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, 1697–1709. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
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  199. Van Dijk’s short article, intended for students, provides a good introduction to the major Egyptian creation accounts as reconstructed from a number of texts. In particular, his explanation of the differences among the Heliopolitan, Memphite, Theban, and Hermopolitan theologies may be helpful to those new to Egyptian mythology. Originally published in 1995 (New York: Scribner).
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  201. Major Concepts in Egyptian Religion and Cosmology
  202.  
  203. Since the late 20th century, European scholars in particular have been treating Egyptian theology as a serious and sophisticated system of thinking about the world. Assman 2002, Hornung 1982, and Te Velde 1984 exemplify this. Baines 1991 describes these new scholarly approaches, while also providing critical discussions about Egyptian theology in relation to cosmology. Tobin 1988 discusses the importance of the concept of Ma`at in Egyptian cosmology, and Te Velde 1977 describes the evidence for Egyptian beliefs about the original moments of creation.
  204.  
  205. Assman, Jan. The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of Pharaohs. Translated by Andrew Jenkins. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002.
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  207. Issues relating to cosmology are interspersed throughout this in-depth account of Egyptian conceptions of history and geography.
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  209. Baines, John. “Egyptian Myth and Discourse: Myth, Gods, and the Early Written and Iconographic Record.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 50.2 (1991): 81–105.
  210. DOI: 10.1086/373483Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. Baines discusses different scholarly approaches to thinking about myth, and while his comments are not specifically aimed at the issue of cosmogony, they have implications for understanding those beliefs.
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  213. Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The One and the Many. Translated by John Baines. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982.
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  215. A detailed treatment of Egyptian understandings of the divine. Those interested in cosmology will find this book a useful source for thinking about the role of the Egyptian gods in those cosmogonies.
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  217. Te Velde, Herman. “The Theme of the Separation of Heaven and Earth in Egyptian Mythology.” Studia Aegyptiaca 3 (1977): 161–170.
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  219. Discussion of the mythological descriptions and imagery of the original separation of heaven from Earth in Egyptian literature and iconography.
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  221. Te Velde, Herman. “Relations and Conflicts between Egyptian Gods, Particularly in the Divine Ennead of Heliopolis.” In Struggles of Gods: Papers of the Groningen Work Group for the Study of the History of Religions. Edited by Hans G. Kippenberg, 239–257. Religion and Reason 31. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1984.
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  223. Discussion of how gods were associated with one another in groupings called enneads, an important concept for understanding Egyptian cosmogonies and their relationships to different local histories.
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  225. Tobin, Vincent Arieh. “Mytho-theology in Ancient Egypt.” Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 25 (1988): 169–183.
  226. DOI: 10.2307/40000877Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. Explains how Egyptian cosmology was built on a doctrinal principle that the world and universe were part of a “strict and unchanging order of stability” (i.e., the Egyptian concept of Ma`at; p. 170); contains an extended discussion of how this doctrine relates to creation accounts.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Atenism
  230.  
  231. Of particular interest to biblical studies has been Egyptian Atenism, the religious tradition of Pharaoh Akhenaten that privileged the sun disc (the Aten) over other deities, which many have argued reflects an early move toward monotheism or, at the very least, henotheism. Atenism brought with it a slightly different cosmological view that may have had an impact on later biblical beliefs. For an introduction to the historical situation in which Atenism emerged, see Redford 1984. Allen 1989 and Assman 1992 present accounts of the theology of Atenism. Day 2013 and Tobin 1985 discuss Atenism in the context of biblical religion.
  232.  
  233. Allen, James P. “The Natural Philosophy of Akhenaten.” In Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt. Edited by James P. Allen, Jan Assman, Alan B. Loyd, et al., 89–101. Yale Egyptological Studies 3. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.
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  235. Provides a useful discussion of the theology of Atenism generally, especially how this reflected a different cosmological view than in other Egyptian traditions; discusses how the Aten is seen as continually creating the world through its rays (just as it had created the world initially), and the natural theology that formed the basis of Atenism’s cosmology.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Assman, Jan. “Akhanyati’s Theology of Light and Time.” Proceedings of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities 7.4 (1992): 143–176.
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  239. A treatment of Akhenaten’s “Great Hymn” to the Aten, considering how it stands apart from more traditional Egyptian solar theology and how it reflects beliefs that both light and time are products of solar energy; a good source on cosmological features of Atenism, and suitable for those with little background in Egyptology.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Day, John. “Psalm 104 and Akhenaten’s Hymn to the Sun.” In Jewish and Christian Approaches to the Psalms: Conflict and Convergence. Edited by Susan Gillingham, 211–228. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
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  243. Day explores six parallels between Akhenaten’s Hymn to the Sun and Psalm 104, arguing for different means through which the biblical author may have had access to this literature, and concluding that it was most likely through the Canaanite reception of this Egyptian poem.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Redford, Donald. Akhenaten: The Heretic King. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
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  247. A standard account of Akhenaten’s reign, and a discussion of the principal tenets of Atenism.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Tobin, Arieh. “Amarna and Biblical Religion.” In Pharaonic Egypt: The Bible and Christianity. Edited by Sarah Israelit-Groll, 231–277. Jerusalem: Magnes, 1985.
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  251. A comparison of the ideas about the relationships between the deity and monarch in Atenism and biblical religion, with a significant discussion on the role of the deity in creation and divine relation to the cosmos in both traditions.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Mesopotamia
  254.  
  255. Although the political and social history of the civilizations found between the Tigris and the Euphrates is relatively complex, scholars have been able to reconstruct a relatively stable view of Mesopotamian cosmology. Much of this may be due to the wider culture of cuneiform scholarship, which preserved intellectual traditions even with the shifting political realities and demographic transformations in the region. From the very beginning of Mesopotamian exploration in the 19th century, the culture and beliefs of the region have been considered in tandem with the Bible, and the comparative approach to these two cultures is a well-established subfield.
  256.  
  257. General Treatments of Mesopotamian Religion
  258.  
  259. Bottéro 2004 is an introduction to Mesopotamian religion that is recommended for all readers; Jacobsen 1976 is highly readable but is based primarily on literature (with little on archaeology and art) and is perhaps too dependent on evolutionary models of religious change. Lambert 2000 is a fairly accessible introduction to Mesopotamian mythology, suitable for undergraduates. Black and Green 1998 is a useful reference tool suitable for those with varying degrees of Near Eastern fluency and will be particularly helpful as a supplement to the other recommended works. Horowitz 1998 is the most thorough source on Mesopotamian cosmology available, but it is very technical.
  260.  
  261. Black, Jeremy, and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary. 2d ed. London: British Museum Press, 1998.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Although the specific entry on cosmology in this illustrated dictionary is relatively short, it is an invaluable guide for those new to Mesopotamian religion and iconography (and will help students keep straight the different divine figures and places mentioned in the cosmogonies).
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Bottéro, Jean. Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia. Translated by Teresa Lavender Fagan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.
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  267. An overview of Mesopotamian religion that is suitable for experts and novices alike. It has sections on cosmology and cosmogonies that situate these issues within the broader context of Mesopotamian religious practice.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Horowitz, Wayne. Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography. Mesopotamian Civilizations. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1998.
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  271. A thorough and up-to-date overview of Mesopotamian understandings of cosmology in all periods. It deals with all the major texts and offers transliterations and translations of many texts, along with substantive analysis. Although technical, it is still accessible for those without a background in Mesopotamian languages.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976.
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  275. This is a classic treatment of Mesopotamian religion aimed both at specialists and nonspecialists. Numerous sections deal with Mesopotamian cosmology. Jacobsen’s strict adherence to a unilinear evolutionary model of religion is problematic, but this does not interfere much with his treatment of conceptions of the universe and his treatments of those related texts.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Lambert, W. G. “Myth and Mythmaking in Sumer and Akkad.” In Civilization of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 3. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, 1825–1835. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. Intended for students, Lambert’s introduction to Mesopotamian mythology is mostly an introduction to the issue of written accounts of creation. It is very suitable for those needing a basic introduction to the topic, but it provides little in terms of critical apparatus through which to follow up on Lambert’s ideas. Originally published in 1995 (New York: Scribner).
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Primary Sources and Text Editions
  282.  
