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Textile Traditions of the Andes (Latin American Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Andean region boasts one of the world’s oldest, most continuous, and best-preserved textile traditions. Andean weavers are credited with independently inventing nearly every nonmechanized textile technique known today, and they quickly adopted new techniques (such as knitting) after coming into contact with Europeans and Asians. Cotton was domesticated in the third millennium BCE in the coastal valleys of Peru, and the wool of camelids such as alpacas and llamas was utilized in the highlands from an early date. Due to the fact that many ancient textiles were buried in tombs or as offerings along the dry coasts of Peru and Ecuador and in the deserts of Chile, many ancient specimens are remarkably well preserved. Scholars are thus able to trace techniques and motifs over thousands of years. Artisanal textile production still flourishes in the Andes today, with many weavers creating cloth for their families and, increasingly, for an international tourist market.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Apart from Harcourt 1962, which is still an essential resource, books covering the entire scope of Andean textile production are relatively rare. More recent works are edited volumes, since scholars tend to specialize in specific cultures. Stone 1992, Lavalle de Cárdenas and Lavalle 1999, and Cáceres Macedo 2005 cover the major textile types of ancient and colonial Peru. Stone 1992 focuses on works in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, while the latter two present many unpublished pieces from Peruvian collections. Zimmern 1949 provides a brief introduction to garment types. Readers may also wish to consult Stone 2012 for a general introduction to pre-Columbian Andean art. Meisch, et al. 1997 is a good introduction to modern Andean textiles.
  8.  
  9. Cáceres Macedo, Justo. Tejidos del Perú prehispánico. Lima, Peru: Justo Cáceres Macedo, 2005.
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  11. A compact book in Spanish with parallel translations in English, presenting the main pre-Hispanic textile techniques and types. Abundantly illustrated in color.
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  13. Harcourt, Raoul d’. Textiles of Ancient Peru and their Techniques. Edited by Grace G. Denny and Carolyn M. Osborne. Translated by Sadie Browen. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1962.
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  15. Still an excellent introduction to the major techniques and styles of textiles from the pre-Columbian Andes. Serves also as an introduction to the specialized vocabulary of textiles.
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  17. Lavalle de Cárdenas, Rosario de, and José Antonio de Lavalle. Tejidos milenarios del Perú. Colección APU. Lima, Perú: Integra AFP, 1999.
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  19. A massive tome with chapters written by an international group of experts and printed in both Spanish and English. Arranged chronologically and by culture. Some chapters are reprints of articles published elsewhere, and the translations are not always accurate. Features multiple color illustrations of works not reproduced elsewhere.
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  21. Meisch, Lynn A., Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and M. H. de Young Memorial Museum, eds. Traditional Textiles of the Andes: Life and Cloth in the Highlands; The Jeffrey Appleby Collection of Andean Textiles. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
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  23. An edited book with chapters by textile experts, illustrates traditional textiles from the 18th, 19th, and 20th century Andes. Covers all garment types and deals with issues of historical change. Published in collaboration with the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco and M. H. de Young Memorial Museum, in conjunction with a 1997 exhibition.
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  25. Stone, Rebecca R.. To Weave for the Sun: Ancient Andean Textiles in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1992.
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  27. Beautifully illustrated catalogue of works in the MFA Boston. After an insightful introduction by the editor, features chapters by specialists on textiles from the major periods of Andean prehistory. Catalogue entries are extensive and learned, and feature large-scale color plates.
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  29. Stone, Rebecca. Art of the Andes from Chavín to Inca. New York: Thames and Hudson, 2012.
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  31. A useful introduction to the periods and cultures of the pre-Columbian Andes, written by a textile specialist but integrating the fiber arts into the larger history of art in the Andes.
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  33. Zimmern, Nathalie Herman. Introduction to Peruvian Costume. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum, 1949.
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  35. A compact introduction to pre-Columbian and colonial garment types and associated jewelry. Includes black-and-white photographs of museum specimens as well as historical photographs of people in traditional dress in Cusco and Chucuito, Peru. Published in collaboration with the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.