  283. There are many critical editions of Mesopotamian texts relating to cosmology available, so only a few are highlighted here (but the bibliographies in these editions can suggest further reading). For the Gilgamesh epic, which has a version of the flood story embedded within it, the most thorough and up-to-date resource is George 2003, which is suitable for specialists and nonspecialists alike. Heidel 1951 is outdated but provides accessible translations of the major creation stories. Lambert 2013 contains critical editions of the most-important Mesopotamian creation texts. Lambert and Millard 1999 is a critical edition of the Babylonian flood story, Atra-Hasis, intended for specialists but comprehensible for those with little background in Mesopotamian languages. Moran 1971 is not technically a text edition, but William Moran’s argument has been very important in subsequent treatments of Atra-Hasis. Jacobsen 1981 is technical, with significant linguistic and textual notes about the oldest Sumerian creation account (especially discussions of sign readings), but the author’s translation and discussion of the text are accessible to those with no background in Sumerian. Kämmerer and Metzler 2012 is a very technical, critical edition of the Enuma Eliš, the Babylonian creation myth and one of the most important texts for understanding Mesopotamian cosmology.
  284.  
  285. George, Andrew. The Babylonian Gilgamesh Epic: Introductions, Critical Edition and Cuneiform Texts. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  287. Immense critical edition of Gilgamesh in its variety of attestations; includes detailed critical study of the flood story.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Heidel, Alexander. The Babylonian Genesis: The Story of Creation. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951.
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  291. An outdated but classic translation of the Mesopotamian creation stories, with some philological discussion but still suitable for nonspecialists; includes an extended discussion of the parallels with Old Testament literature.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Jacobsen, Thorkild. “The Eridu Genesis.” Journal of Biblical Literature 100.4 (1981): 513–529.
  294. DOI: 10.2307/3266116Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A discussion of the earliest account of creation in Sumerian. Jacobsen offers a translation, technical notes, and a discussion of the text.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Kämmerer, Thomas R., and Kai A. Metzler. Das babylonische Weltschöpfungsepos: Enūma elîš. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 375. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 2012.
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  299. An up-to-date, critical edition of the Enuma Eliš, providing transliterations, translations, photographs, and drawings of the texts, as well as text-critical notes and some commentary.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Lambert, W. G. Babylonian Creation Myths. Mesopotamian Civilizations. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2013.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Published posthumously, this is a comprehensive scholarly edition of the Enuma Eliš and other Babylonian creation stories, including transliterations, translations, text drawings, notes, and critical commentary. It also provides scholarly discussion of cosmology as informed by these texts, contextualized historically.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Lambert, W. G., and A. R. Millard, eds. Atra-Hasīs: The Babylonian Story of the Flood. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1999.
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  307. A scholarly edition of one of the most important Babylonian accounts of creation and the flood. The Eisenbrauns reprint contains drawings of the tablets, transliterations, translations, and commentary as well as editions of other important texts about the flood tradition (Berossus’s account and versions in Sumerian and Ugaritic). Originally published in 1969.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Moran, William L. “Atrahasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood.” Biblica 52.1 (1971): 51–61.
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  311. Discussion of the central point of the Babylonian flood story, arguing that the deluge was believed to be a central event in Babylonian cosmological origins, and that it firmly established humanity’s role in the order of the universe.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Mesopotamian Influences on Biblical Cosmology
  314.  
  315. There has been much scholarly work on the Mesopotamian context of biblical literature, and this is readily apparent in studies of cosmology. Gunkel 2006 is one of the first and most influential extended treatments of the Mesopotamian impact on Biblical creation accounts. Clifford 1994 offers a good introduction to the major relevant texts and the main arguments that have been offered. Hess and Tsumura 1994 is a substantial volume with many specialist articles on Genesis, and, as a collection, it provides a good introduction to the different ways that the biblical accounts are contextualized within cuneiform culture. Lambert 1988 suggests how Mesopotamian ideas were adopted and adapted in Israelite culture. Oden 1981 offers a structuralist comparison of a Mesopotamian and biblical cosmogony. Both Hendel 2005 and Sparks 2007 offer readings of Mesopotamian-biblical cosmogonies inspired by postcolonial theory.
  316.  
  317. Clifford, Richard J. Creation Accounts in the Ancient Near East and in the Bible. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 26. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1994.
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  319. Detailed discussion of creation accounts from the Near East (Sumerian, Akkadian, Egyptian, Ugaritic, Phoenician) and in the Bible (Genesis, Psalms, Isaiah, and wisdom literature); with its useful bibliography, this is an excellent starting place for the topic of cosmology.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Gunkel, Hermann. Creation and Chaos in the Primeval Era and the Eschaton: A Religio-historical Study of Genesis 1 and Revelation 12. Translated by K. William Whitney Jr. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans, 2006.
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  323. Originally published in German in 1895, this translation offers the most complete version of Gunkel’s now-outdated but groundbreaking analysis of the relationship between Mesopotamian and biblical creation traditions and is still worth consideration; Peter Machinist’s foreword puts the work into a larger scholarly context.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Hendel, Ronald. “Genesis 1–11 and Its Mesopotamian Problem.” In Cultural Borrowings and Ethnic Appropriations in Antiquity: Oriens et Occidens. Edited by Erich S. Gruen, 23–36. Sudien zu antiken Kulturkontakten und ihrem Nachleben 8. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2005.
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  327. Here Hendel, inspired by postcolonial theory, argues that Genesis 1–11 reflects Israelite appropriations, mimicry, and inversions of Mesopotamian cosmogonies, related to the biblical narrative of Abraham’s departure from Mesopotamia.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Hess, Richard, and D. T. Tsumura, eds. “I Studied Inscriptions from before the Flood”: Ancient Near Eastern, Literary, and Linguistic Approaches to Genesis 1–11. Sources for Biblical and Theological Study 4. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1994.
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  331. A very substantial collection of essays on Genesis 1–11 and its Near Eastern context (including many previously published important works), divided into introductory, comparative, and literary and linguistic sections, many of the essays in this book deal directly with issues of cosmology. This is a good starting place for work on biblical cosmology in relation to Mesopotamian thinking. Includes an excellent bibliography.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Lambert, W. G. “Old Testament Mythology in Its Ancient Near Eastern Context.” In Congress Volume: Jerusalem 1986. Edited by J. A. Emerton, 124–143. Vetus Testamentum Supplement 40. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1988.
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  335. Presuming that myth represents “primitive man’s science, religion, and philosophy,” Lambert offers a historical discussion of how Syro-Palestinian ideas may have come into contact with Mesopotamian traditions, and he suggests some examples of this in biblical cosmogonies.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Oden, Robert A., Jr. “Transformations in Near Eastern Myths: Genesis 1–11 and the Old Babylonian Epic of Atrahasis.” Religion 11.1 (1981): 30–34.
  338. DOI: 10.1016/S0048-721X(81)80058-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. A structuralist comparison of the two texts, concentrating on textual parallels and concluding that both bear similar fundamental messages about cosmology.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Sparks, Kenton. “Enūma Elish and Priestly Mimesis: Elite Emulation in Nascent Judaism.” Journal of Biblical Literature 126.4 (2007): 625–648.
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  343. A postcolonial study of the relationship between biblical and Mesopotamian culture. Sparks reads the Priestly author’s contributions in the Bible, especially the creation stories, as exemplifying elite emulation of Mesopotamian literature.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Flood Traditions
  346.  
  347. With the discovery of the Mesopotamian version of the flood story in the 1870s, scholars came to believe that myths of a worldwide deluge were common throughout the world. Subsequent research has shown these early claims to be exaggerated, but there are still some cross-cultural studies of different flood traditions that are recommended, such as Dundes 1988 and Schmidt 2000. Lang 1985 provides a further bibliography on this kind of study. More often, the Mesopotamian flood is treated in its own right (Chen 2014) or in comparison with the Old Testament (Frymer-Kensky 1978 and Heidel 1946). Hendel 1987 and Silverman 2013 take into account the Near Eastern context but are primarily concerned with understanding the biblical flood.
  348.  
  349. Chen, Y. S. Primeval Flood Catastrophe: Origins and Early Development in Mesopotamian Traditions. Oxford Oriental Monographs. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
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  351. A revised doctoral thesis, this book explores the origins and developments of the flood tradition within Mesopotamia through close textual readings within historical contexts. It also includes a lexicographic study of flood terminology.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Dundes, Alan, ed. The Flood Myth. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
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  355. Taking a folklorist approach to the flood myth, Dundes has collected a selection of essays on variations on flood stories from the Near East as well as the classical world, the Americas, East Asia, South Asia, and West Africa.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Frymer-Kensky, Tikva. “What the Babylonian Flood Stories Can and Cannot Teach Us about the Genesis Flood.” Biblical Archaeology Review 4.4 (1978): 32–41.
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  359. A popular version of an earlier article, in which Frymer-Kensky explains how a comparison of the Genesis flood story with the Mesopotamian traditions shows that there are significant differences between the accounts of the two cultures. He also helps us better understand the narrative structure of the story in Genesis and argues that the giving of law after the flood is fundamental to the biblical conception of the event.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Heidel, Alexander. The Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1946.