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  37. Reference Works
  38.  
  39. A great amount of research on Andean textiles of the past and present has been published in the Textile Museum Journal. The proceedings of three major conferences on Andean textiles have also been published, as Rowe, et al. 1979, Rowe 1986, and Young-Sánchez and Simpson 2006. All of these volumes contain valuable specialized articles, many cited elsewhere in this bibliography. Other journals in which research on Andean textiles has been published include Chungará, Revista del Museo Nacional, Ñawpa Pacha, and Journal de la Société des Américanistes.
  40.  
  41. Chungará: Revista de Antropología Chilena.
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  43. A journal from the Universidad Tarapacá de Arica in Chile; publishes articles on Chilean archaeological textiles, mainly in Spanish.
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  45. Journal de la Société des Américanistes.
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  47. Features articles and reviews, chiefly in French, on Andean textiles.
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  49. Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of Andean Archaeology.
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  51. Published by the Institute of Andean Studies in Berkeley, California, focuses on Andean archaeology. Content not available online.
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  53. Revista del Museo Nacional.
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  55. Published in Lima by the Peruvian Instituto Nacional de Cultura until the death of its editor Luis Eduardo Valcárcel in 1987. Includes articles on pre-Columbian Peruvian textiles, mostly in Spanish. Not available online.
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  57. Rowe, Ann Pollard, ed. The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  59. Proceedings of the second major conference on pre-Columbian Andean textiles, featuring multiple original contributions.
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  61. Rowe, Ann Pollard, Elizabeth P. Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, eds. The Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference, May 19th and 20th, 1973. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1979.
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  63. Proceedings of the first major conference on pre-Columbian Andean textiles, featuring multiple scholarly articles. Published in collaboration with Dumbarton Oaks and the Trustees for Harvard University.
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  65. Textile Museum Journal.
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  67. The major scholarly journal to have published multiple studies on Andean textiles, both ancient and modern. Not available online, but back issues available through the Textile Museum Shop.
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  69. Young-Sánchez, Margaret, and Fronia W. Simpson, eds. Andean Textile Traditions: Papers from the 2001 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2006.
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  71. A brief selection of new contributions to the field of Andean textiles. Includes splendid color illustrations but is small and portable, so is useful as a textbook, especially for graduate courses.
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  73. Tools, Techniques, and Materials
  74.  
  75. Apart from Harcourt 1962 (see General Overviews), several in-depth studies have been written on the techniques and materials of Andean textiles. Rowe and Bird 1980–1981 discuss looms in relation to the gauze technique in Peru. Regarding Ecuador, Bruhns 1988–1989 examines early weaving implements, and Doyon-Bernard 1993–1994 considers that country’s oldest surviving textiles. Rehl 2006 and Rodman and Cassman 1995 deal with other specific Andean weaving techniques. See also Rowe 1978 in the Inca section. Frame 1986 links textile structures to the geometric patterns seen on many Pre-Columbian pieces. The film Tubular Weaving Finishes (Nisbet and Yarn Barn 2005) illustrates modern backstrap loom weaving techniques.
  76.  
  77. Bruhns, Karen Olsen. “Prehispanic Weaving and Spinning Implements from Southern Ecuador.” Textile Museum Journal 27–28 (1988–1989): 70–77.
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  79. Discusses spinning and weaving implements from the Late Formative (c. 1200 BCE–100 CE) site of Pirincay, and links changes in deposits (namely an increase in spindle whorls) to the introduction of camelids, c. 500 BCE.
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  81. Doyon-Bernard, Suzette J. “La Florida’s Mortuary Textiles: The Oldest Extant Textiles from Ecuador.” Textile Museum Journal 32–33 (1993–1994): 82–102.
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  83. Outlines what is known of the techniques and materials used to create Ecuador’s oldest surviving textiles (c. 340 CE), from the tombs of La Florida near Quito.
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  85. Frame, Mary. “The Visual Images of Fabric Structures in Ancient Peruvian Art.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Edited by Anne Pollard Rowe, 47–80. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  87. Argues that common patterns on Pre-Columbian textiles such as symmetrical and interlocking serpents may be representations of textile structures, especially those seen in fabrics using the sprang technique. Makes an important link between structure and iconography, and suggests that textile structures may have served as wider cultural metaphors.
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  89. Nisbet, Jacquetta, and Yarn Barn, dirs. Tubular Woven Finishes: Backstrap Loom Techniques (Firm). DVD. Lawrence: Yarn Barn of Kansas, 2005.
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  91. A demonstration of backstrap loom weaving techniques used in the Andes today.
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  93. Rehl, Jane W. “Weaving Principles for Life: Discontinuous Warp and Weft Textiles of Ancient Peru.” In Andean Textile Traditions: Papers from the 2001 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez and Fronia W. Simpson, 11–42. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2006.
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  95. Explains the astoundingly difficult techniques used to create discontinuous warp and weft textiles, created from the 4th century BCE to the Late Intermediate Period (c. 1450 CE). Proposes that the pieces served as metaphors for balance and reciprocity.
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  97. Rodman, Amy Oakland, and Vicki Cassman. “Andean Tapestry: Structure Informs the Surface.” Art Journal 54.2 (Summer 1995): 33–39.
  98. DOI: 10.2307/777460Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. Focusing on the technical features of tapestries from four different Andean cultures (Recuay, Wari, Tiwanaku, Inca), shows that while iconography was shared across groups, the technical features of each group’s tapestries were very different.
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  101. Rowe, Ann Pollard, and Junius B. Bird. “Three Ancient Peruvian Gauze Looms.” Textile Museum Journal 19–20 (1980–1981): 27–33.
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  103. Describes three archaeologically discovered looms used by the Chancay culture to create delicate gauze textiles during the Late Intermediate Period.
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  105. Dyes
  106.  
  107. Research on pre-Columbian and early modern textile dyes has focused primarily on Spanish red, or cochineal, which is extracted from the cochineal insect. Donkin 1977 describes the use of cochineal by cultures in Mesoamerica and South America, and Lee 1951 explores its wide commercialization after the Spanish conquest. Phipps 2010 is an exploration of cochineal’s worldwide impact on the textile arts. Boytner 2006 takes a wider view to consider not only cochineal, but also various pre-Columbian dyes used on the coast of Peru.
  108.  
  109. Boytner, Ran. “Class, Control, and Power: The Anthropology of Textile Dyes at Pacatnamu.” In Andean Textile Traditions: Papers from the 2001 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez and Fronia W. Simpson, 43–74. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2006.
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  111. Using samples collected in the Jequetepeque Valley of Peru and analyzed by the Andean Dye Research Project (Getty Museum and University of California, Los Angeles), Boytner outlines the possible sources for various dyestuffs in the ancient Andes.
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  113. Donkin, R. A. Spanish Red: An Ethnogeographical Study of Cochineal and the Opuntia Cactus. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 67.5. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1977.
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  115. Describes the use of cochineal in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and South America and traces its introduction in Europe. Draws on multiple colonial and early modern texts and illustrations, and includes an index of these sources.
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  117. Lee, Raymond L. “American Cochineal in European Commerce, 1526–1625.” Journal of Modern History 23.3 (September 1951): 205–224.
  118. DOI: 10.1086/237426Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  119. Traces the influence of cochineal on European trade, industry, and legislation during the first hundred years of colonization, and points especially to its role in enhancing the power of Spain.
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  121. Phipps, Elena. Cochineal Red: The Art History of a Color. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2010.
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  123. Addresses Andean textiles but also illustrates the impact cochineal had on the rest of the world’s textile traditions. Illustrates and analyzes multiple well-preserved early modern textiles dyed with cochineal.
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  125. Archaeological Reports
  126.  