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  363. A classic account comparing the flood story (Tablet XI) and other aspects of the Gilgamesh epic with biblical traditions. Issues of cosmology are dealt with throughout.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Hendel, Ronald S. “Of Demigods and the Deluge: Toward an Interpretation of Genesis 6:1–4.” Journal of Biblical Literature 106.1 (1987): 13–26.
  366. DOI: 10.2307/3260551Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Hendel’s article is an important contribution to understanding the explanation for the Flood that is presented in the Bible and the nature of the Nephilim.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Lang, Bernhard. “Non-Semitic Deluge Stories and the Book of Genesis: A Bibliographical and Critical Survey.” Anthropos 80.4–6 (1985): 605–616.
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  371. An important annotated bibliography on scholarly books and articles about various non-Semitic (such as Greek or New World) stories of floods; it is organized chronologically so readers can also see the development of this type of study over the past hundred years.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Schmidt, Brian B. “Flood Narratives of Ancient Western Asia.” In Civilization of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 3. Edited by Jack M. Sasson, 2337–2352. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2000.
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  375. As the title of this encyclopedia entry suggests, Schmidt provides an introduction and comparison of the various biblical, Mesopotamian, and classical texts that refer to an ancient deluge. It is a useful introduction to the different sources for the comparative study of flood myths, as well as an introduction to some of the themes in the history of scholarship on this topic. Originally published in 1995 (New York: Scribner).
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Silverman, Jason M. Opening Heaven’s Floodgates: The Genesis Flood Narrative, Its Context, and Reception. Biblical Intersections 12. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2013.
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  379. An edited collection of essays by nineteen scholars, many of which deal specifically with cosmology and calendrical issues. Others deal with the reception of the Genesis flood stories in later traditions.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Ugarit, Canaan, and Phoenicia
  382.  
  383. The cosmological beliefs of the Canaanite culture of the Bronze Age and the Late Bronze Age Syrian city of Ugarit likely had some relation to early biblical thinking on such issues, but the exact relationship is somewhat contested. Despite the fact that there is not a scholarly consensus on whether or not any cosmogonies per se have been identified at Ugarit, the literature from the Syrian Bronze Age has evident relationships to biblical cosmogonies. For more on Ugarit, see the Oxford Bibliographies article “Ugarit.” There is less direct evidence for Canaanite belief, although it is often assumed to have been at least somewhat analogous to Ugaritic thinking. Later Phoenician cosmological traditions from this same geographical region are not preserved in Phoenician literature itself, but rather in later Greek versions of that literature.
  384.  
  385. Ugaritic Religion
  386.  
  387. For introductory surveys of Ugaritic religion, see del Olmo Lete 2004 and Smith 2003, both of which are suitable for specialists and nonspecialists alike. Clifford 1984 and Margalit 1981 deal with the seeming lack of explicitly cosmogonic texts at Ugarit, discuss how what appear to be noncosmogonic texts say on that subject, and come to different conclusions. Fisher 1965 argues that Ugaritic literature, while not specifically referencing creation, is cosmogonic nonetheless. De Moor 1971 argues that Ugaritic myths reflect seasonal patterns and thus have cosmological relevance. Both Wyatt 2005 and Wyatt 2007 provide discussions of what can be reconstructed of Ugaritic cosmology in comparison with the Bible.
  388.  
  389. Clifford, Richard J. “Cosmogonies in the Ugaritic Texts and the Bible.” Orientalia 53.2 (1984): 183–201.
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  391. Clifford argues that the Baal-Yamm conflict stories constitute “true” cosmogonies, and he contextualizes them within Northwest Semitic and biblical accounts of creation, and within the narrative logic of the Baal cycle itself.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. de Moor, Johannes C. The Seasonal Pattern in the Ugaritic Myth of Ba`lu According to the Version of Ilimilku. AOAT 16. Neukirchen Vluyn, Germany: Neukirchener Verlag, 1971.
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  395. De Moor suggests that the Baal cycle reflects a seasonal pattern of worship, and those interested in Ugaritic cosmology may thus find the discussion of value. However, his reading of the seasonality of the Baal cycle has not been widely accepted in the field.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. del Olmo Lete, Gregorio. Canaanite Religion According to the Liturgical Texts of Ugarit. Translated by W. E. Watson. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2004.
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  399. A comprehensive overview of Ugaritic religion suitable for nonspecialists, it is the best starting place for a study on Ugaritic cosmological traditions. Texts are presented in translation (and often transliteration) throughout the work, which is organized according to different elements of religious life. Treatments of cosmological issues are scattered throughout.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Fisher, Lore R. “Creation at Ugarit and in the Old Testament.” Vetus Testamentum 15.3 (1965): 313–324.
  402. DOI: 10.1163/156853365X00189Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Argues that in Ugaritic literature, conflict, kingship, ordering of chaos, and temple building all are related to ideas of creation, and that narratives with these themes should be considered cosmogonic.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Margalit, Baruch. “The Ugaritic Creation Myth: Fact or Fiction?” Ugarit-Forschungen 13 (1981): 137–145.
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  407. A critical examination of the “alleged vestiges or reflexes of cosmogonic myth” (p. 137) in Ugaritic literature, especially as relates to the Babylonian Enuma Elish; Margalit argues against seeing the Baal-Mot conflict as cosmogonic in nature and is suspicious of such claims regarding the Baal-Yamm conflict.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Smith, Mark S. The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  411. Though not centered on issues of cosmology, Smith’s book has useful discussions on the organization of divine space and the cosmos in Ugaritic thinking, and how this influenced similar conceptualizations in early Israel. He also provides a good general introduction to Ugaritic divinities.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Wyatt, Nick. The Mythic Mind: Essays on Cosmology and Religion in Ugaritic and Old Testament Literature. Oakville, CT: Equinox, 2005.
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  415. A collection of essays, many of which deal specifically with cosmology, that attempt to understand Israelite religion from an explicitly comparative perspective, with much evidence from Ugaritic texts. The chapter titled “The Darkness of Genesis 1:2” will be of particular interest to those interested in the poetic aspects of that verse.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Wyatt, Nick. Word of Tree and Whisper of Stone, and Other Papers on Ugaritian Thought. Gorgias Ugaritic Studies 1. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2007.
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  419. Although not devoted to cosmology, there is a very clear discussion on the cosmological presuppositions that are apparent in Ugaritic literature.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Ugaritic Primary Sources and Text Editions
  422.  
  423. There are numerous Ugaritic literary sources that have been useful in reconstructing Syrian and Canaanite cosmologies, especially as related to early biblical worldviews. Coogan and Smith 2012 and Parker 1997 are explicitly aimed at undergraduate and nonspecialist readers. De Moor 1987 and Wyatt 1998 provide detailed notes along with translations of major texts. Smith 1994 and Smith and Pitard 2009 are detailed critical treatments of the Baal cycle, aimed at scholars with a knowledge of Ugarit. Hallo and Younger 1997 and Pritchard 2011, both cited under Anthologies, also contain translations of Ugaritic texts.
  424.  
  425. Coogan, Michael, and Mark S. Smith. Stories from Ancient Canaan. 2d ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 2012.
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  427. Accessible English translations of Ugaritic literature, with introductory discussions for each text.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. de Moor, Johannes C. An Anthology of Religious Texts from Ugarit. NISABA: Religious Texts Translation 16. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1987.
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  431. Translations of and notes (with numerous biblical citations) on the most-important Ugaritic religious texts, categorized as myth, myth and ritual, ritual, incantation, and legend.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Parker, Simon B., ed. Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. Writings from the Ancient World. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1997.
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  435. Provides transliterations, translations, and commentaries on the major Ugaritic mythological texts. A good starting point, and readers with even rudimentary knowledge of biblical Hebrew will find the grammatical discussions accessible.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Smith, Mark S., ed. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle. Vol. 1, Introduction with Text, Translation, and Commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2. Vetus Testamentum Supplements 55. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994.
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  439. A significant critical edition of two of the tablets from the Baal cycle. In the introduction, Smith surveys the history of scholarship relating these texts to creation, providing key bibliography and summarizing major arguments. Although technical, the discussion of cosmology will be understandable to those without knowledge of Ugaritic.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Smith, Mark S., and Wayne Pitard, eds. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle. Vol. 2, Introduction with Text, Translation, and Commentary of KTU 1.3–1.4. Vetus Testamentum Supplements 114. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  442. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004153486.i-864Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Critical edition of two tablets from the Baal cycle (following up on Smith 1994). This is a very detailed treatment of the primary text and includes a discussion of the divine geography presupposed by the author(s) of these stories.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Wyatt, Nick. Religious Texts from Ugarit: The Words of Ilimilku and His Colleagues. Biblical Seminar 53. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic, 1998.
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  447. Translation of and detailed notes on the major religious and literary texts from Ugarit.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Chaoskampf and Theories of the Divine Warrior
  450.  
  451. Many Near Eastern traditions feature a divine struggle or war against chaos (referred to as Chaoskampf by scholars) as a major feature of creation stories and an element of creation that needs to be continually enacted. Many scholars believe that vestiges of this tradition are apparent in biblical cosmogonies. Gunkel 1964 (cited under Genesis as Cosmogonic Literature) was one of the first scholarly treatments to identify a “combat with chaos” motif in the Bible that reflects this wider Near Eastern tradition. Cross 1973 has been most influential in articulating a specific related view that the Bible preserves traditions (especially evident in the Bible’s relationship to Ugaritic literature) that see Yahweh as a divine warrior and creation as an act of conflict. Anderson 1967 presents similar ideas based on other traditions of the Near East. Clapham 1976 applies Cross’s argument to stories from other traditions, and Day 1985 discusses conflicts with dragons and the sea more specifically. Tsumura 2005 and Walton 2008, however, challenge the thesis that biblical cosmogonies are related to divine combat. Ballentine 2015 looks at how older Near Eastern myths of conflict were adapted in 1st- and 2nd-century Judean literature. For more on the general problems surrounding the identification of myth, see the Oxford Bibliographies article “Myth in the Hebrew Bible.”
  452.  
  453. Anderson, Bernhard W. Creation versus Chaos: The Reinterpretation of Mythical Symbolism in the Bible. New York: Association Press, 1967.
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  455. Originally presented as lectures, the essays in this volume present Anderson’s influential views on the nature of biblical cosmology, arguing that the cosmogony in Genesis was intended as a historical account, was integral to covenant traditions, and was rooted in older traditions of battle against chaos.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Ballentine, Debra Scoggins. The Conflict Myth and the Biblical Tradition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
  458. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199370252.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Working from a myth theory perspective (informed by J. Z. Smith and others), Ballentine examines the Chaoskampf theme in Mesopotamian, Ugaritic, and biblical tradition and shows how this was later used as a form of political rhetoric in early Jewish and Christian literature.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Clapham, Lynn. “Mythopoeic Antecedents of the Biblical World-View and Their Transformation in Early Israelite Thought.” In Magnalia Dei: The Mighty Acts of God; Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright. Edited by Frank Moore Cross, Werner E. Lemke, and Patrick D. Miller, 108–119. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976.
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  463. Building on Cross’s work on the Divine Warrior in early Israelite thought, Clapham discusses the relationship of Yahweh to nature and creation in the context of other Near Eastern traditions.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Cross, Frank Moore. Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973.
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  467. Cross’s groundbreaking book explores the relationship between the Ugaritic corpus and various biblical traditions. Issues of cosmology are scattered throughout this book, which revolutionized the fields of Ugaritic and biblical studies.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Day, John. God’s Conflict with the Dragon and the Sea: Echoes of Canaanite Myth in the Old Testament. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 35. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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  471. A detailed discussion of how Canaanite myths about divine conflict with the sea and dragon were adapted throughout the Old Testament, especially in regard to creation accounts; works through relevant passages from the Bible and Ugaritic literature in detail.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Tsumura, D. T. Creation and Destruction: A Reappraisal of the Chaoskampf Theory in the Old Testament. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005.
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  475. Discussion of the role of water and chaos monsters in creation stories, with explanations of how the biblical accounts relate to other Near Eastern traditions of divine warfare, and arguing against readings of Genesis that see it related to primordial combat stories.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Walton, John H. “Creation in Genesis 1:1–2:3 and the Ancient Near East: Order out of Disorder after Chaoskampf.” Calvin Theological Journal 43.1 (2008): 48–63.
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  479. Walton situates the Chaoskampf motif in the Bible within a larger tradition of theomachy, offering a Marxist reading of this type of myth; he argues that the creation story is less related to divine conflict and more related to temple building.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Phoenicia
  482.  
  483. Most of our knowledge of Phoenician cosmology has been preserved in Greek sources, the most important of which are found in the writings of Philo of Byblos. Attridge and Oden 1981 is the recommended starting place for those new to the study of the Phoenicians. Baumgarten 1981 has a chapter on Philo’s cosmogony and technical studies on individual Greek terms. Greek readers who want a collection of all the fragments of Philo’s works are advised to use Kaldellis and López-Ruiz 2009.
  484.  
  485. Attridge, H. W., and R. A. Oden, eds. Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monographs 9. Washington, DC: Catholic Bible Association of America, 1981.
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  487. Includes the original Greek text, translations, notes, and commentaries on Philo’s surviving works, as well as discussion of his sources and the relationship with Greek traditions and other Phoenician cosmogonies.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Baumgarten, Albert I. The Phoenician History of Philo of Byblos: A Commentary. Études préliminaires aux religions orientales dans l’Empire Romain 89. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1981.
  490. DOI: 10.1163/9789004295681Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. A critical commentary on Philo that is suitable even for those with no knowledge of Greek. There is a chapter devoted to cosmogony that treats Philo’s preserved text in detail and considers his cosmogony in relation to Near Eastern and Greek cosmogonies. Baumgarten, in disagreement with many others, sees little commonality between Philo’s cosmogony and Ugaritic cosmology. He provides a discussion of major interpretive issues as well.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Kaldellis, Anthony, and Carolina López-Ruiz. “Philon (790).” In Brill’s New Jacoby. Edited by Ian Worthington. Brill Online, 2009.
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  495. This is a collection of the fragments of Philon’s history as preserved in various Greek texts; suitable only for specialists and those who read Greek. Available online by subscription or purchase.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Persian Cosmology
  498.  
  499. For scholars of biblical cosmology, the issue of Persian influence is very difficult to determine. It is likely that Persian ideas about the creation and structure of the world were known to biblical writers. Barr 1985 and Hinnels 2000 are preliminary attempts at this kind of study. Zoroastrianism, with its dualistic view of the cosmos and its particularly linear notion of time, was the faith of the Achaemenid kings and may have been influential in later biblical thinking. Since the textual sources on Zoroastrianism survive only from later periods, identifying any exact relationships between Persian and biblical cosmologies has proven difficult. For introductions to Zoroastrian cosmology, see Kreyenbroek 1993, Choksy 1989, and Williams 1985. Within the field of Zoroastrian studies, astrological (and thus astronomical) components of the tradition have yet to be thoroughly examined with the kind of rigor to which Mesopotamian astrology has been treated, and so these kinds of studies are a desiderata.
  500.  
  501. Barr, James. “The Question of Religious Influence: The Case of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 53.2 (1985): 201–235.
  502. DOI: 10.1093/jaarel/LIII.2.201Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Barr starts with an explanation of why the topic of biblical-Zoroastrian connections has been understudied, and he uses Genesis 1 (and biblical cosmology more broadly) as an extended example of this kind of scholarly topic. Some of the potential areas of Persian influence that he identifies include the numerical schema of creation, the absence of angels, and statements that creation was inherently good.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Choksy, Jamsheed K. Purity and Pollution in Zoroastrianism: Triumph over Evil. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
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  507. Choksy’s book is intended as a larger discussion of Zoroastrian purification rituals, but in so doing, he offers a cogent explanation of Zoroastrian cosmology (especially in chapter 5) and how this is reflected in ritual practice.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Hinnels, John R. Zoroastrian and Parsi Studies. Select Works of John R. Hinnels. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2000.
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  511. Two of the articles in this collection of essays by Hinnels focus on Zoroastrian influence on biblical traditions (pp. 45–72 and pp. 73–92). Although indicating that this type of study is still in its infancy, Hinnels suggests a number of important starting points that reflect cosmological issues.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Kreyenbroek, Philip G. “Cosmogony and Cosmology I: In Zoroastrianism/Mazdaism.” In Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. 5.3. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 303–307. New York: Bibliotheca Persica, 1993.
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  515. A good starting place for those with little background in Persian religious traditions, this article offers an overview of cosmogonic literature and traditions as well as a historical discussion of the original context of these traditions. Available online.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Williams, Alan. “A Strange Account of the World’s Origin: PRDd. XLVI.” In Papers in Honour of Professor Mary Boyce. Edited by H. W. Bailey, A. D. H. Bivar, Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin, and John R. Hinnells, 683–697. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1985.
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  519. Provides a transliteration and translation of a Zoroastrian account of creation (the 46th chapter of the Pahlavi Rivāyat), in which God creates the world out of a giant human body.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Near Eastern Relationships to Classical Cosmogonies
  522.  