  127. There are several reports of archaeological excavations in which significant textiles were recovered. These sources do not always analyze in depth the style or iconography of the textiles discovered, but they serve as important resources for other researchers. Uhle and Shimada 1991 is a reprint of the 1903 report on Max Uhle’s excavations at the coastal site of Pachacamac in 1896, and Tello and Mejía Xesspe 1979 is a report on the excavations on the Paracas peninsula between 1925 and 1930. Both of these excavations yielded significant textile specimens. Bird, et al. 1985 documents excavations at the coastal site of Huaca Prieta, which yielded some of the earliest Andean textiles. More recent archaeological discoveries yielding textiles are outlined in Shady Solís 2004, on the Supe Valley site of Caral; in Flores Espinoza 2005, on the site of Pucllana near Lima; and in Reinhard 2005 and Reinhard and Ceruti 2010, concerning Inca high altitude shrines. Further excavations at Pachacamac are mentioned in Paredes Botoni 1987–1988, but these discoveries await full documentation.
  128.  
  129. Bird, Junius Bouton, John Hyslop, and Milica Dimitrijevic Skinner. The Preceramic Excavations at the Huaca Prieta, Chicama Valley, Peru. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 62.1. New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1985.
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  131. A report of the excavations at the coastal site of Huaca Prieta, Peru, with sections on the textiles found. Identifies their materials, the techniques and tools used, and includes the first discussion of an important twined piece featuring the image of a condor with a snake in its belly.
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  133. Flores Espinoza, Isabel. Pucllana: Esplendor de la cultura Lima. Lima: Instituto Nacional de Cultura, 2005.
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  135. A report on the recent excavations at the ceremonial site of Pucllana near modern Lima. Like the Uhle excavations, artifacts from various chronological periods and cultural affiliations were found. Addresses textile finds and includes reconstructions of garments.
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  137. Paredes Botoni, Ponciano. “Excavaciones en el Templo Viejo de Pachacamac.” Willay: Newsletter of the Andean Anthropological Research Group 27–28 (1987–1988): 25–27.
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  139. A brief report on excavations done in the 1980s on top of the Old Temple at Pachacamac, which yielded a very fine Inca woman’s dress (anacu).
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  141. Reinhard, Johan. The Ice Maiden: Inca Mummies, Mountain Gods, and Sacred Sites in the Andes. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2005.
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  143. Written for wide audiences, chronicles the trials of archaeologists attempting to discover, document, and preserve the remains of Inca mountaintop shrines. Includes descriptions and photographs of the textiles discovered with mummies on Mount Llullaillaco, Argentina.
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  145. Reinhard, Johan, and María Constanza Ceruti. Inca Rituals and Sacred Mountains: A Study of the World’s Highest Archaeological Sites. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, 2010.
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  147. A more scholarly treatment of the discoveries on Mount Llullaillaco. Employing both Spanish chroniclers’ accounts and the archaeological finds, outlines the Inca ritual known as capacocha, which involved offering human sacrifices and artifacts to sacred entities such as high mountains. Inca textiles, tapestries along with other types, are thus seen in their original context.
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  149. Shady Solís, Ruth. Caral: The City of Sacred Fire = La ciudad del fuego sagrado. Lima, Peru: Interbank, 2004.
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  151. In Spanish with parallel English translations, a handsomely illustrated book on the preceramic city of Caral that features many of the cotton textiles recovered there. Shown to be very early in date (c. 2600–1800 BCE), reed bags and woven pieces from Caral are among the earliest Andean textiles.
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  153. Tello, Julio C., and M. Toribio Mejia Xesspe. Paracas, segunda parte: Cavernas y necrópolis. Lima: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 1979.
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  155. A detailed account of the excavations led by Tello in the early twentieth century of the cemeteries known as Cavernas and Necrópolis on the Paracas Peninsula. Also outlines the opening of several funerary bundles from these sites, all of which featured textiles, many richly embroidered. Published in collaboration with the Institute of Andean Research. See also titles under Paracas.
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  157. Uhle, Max, and Izumi Shimada. Pachacamac: A Reprint of the 1903 Edition. University Museum Monographs 62. Philadelphia: University Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania, 1991.