  523. Since the early 20th century, the field has debated the scholarly value of comparing Near Eastern cosmogonies with classical ones and, as a result this approach, has proceeded only sporadically. Some of this work has been strictly comparative, as in López-Ruiz 2010 and O’Brien and Major 1982 (a resource intended for nonspecialists). Other scholars make diffusionist arguments or suggest other kinds of specific relationships between the traditions. Burkert 2004 and West 1994 see the roots of Greek science in the Near East, whereas van Seters 1988 attributes biblical cosmogony to Greek literary influence.
  524.  
  525. Burkert, Walter. Babylon, Memphis, Persepolis: Eastern Contexts of Greek Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004.
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  527. Chapter 3 in this series of lectures presents an argument for the indebtedness of Greek natural philosophy to the cosmogonies of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. López-Ruiz, Carolina. When the Gods Were Born: Greek Cosmogonies and the Near East. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.
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  531. A consideration of Greek cosmogonies within the context of Near Eastern traditions, which avoids diffusion approaches in favor of more-comparative models.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. O’Brien, Joan, and Wilfred Major, eds. In the Beginning: Creation Myths from Ancient Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece. American Academy of Religion Aids for the Study of Religion 11. Chico, CA: Scholars, 1982.
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  535. Contains translations of cosmogonies (Enuma Elish, Genesis 1:1–2:4a, and Hesiod’s Theogony), stories of anthropological creation (Atrahasis, Genesis 2:4b–3:24, and Hesiod’s Works and Days, 47–201) and essays about the cultural background of Mesopotamia, Israel, and Greece. Also includes essays on the role of women in the myths, comparative approaches to mythological studies (especially structuralist and symbolist approaches), and a translation of Ovid’s account of creation in Metamorphoses.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. van Seters, John. “The Primeval Histories of Greece and Israel Compared.” Zietschrift für die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft 100.1 (1988): 1–22.
  538. DOI: 10.1515/zatw.1988.100.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Argues for similarities both in form and content between Greek and Israelite primeval histories, especially in relation to the use of genealogies, going so far as to argue that the J source is indebted to the Greek national antiquarian tradition.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. West, M. L. “Ab Ovo: Orpheus, Sanchuniathon, and the Origins of the Ionian World Model.” Classical Quarterly 44.2 (1994): 289–307.
  542. DOI: 10.1017/S0009838800043767Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. West argues that Phoenician cosmogonies were influential not only in Greek myths about creation, but in early Greek science as well.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Israelite/Hebrew Bible
  546.  
  547. There are numerous cosmogonies and descriptions of cosmological understandings that are apparent in the Hebrew Bible. The best known, of course, is that found in Genesis 1:1–2:3, and most of the scholarship on biblical cosmology has centered on this passage, which has proven to be very complex and open to radically divergent interpretations. Other cosmologies, however, have also been identified, especially in wisdom literature (particularly in Proverbs and Job) and in Deutero-Isaiah. Near Eastern studies has been particularly helpful in illuminating different aspects of biblical cosmology, with Mesopotamian and Ugaritic studies having radically transformed scholarly understandings of Israelite belief.
  548.  
  549. General Treatments of Israelite Cosmology
  550.  
  551. There are a number of good introductory works that explain the different types of cosmogonies found in the Bible. Both Clifford 1985 and Clifford and Collins 1992 introduce the various sections of the Bible in which these cosmogonies can be found. Knierim 1981 and Knight 1985 provide typological analysis of these cosmogonies.
  552.  
  553. Clifford, Richard J. “The Hebrew Scriptures and the Theology of Creation.” Theological Studies 46.3 (1985): 507–523.
  554. DOI: 10.1177/004056398504600303Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Surveys the main sources of creation accounts in the Bible and argues that modern readings of these (and other Near Eastern cosmogonies) have ignored four key differences between ancient and modern creation stories: process, product, description, and criteria for truth.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Clifford, Richard J., and John J. Collins, eds. Creation in the Biblical Traditions. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph 24. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1992.
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  559. Beginning with an introductory essay on cosmogonies from Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Ugarit, this book collects essays by different authors on different cosmologies in Genesis, Psalms, Job, the Wisdom of Solomon, Philo of Alexandria, and 4 Ezra.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Knierim, Rolf “Cosmos and History in Israel’s Theology.” Horizons in Biblical Theology 3 (1981): 59–123.
  562. DOI: 10.1163/187122081X00046Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. A theological study of how the Bible and its interpreters have been concerned with the relationship between the cosmic order and human history; discusses various cosmogonies and cosmological understandings found throughout the biblical text.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Knight, Douglas A. “Cosmogony and Order in the Hebrew Tradition.” In Cosmogony and Ethical Order: New Studies in Comparative Ethics. Edited by Robin W. Lovin and Frank E. Reynolds, 133–157. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
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  567. In a collection of comparative essays on world cosmogonies from different periods, Knight provides a typology of different traditions in the Bible (considering their different source-critical contexts), compares them with other Near Eastern accounts, and explores their ethical and theological implications within biblical thinking.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Reference Works
  570.  
  571. There are a number of useful introductory-level encyclopedia entries on the issue of biblical cosmology. Oden 2008 is a recommended starting place, since it provides a description of the main biblical passages relevant to the topic. Lucas 2003 is similarly useful but is focused on the Pentateuch. Eichrodt 1961 takes a specifically theological approach to introducing the issue and describes how Israelite beliefs differed from Mesopotamian ones. Berlin 2011 is brief but offers a consideration of the changing historical context of biblical cosmology, from the ancient Near East through to medieval interpretations. Anderson 1984 is useful for students because it gathers some of the most important articles on biblical cosmology from scholarship since the 1880s. Keel and Uehlinger 1998 is not devoted to cosmology, but it collects all the major iconographic sources for the pre-exilic period and thus is an invaluable source on Israelite cosmology from the perspective of visual culture.
  572.  
  573. Anderson, Bernhard W., ed. Creation in the Old Testament. Issues in Religion and Theology 6. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1984.
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  575. Anderson’s anthology collects nine historically important articles on biblical creation, along with an introduction, illustrating different critical approaches to the problem. This is an especially useful book for students interested in the history of scholarship.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Berlin, Adele. “Cosmology and Creation.” In The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. 2d ed. Edited by Adele Berlin, 188–189. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  578. DOI: 10.1093/acref/9780199730049.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Brief but clear account of biblical cosmology in its Near Eastern context, and how this was interpreted by Jewish theologians (up to the medieval period).
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Eichrodt, Walther. “Cosmology and Creation.” In Theology of the Old Testament. Vol. 2. By Walther Eichrodt, 93–117. Translated by J. A. Baker. Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1961.
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  583. Discussion of Israelite cosmology within the larger context of biblical theology, with a comparison to Mesopotamian beliefs. Eichrodt emphasizes Israelite belief in the complete dependence of world and cosmos on God, as opposed to other Near Eastern traditions in which different deities are responsible for different elements of creation. The consideration of biblical cosmology is not limited to cosmogonies in Genesis.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Keel, Othmar, and Christoph Uehlinger. Gods, Goddesses, and Images of God in Ancient Israel. Translated by Thomas H. Trapp. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1998.
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  587. Although this book deals little with cosmology directly, it collects all the major pictorial representations of deities from the Middle Bronze Age through the Iron Age and thus is an invaluable resource.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Lucas, E. C. “Cosmology.” In Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Edited by T. Desmond Alexander and David W. Baker, 130–139. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2003.
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  591. A useful introduction to cosmologies and cosmogonies in general, and specifically those in the Pentateuch, with a consideration of their Near Eastern context (Sumerian, Akkadian, Canaanite, Egyptian); readers may find it especially useful in identifying sections of the Pentateuch that touch on cosmology but that are not frequently identified as such.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Oden, Robert A., Jr. “Cosmogony, Cosmology.” In The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 1. Edited by David Noel Freedman, 1162–1171. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
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  595. A good starting point for exploring the different cosmological material in the Old and New Testament, describing where these accounts can be found in the Bible and introducing the ramifications of cosmology for biblical religion.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Commentaries on Genesis 1–11 and Its Near Eastern Context
  598.  
  599. There are many critical commentaries available on Genesis 1–11. Recommended here are those that are particularly concerned with exploring issues of creation in comparison with Near Eastern traditions. Blenkinsopp 2011, Day 2013, Speiser 1964, and Walton 2011 are especially concerned with the Mesopotamian parallels in the first section of the Bible. Smith 2010 is a bit broader in comparative scope, considering Genesis 1 against many other creation myths. Hendel 1998 is a useful reference source for text-critical approaches to Genesis 1–11 grounded in ancient Near Eastern studies. Westermann 1984 is very technical but provides a thorough introduction to influential German approaches to Genesis. Niditch 1985 considers Genesis 1–11 as a literary whole and seeks to understand the narrative patterns of the story cycle through an anthropological perspective. For more on Genesis, see the Oxford Bibliographies article “Book of Genesis.”
  600.  
  601. Blenkinsopp, Joseph. Creation, Un-creation, Re-creation: A Discursive Commentary on Genesis 1–11. New York: T&T Clark International, 2011.
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  603. A detailed commentary on the first section of Genesis, concentrating on issues related to cosmology and creation, contextualizing the biblical story within Mesopotamian literature.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Day, John. From Creation to Babel: Studies in Genesis 1–11. Library of Hebrew Bible / Old Testament Studies 592. London: Bloomsbury, 2013.
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  607. Although not a commentary in the traditional sense, this is a close study of the creation portions of Genesis, with an emphasis on the structure of the cosmogony and its ancient Near Eastern context.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Hendel, Ronald S. The Text of Genesis 1–11: Textual Studies and Critical Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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  611. A text-critical study of Genesis 1–11. Although not devoted to cosmology, this is a useful source for in-depth analysis of the relevant sections of Genesis.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Niditch, Susan Chaos to Cosmos: Studies in Biblical Patterns of Creation. Chico, CA: Scholars, 1985.
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  615. A literary-critical and anthropological treatment of Genesis 1–11 and its later interpreters; Niditch argues that it is structured to show how chaos is formed into an ideal order, and then how that ideal order is itself transformed into an imperfect reality.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Smith, Mark S. The Priestly Vision of Genesis 1. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2010.
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  619. An in-depth study of the Priestly account of creation found in Genesis 1:1–2:3. Smith discusses this version of creation with others found in the Bible and with creation myths more generally (especially Greek, Mesopotamian, and Ugaritic myths). He describes the Priestly cosmology and discusses the literary role of this first part of Genesis. There is also an essay on modern critical scholarship on Genesis 1, as well as an introductory bibliography.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Speiser, E. A., ed. and trans. Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes. Anchor Bible 1. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1964.
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  623. Now outdated, this commentary is still worth referencing, given Speiser’s commitment to situating the biblical text within a Mesopotamian context. For those interested in the cosmogonic accounts in Genesis, this is an invaluable guide to the biblical sources and their relationship to Mesopotamian ideas.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Walton, J. H. Genesis 1 as Ancient Cosmology. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011.
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  627. Walton argues that the creation account in Genesis is intended to explain the roles of various aspects of creation within a world depicted as a cosmic temple. Taking a comparative perspective (including Mesopotamia, Egyptian, Ugaritic, and Hittite sources, presented in translation), he shows that creation was an act of bringing order and functionality out of chaos.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Westermann, Claus. Genesis 1–11: A Commentary. Translated by John J. Scullion. Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1984.
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  631. A detailed and technical commentary on the first portion of Genesis, this translation offers a detailed entry point into German scholarship on biblical cosmogony up until the 1980s, and close readings of the relevant biblical passages.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Genesis as Cosmogonic Literature
  634.  
  635. The books recommended here are seminal studies that have been influential in thinking about creation in Genesis from a literary perspective. While not necessarily dealing with the Near Eastern context per se, these works have helped shape readings of biblical cosmogony. Most influential has been Rad 1956, in which the noted biblical scholar argues that Genesis 1–11 is essentially just a prologue to a larger literary work. Westermann 1974 argues for a distinction between cosmological and anthropological creation (a distinction that has been assumed in the compilation of this article). Gunkel 1964 is a classic form-critical analysis of Genesis, and it is important for discussions of Genesis as a cosmogony. Schmidt 1967 offers an important treatment of the cosmogonies as a Priestly interpretation of older material. Weinfeld 1981 argues that the early sections of Genesis are better thought of as part of temple liturgy, and thus the author suggests a different function of cosmogonic literature than has been typical in the field. Levenson 1988, cited under Ancient Near Eastern Cosmogony in Modern Theology, provides an important literary reading of the relationship between cosmogony and theodicy. Smith 2014 explores the difficulties of defining Genesis 1 as a “myth,” considering issues of definitions, inter- and extra-biblical literature, and the faith perspectives of different readers.
  636.  
  637. Gunkel, Hermann. The Legends of Genesis: The Biblical Saga & History. New York: Schocken, 1964.
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  639. Gunkel’s seminal form-critical analysis of Genesis may still be useful for scholars wishing to treat the cosmogonies in Genesis from a literary perspective; in terms of cosmology, Gunkel’s identification of the chaos and combat motif has been particularly influential.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Rad, Gerhard von. Genesis: A Commentary. Translated by John H. Marks. The Old Testament Library. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1956.
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  643. Although now a bit dated, Rad’s commentary is a classic discussion of Genesis, where he argues that it, and the creation accounts specifically, should be considered as part of a longer Hebrew work, the hexateuch, and thus he offers suggestions on how its cosmogony makes sense within the larger biblical narrative. He sees cosmogony as playing only a very minor role in the religion of Israel, a view that has been extremely influential.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Schmidt, Werner H. Die Schöpfungsgeschichte der Priesterschrift: Zur Überlieferungsgeschichte von Genesis 1, 1–2, 4a, und 2, 4b-3, 24. 2d ed. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 17. Neukirchen Vluyn, Germany: Neukirchener Verlag, 1967.
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  647. Close reading of the Priestly account of creation; argues that it reflects a Priestly adaptation of older cosmogonic material.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Smith, Mark S. “Is Genesis 1 a Creation Myth? Yes and No.” In Myth and Scripture: Contemporary Perspectives on Religion, Language, and Imagination. Edited by Dexter E. Callender Jr., 71–102. Atlanta: SBL, 2014.
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  651. Smith explains the difficulties inherent in attempting to categorize the creation account in Genesis 1 as myth; on one level, he argues that the readers’ religious perspective is fundamental, as are the problems of defining the term “myth.” Likewise, Smith explores the literary relationship of Genesis 1 to other creation accounts in the Bible and in Near Eastern literature.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Weinfeld, Moshe. “Sabbath, Temple, and the Enthronement of the Lord: The Problem of the Sitz im Leben of Genesis 1:1–2:3.” In Mélanges bibliques et orientaux en l’honneur de M. Henri Cazelles. Edited by André Caquot and Mathias Delcor, 501–512. Alter Orient und Altes Testament 212. Kevelaer, Germany: Butzon & Dercker, 1981.
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  655. Argues that Mesopotamian traditions equating creation with the construction of temples are also hinted at in the biblical discussion of the Tabernacle and Temple (especially in relation to the Sabbath and concepts of enthronement), despite the fact that the temple itself was not seen as existing since primordial times; argues that the original sitz im Leben of the Genesis 1:1–2:3 is Temple liturgy.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Westermann, Claus. Creation. Translated by John J. Scullion. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974.
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  659. An abbreviated form of Westermann’s larger work on Genesis, this English translation provides his influential conclusions about creation, as well as his argument that biblical creation should be considered in two separate categories: cosmological and anthropological creation.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Genesis as Calendrical Literature
  662.  
  663. That there is a relationship between the cosmogonies of Genesis and calendrical systems has long been apparent, given the importance that the seven-day week (a non-astronomical phenomenon) plays in the account of creation. Grund 2011 offers an account of the relationship between the biblical narrative from Creation to the Theophany and a priestly Shabbat theology. The relationship between those cosmogonies and specific calendars has been more controversial. Jaubert 1953 argues that the calendar of the Book of Jubilees (also known as the Sabbatical calendar) was based on a 52-week (364-day) year, in which the Sabbaths fall on the same dates every year (see also Jaubert 1957, cited under Calendars and the Reckoning of Time). This has implications for biblical chronology because it means that significant biblical events also involved observation of the Sabbath. VanderKam 1979 offers further evidence from Qumran to support Annie Jaubert’s thesis; Gardner 2001 and Najm and Guillaume 2007 also concur. Works by authors who reject this hypothesis or argue that it remains unproven include Ben-Dov 2008 (cited under Qumran / Dead Sea Scrolls), Ben-Dov 2011, Cryer 1985, and Ravid 2003. Beckwith 1984 finds the same connection that Jaubert and others did, but argues that the Essenes created the calendar on the basis of reading the Bible.
  664.  
  665. Beckwith, Roger T. “The Solar Calendar of Joseph and Asenath: A Suggestion.” Journal for the Study of Judaism 15 (1984): 90–111.