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  159. A reprint of Uhle’s 1903 report on excavations at the pilgrimage shrine of Pachacamac, which yielded textiles associated with multiple cultures and corresponding to various chronological periods.
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  161. Chronology and Classification
  162.  
  163. Despite the known archaeological contexts of many pre-Columbian Andean textiles, and the fact that many might now be radiocarbon dated, precise chronologies of development for most styles are lacking. Often, scholars have used the overall framework of Andean prehistory set forth in Rowe 1960, which was arrived at by seriating ceramics on the basis of style, to organize their understanding of textile periods. As used today (see Stone 2012, cited in General Overviews), this framework begins with the Cotton Preceramic Period, which is followed by the Initial Period. Then follow a series of horizons (Early, Middle, and Late), interspersed between which are two intermediate periods (Early and Late). Following the Late Horizon, which was the period of Inca control, are the Spanish colonial and modern periods. Early efforts to establish chronologies of Andean textiles can be seen in O’Neale and Kroeber 1930, while VanStan 1958 explains the factors one might consider when examining an undated textile.
  164.  
  165. O’Neale, Lila M., and A. L. Kroeber. Textile Periods in Ancient Peru. 3 vols. University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1930.
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  167. A major effort to locate textile techniques from coastal Peru within a larger chronology of Andean prehistory. Based initially on the ceramic chronologies established by Kroeber’s excavations. Within the series University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology, the three volumes are: Volume 28, no. 3 (a general survey of techniques over time); Volume 39, no. 2 (an analysis of Paracas Cavernas and Necropolis techniques); and Volume 40, no. 4 (an analysis of gauze weaving techniques over time).
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  169. Rowe, John H. “Cultural Unity and Diversification in Peruvian Archaeology.” in Men and Cultures: Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, Philadelphia, September 1–9, 1956, 627-31. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1960.
  170. DOI: 10.2307/275130Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  171. A proposal of a chronological framework for Andean prehistory that locates periods of cultural unity (horizons) in time as opposed to periods of relative disunity (intermediate periods). Based on the supposition that stylistic change can be attributed to the passage of time. Has had major impact.
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  173. VanStan, Ina. Problems in Pre-Columbian Textile Classification. Florida State University Studies 29. Tallahassee: Florida State University, 1958.
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  175. Focusing on selected cases of unprovenanced and undated textiles, describes each piece and presents the various criteria that can be used to judge its cultural and chronological affiliation.
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  177. Periods and Cultures
  178.  
  179. Various named cultures flourished in the prehistoric Andes and are understood to have had distinct, though certainly not entirely homogeneous, artistic traditions. Most studies of Andean textiles deal with pieces from a specific culture, and here the cultures have been ordered based on the prevailing chronological framework (see Chronology and Classification). In some cases, various cultural traditions are grouped under a wider chronological period. One detailed study that covers specimens from multiple cultures and periods, all from the single site of Pachacamac, is VanStan 1967.
  180.  
  181. VanStan, Ina. Textiles from Beneath the Temple of Pachacamac, Peru: A Part of the Uhle Collection of the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania University Museum, 1967.
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  183. Describes 160 textiles excavated by Max Uhle (see Uhle and Shimada 1991, under Archaelogical Reports) at the site of Pachacamac, based on garment type or cloth shape. Compares the pieces based on multiple factors, from yarn type to context of recovery.
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  185. Cotton Preceramic
  186.  
  187. As its name indicates, the Cotton Preceramic Period (c. 2600–1800 BCE) is seen as distinguished by the use of cotton, thus establishing a very early textile tradition in the Andes. O’Neale 1954, Dimitrijevic Skinner 1986 and Feldman 1986 deal with archaeological finds of textiles from the coast of Peru.
  188.  
  189. Dimitrijevic Skinner, Milica. “Three Textiles from Huaca Prieta, Chicama Valley, Peru.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, 11–18. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  191. Examines textiles from Huaca Prieta, Peru (radiocarbon dated at 3000–1200 BCE) that have representational motifs of cats and condors.