  666. DOI: 10.1163/157006384X00051Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Beckwith argues that the sabbatical calendar was created by the Essenes on the basis of the Bible.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Ben-Dov, Jonathan. “The 364-Day Year in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Jewish Pseudepigrapha.” In Calendars and Years II: Astronomy and Time in the Ancient and Medieval World. Edited by John Steele, 69–105. Oxford: Oxbow, 2011.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Offers an overview of the evidence for the 364-day calendar in extra-biblical literature and argues that Jaubert’s thesis remains unproven though possible.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Cryer, Frederick H. “The Interrelationships of Gen 5,32; 11,10–11 and the Chronology of the Flood (Gen 6–9).” Biblica 66.2 (1985): 241–261.
  674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Cryer argues that although there are many calendars attested in P, none of them reflect the 364-day calendar in Jubilees.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Gardner, B. K. The Genesis Calendar: The Synchronistic Tradition in Genesis 1–11. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2001.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. Argues that there was a 364-day calendar tradition in the writings of P, and that calendrical information was covertly embedded in the Old Testament.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Grund, Alexandra. Die Entstehung des Sabbats: Seine Bedeutung für Israels Zeitkonzept und Erinnerungskultur. Forschungen Zum Alten Testament 75. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2011.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. Draws a connection between the priestly Shabbat theology and Mesopotamian cosmology; argues that the biblical narrative from the cosmogony in Genesis through to the revelation at Sinai reflects a presentation of this priestly Shabbat theology.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Jaubert, Annie. “Le calendrier des Jubilés et de la secte de Qumrân: Ses origines bibliques.” Vetus Testamentum 3.3 (July 1953): 250–264.
  686. DOI: 10.2307/1516350Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. A seminal article in which Jaubert argues that the calendar in the Book of Jubilees and 1 Enoch is the ancient priestly calendar that continued to be used by the Essenes much later.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Najm, S., and Ph. Guillaume. “Jubilee Calendar Rescued from the Flood Narrative.” In Perspectives on Hebrew Scriptures II. Vol. 5. Edited by Ehud Ben Zvi, 1–11. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2007.
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  691. Building on Jaubert’s thesis, Najm and Guillaume argue that around 530 BCE, the composer of Genesis 1 (P) may have also composed the sabbatical calendar (of the book of Jubilees) and that the cosmogony in Genesis 1 provides the basic components of that calendar.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Ravid, Liora. “The Book of Jubilees and Its Calendar: A Reexamination.” Dead Sea Discoveries 10.3 (2003): 371–394.
  694. DOI: 10.1163/156851703322663804Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. Ravid identifies a number of problems with Jaubert’s thesis and argues instead that the Jubilees calendar was rooted in Egyptian thinking and was written much later than the Priestly sources.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. VanderKam, J. C. “The Origin, Character, and Early History of the 364-Day Calendar: A Reassessment of Jaubert’s Hypothesis.” Catholic Biblical Quarterly 41.3 (1979): 390–411.
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  699. In a good entry point into this debate (since it includes a bibliography and history of the discussion), VanderKam argues in support of Jaubert’s thesis. It also provides important further evidence for Jaubert’s argument, since VanderKam’s article appeared after further Dead Sea Scrolls had been published.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Studies in Hebrew Grammar and Terminology in Genesis
  702.  
  703. Reinterpretation of the language of Genesis on the basis of advances in our understanding of ancient Hebrew has been important in reevaluating biblical cosmology. Becking and Korpel 2010 and van Wolde 2009 present different arguments for the meaning of the word usually translated as “create” in Genesis 1. Stadelmann 1970 is a detailed study of Hebrew terminology important in the Genesis cosmogonies, especially relating to different parts of the world. Although a reading knowledge of Hebrew is not essential to understand these arguments, they are technical arguments.
  704.  
  705. Becking, Bob, and Marjo C. A. Korpel. “To Create, to Separate or to Construct: An Alternative for a Recent Proposal as to the Interpretation of ברא in Gen 1.1–2.4a.” Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 10 (2010): 3.
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  707. In a response to van Wolde 2009, Becking and Korpel argue that the word typically translated as “create” in Genesis 1:1 was an ancient theological neologism for “construct,” intended to distinguish this account of creation from the combat motifs typical of Mesopotamia and to avoid anthropomorphizing Yahweh through the use of a verb more typical in a construction context.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Stadelmann, L. The Hebrew Conception of the World. Analecta Biblica 39. Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1970.
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  711. A detailed study of the Hebrew terminology for the parts of the world (astral bodies, meteorological phenomena, the ground, bodies of water, the underworld, etc.), with an introduction that argues that the Bible presumes a three-leveled structure of the world.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. van Wolde, Ellen J. “Why the Verb ברא Does Not Mean ‘to Create’ in Genesis 1.” JSOT 34.1 (2009): 3–23.
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  715. Van Wolde proposes that the Hebrew verb ברא in Genesis 1:1, typically translated as “create,” should be translated as “separate” by considering the creation story in the context of seven other cosmogonies.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Cosmology in Wisdom Literature and Deutero-Isaiah
  718.  
  719. Genesis is not the only section of the Bible that deals with cosmology, although it has been the subject of the most cosmological scholarship. For a thorough introduction to the various other parts of the Bible, see Clifford 1994 (cited under Mesopotamian Influences on Biblical Cosmology) as well as Oden 2008 (cited under Reference Works). There are sections of wisdom literature that reference creation (and the primeval nature of wisdom especially); these are discussed in Perdue 1990 and Perdue 1994. Second Isaiah is often argued to be the first ancient author to argue for a cosmological view of creation shaped entirely by Yahweh; Harner 1967 deals with the relationship between creation faith and salvation faith in Second Isaiah (Deutero-Isaiah). Albani 2000 contextualizes this vision of monotheistic creation within Exilic-era interactions with Mesopotamian science. See also the Oxford Bibliographies articles “Wisdom” and “Isaiah.”
  720.  
  721. Albani, Matthias. Der eine Gott und die himmlischen Heerscharen: Zur Begründung des Monotheismus bei Deuterojesaja im Horizont der Astralisierung des Gottesverständnisses im Alten Orient. Arbeiten zur Bibel und ihrer Geschichte 1. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt, 2000.
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  723. Argues that considerations of cosmology and interaction with Marduk worship, all contextualized within Mesopotamian science, played a critical role in the formulation of concepts of monotheism in Deutero-Isaiah.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Harner, P. B. “Creation Faith in Deutero-Isaiah.” Vetus Testamentum 17.3 (1967): 298–306.
  726. DOI: 10.1163/156853367X00033Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Harner attempts to understand the relationship of ideas about creation and salvation in Second Isaiah, arguing that creation is an important part of the prophet’s thinking, independent of salvation, and that Yahweh’s role in creation was one of the primary attributes of the god in the minds of the Israelites.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Perdue, Leo G. “Cosmology and the Social Order in the Wisdom Literature.” In The Sage in Israel and the Ancient Near East. Edited by John G. Gammie and Leo G. Perdue, 457–478. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990.
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  731. A clear introduction to the various cosmological themes found in biblical wisdom literature, especially in regard to the importance of order, the power of words, and god’s artistry—as well as the ethics that are implied in such a vision of creation.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Perdue, Leo G. Wisdom and Creation: The Theology of Wisdom Literature. Nashville: Abingdon, 1994.
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  735. A monograph-length treatment on the cosmological conceptions that are implicit in wisdom literature, with an emphasis on ancient Near Eastern context and issues of natural theology.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Apocalypticism, Eschatology, and Biblical Cosmology
  738.  
  739. Creation cosmology in the Bible has also been tied to thinking about the end of existence in apocalyptic and eschatological literature. For more on these types of literature, see the Oxford Bibliographies articles “Apocalyptic Literature” and “Revelation (Apocalypse),” but some works that deal with cosmology are suggested here. Both Cohn 1993 and Hanson 1975 explore the roots of this type of literature in the ancient Near East. Albani 1994 considers astral science in the Bible in relation to Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Qumran texts. Collins 2000 contextualizes apocalyptic thinking about cosmology in the Second Temple period. Stackhouse 2008 shows how these ancient Near Eastern ideas continue to influence these theologies in the present.
  740.  
  741. Albani, Matthias. Astronomie und Schöpfungsglaube: Untersuchungen zum Astronomischen Henochbuch. Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament 68. Düsseldorf: Neukirchener Verlag, 1994.
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  743. A consideration of the astronomical sciences in the Bible, especially as related to creation; by considering this in relation to Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Qumran texts, Albani argues for the important role that cosmology played in the eschatological framework of post-exilic Judaism.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Cohn, Norman. Cosmos, Chaos, and the World to Come: The Ancient Roots of Apocalyptic Fate. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
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  747. A survey and analysis of the roots of apocalypticism and its relationship to cosmology in different traditions, including Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Vedic, Zoroastrian, Ugaritic, Israelite, Jewish, and Christian.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Collins, Adela Yarbro. Cosmology and Eschatology in Jewish and Christian Apocalypticism. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
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  751. Mostly dealing with apocalyptic Second Temple–period and New Testament literature, the first half of this book deals specifically with the ordering of the cosmos as articulated in that genre.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Hanson, Paul. The Dawn of the Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology. Rev. ed. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975.
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  755. A classic study on biblical apocalyptic literature in the context of other ancient Near Eastern texts. Hanson discusses the relationship between cosmology and apocalypticism throughout (from a primarily literary perspective).
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Stackhouse, Max L. “Cosmology and Eschatology.” In The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology. Edited by Jerry L. Walls, 563–580. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
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  759. An introductory essay on the relationship between Christian eschatology and scientific cosmology; more a rumination on modern theology than a study of the ancient Near East, but shows how these ideas continue to be relevant.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Near Eastern Cosmology in Early Jewish and Christian Thinking
  762.  
  763. Cosmology in early Jewish and Christian thinking was heavily influenced by classical thinking on the topic, as well as by traditions related to interpretations of biblical materials. Although this larger topic is outside the scope of this article, what follows are some suggestions for research on how specifically Near Eastern ideas contributed to Jewish and Christian conceptions of the universe.
  764.  
  765. Qumran / Dead Sea Scrolls
  766.  
  767. Those interested in the Dead Sea Scrolls are recommended to peruse the Oxford Bibliographies article “Qumran / Dead Sea Scrolls,” but some works specifically of use for the study of cosmology are noted here. Vermes 1995 provides accessible translations of the scrolls, while Crawford 2008 is an introductory explanation of some of the literary practices of the community, with an especially good discussion of how biblical cosmogonies in Genesis were rewritten. Ben-Dov 2008 explains how time was reckoned by the Qumran community, and Bautch 2003 explores the cosmology found in 1 Enoch.
  768.  
  769. Bautch, Kelley Coblentz. A Study of the Geography of 1 Enoch 17–19: “No One Has Seen What I Have Seen.” Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism 81. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  771. An important study of the cosmological views that are apparent in 1 Enoch, situating them within a wider Near Eastern context and exploring how they were influential in later traditions; includes a chapter devoted specifically to cosmology, although that topic is dealt with throughout.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Ben-Dov, Jonathan. Head of All Years: Astronomy and Calendars at Qumran in Their Ancient Context. Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah 78. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008.
  774. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004170889.ii-332Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. Study of the 364-day year, especially as evident in the Qumran texts. Ben-Dov examines the “cosmological imperative” in Jewish apocalyptic circles during the Second Temple period and the reliance on earlier Mesopotamian astral science.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Crawford, Sidnie White. Rewriting Scripture in Second Temple Times. Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2008.
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  779. Crawford provides an accessible introduction to the rewriting of and commentary on biblical texts found at Qumran. Much of this slender volume is devoted to Qumran works on Genesis, so it is a useful introduction to how the Qumran community understood the cosmogonies in the biblical text.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Vermes, Geza. The Dead Sea Scrolls in English. 4th rev. and ext. ed. New York: Penguin, 1995.
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  783. Accessible translations of all the Dead Sea Scrolls of relevance to the topic of cosmology.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. The Locations of Heaven and Hell
  786.  
  787. Early Christian conceptions of the afterlife, and especially heaven and hell, are somewhat rooted in older Near Eastern cosmology (see also the Oxford Bibliographies article “Hell”). Both Bernstein 1996 and Wright 2000 offer arguments that trace how these later conceptions of the cosmos emerged out of more-ancient beliefs, especially Mesopotamian and Egyptian. Houtmann 1993 considers the relationship between heaven and Earth in Old Testament thinking.
  788.  
  789. Bernstein, Alan E. The Formation of Hell: Death and Retribution in the Ancient and Early Christian Worlds. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
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  791. A discussion of emerging conceptions of hell as a physical location of the torment of the deceased, beginning with Mesopotamian and Egyptian precursors through classical conceptions and into the traditions of Judaism and Christianity.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Houtmann, Cornelius. Der Himmel im Alten Testament: Israels Weltbild und Weltanschauung. Old Testament Studies, 30. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1993.
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  795. Provides a careful study of terminology related to heaven and earth in the Old Testament; argues that for the Israelites, heaven was the residence of God, and Earth was the residence of people. Argues that the Bible does not offer a consistent view of how the Earth and the heavens came into being.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Wright, J. Edward. The Early History of Heaven. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
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  799. Using archaeological, textual, and iconographic evidence, Wright traces Near Eastern conceptions of heaven (especially beliefs about its location in the sky) in Egyptian; Mesopotamian; Persian; classical; and early Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Ancient Near Eastern Cosmogony in Modern Theology
  802.  
  803. Ancient Near Eastern cosmogonies continue to play a role in 21st-century thought. Barr 1984–1985 explains why Archbishop Ussher’s reading of Genesis has been so influential over the past four hundred years. For discussions of how ancient Near Eastern ideas can be influential in modern Jewish theology, see Levenson 1985 and Levenson 1988 (both of which are accessible to specialists and nonspecialists alike). Tigay 1987–1988 deals with biblical literalism in the context of traditional Jewish readings of the Bible. Walton 2009 offers suggestions on how the observations about biblical cosmogony that are rooted in Near Eastern studies can be meaningful for conservative Christian readers. Brockelman 1999 tries to harmonize the ancient Near Eastern traditions with modern physics, and van Kooten 2005 provides a historical study of these kinds of attempts. Cline 2007 illustrates how some have attempted to use archaeology to address these issues, and why these attempts are methodologically problematic.
  804.  
  805. Barr, James. “Why the World Was Created in 4004 B.C.: Archbishop Ussher and Biblical Chronology.” Bulletin of the John Rylands Library 67.2 (1984–1985): 575–608.
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  807. The origins of and logic behind Ussherian chronology, which has been so influential in readings of biblical creation over the past four hundred years, is explained here from a scholarly perspective.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Brockelman, Paul. Cosmology and Creation: The Spiritual Significance of Contemporary Cosmology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
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  811. An attempt to harmonize the ancient Near Eastern cosmogony in the Bible with modern scientific cosmology, from a Unitarian perspective.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Cline, Eric H. From Eden to Exile: Unraveling Mysteries of the Bible. Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2007.
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  815. A popular account of how archaeology can (but mostly cannot) shed light on some of the cosmogonic accounts of the Bible, especially related to the Garden of Eden and Noah’s Flood. It surveys various academic and pseudoscientific efforts to identify biblical traditions archaeologically, and explains why the logic behind these efforts is usually flawed.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Levenson, Jon D. Sinai and Zion: An Entry into the Jewish Bible. San Francisco: Harper, 1985.
  818. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  819. At first glance, this short volume may not seem to provide much information on cosmology, but it offers an important exploration into the nature of mythological geography in the Bible, and it explains the importance of Mount Sinai and Mount Zion in Jewish traditions. Levenson argues that these two mountains are fundamental to the cosmic space of the Bible.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Levenson, Jon D. Creation and the Persistence of Evil: The Jewish Drama of Divine Omnipotence. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988.
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  823. Although written as a consideration of modern theology, Levenson’s work is rooted in a keen understanding of ancient biblical cosmology. He shows how the problem of evil (theodicy) as dealt with in the Bible is related to creation traditions.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Tigay, Jeffrey H. “Genesis, Science, and ‘Scientific Creationism.’” Conservative Judaism 40.2 (Winter 1987–1988): 20–27.
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  827. A brief article in which Tigay argues that traditional Jewish readings of Genesis do not require or even suggest a literal interpretation of Genesis and the cosmology presented within.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. van Kooten, George H., ed. The Creation of Heaven and Earth: Re-interpretations of Genesis I in the Context of Judaism, Ancient Philosophy, Christianity, and Modern Physics. Themes in Biblical Narrative 8. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  831. A collection of papers that originated in a conference. The essays address the “macrocosmic” aspects of creation as found in Genesis 1 and its later interpretations in Jewish, Christian, classical, and medieval sources, as well as in modern physics.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Walton, John H. The Lost World of Genesis One: Ancient Cosmology and the Origins Debate. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009.
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  835. A conservative Christian perspective on how to make sense of the cosmologies of the biblical text (especially in Genesis) and the ancient Near East, given 21st-century scientific understandings of evolution; intended for nonspecialist readers but makes much reference to Hebrew terminology.
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