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  193. Feldman, Robert A. “Early Textiles from the Supe Valley, Peru.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, 31–46. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  195. Discusses textiles found at the coastal site of Aspero in comparison to other finds from the adjacent Supe Valley. Describes colors and focuses on the direction of spin and ply (S or Z) among the samples.
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  197. O’Neale, Lila M. “Textiles.” In Early Ancón and Early Supe Culture, Chavín Horizon Sites of the Central Peruvian Coast. Edited by Gordon R. Willey and John Maxwell Corbett, 84–130. New York: Columbia University Press, 1954.
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  199. Describes the technical features of pieces found at the coastal site of Ancón, some of which may correspond to the Cotton Preceramic, while others may be later and affiliated with the Chavín culture.
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  201. Initial Period
  202.  
  203. The Initial Period (c. 1800–700 BCE) is distinguished by cultural development in the coastal valleys of Peru. Wallace 1979 addresses this development in terms of textiles found at coastal sites.
  204.  
  205. Wallace, Dwight T. “The Process of Weaving Development on the Peruvian Coast.” In The Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference, May 19th and 20th, 1973. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, Elizabeth P. Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, 27–50. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1979.
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  207. Examines the development of weaving techniques from the Initial Period to the Early Horizon by analyzing the weave configurations (such as spin direction and plying of thread) in plain weave textiles.
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  209. Chavín
  210.  
  211. The period known as the Early Horizon (c. 700–200 BCE) is distinguished by an art style thought to have emanated from the highland Peruvian site of Chavín de Huantar. Burger 1995 covers Chavín art and the site’s status as a cultural fountainhead. Cotton textiles with Chavinoid motifs painted onto them were found at the coastal site of Karwa (Carhua), Peru, and were first analyzed in Cordy-Collins 1976. A further contribution to the study of Karwa iconography and its relation to Chavín is Wallace 1991. Another group of Chavín-related textiles from the coast is discussed in Dwyer 1979.
  212.  
  213. Burger, Richard L. Chavín and the Origins of Andean Civilization. London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1995.
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  215. Though not directly related to textiles, this book serves as an introduction to the Chavín art style and its periodization, which has been applied to textiles.
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  217. Cordy-Collins, Alana K. “An Iconographic Study of Chavin Textiles From the South Coast of Peru: The Discovery of a Pre-Columbian Catechism.” PhD diss., University Of California, Los Angeles, 1976.
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  219. Analyzes the Karwa textiles in relation to their motifs’ appearance on Ica pottery and as proof of the diffusion of Chavín religious ideology.
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  221. Dwyer, Edward B. “Early Horizon Tapestry from South Coastal Peru.” In The Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference, May 19th and 20th, 1973. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, Elizabeth P. Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, 61–82. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1979.
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  223. Provides discussion and technical analysis of a group of wool tapestry-woven textiles reportedly found at a site known as Chucho on the Bahía de la Independencia, south of Paracas, Peru.
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  225. Wallace, Dwight. “A Technical and Iconographic Analysis of Carhua Painted Textiles.” In Paracas Art and Architecture: Object and Context in South Coastal Peru. Edited by Anne Paul, 61–109. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991.
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  227. Considers the spin direction of threads and iconographic motifs on Karwa textiles, largely confirming Cordy-Collins’s hypotheses of Chavín origins.
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  229. Paracas
  230.  
  231. Beginning in the late 1920s, the Peruvian archaeologist Julio C. Tello found multiple cemeteries on the Paracas Peninsula in southern Peru, containing mummies wrapped in elaborately embroidered textiles (see Archaeological Reports). Since Tello’s discovery the textiles’ iconography has been the subject of much debate.
  232.  
  233. Surveys
  234.  
  235. Carrión Cachot 1949 is an early introduction to Paracas, and Paul 1990 (under Focused Analyses) provides deeper coverage of its discovery as well as its art and architecture. Lang and Lavalle 1990 and Lavallée 2008 offer extensive sets of illustrations.
  236.  
  237. Carrión Cachot, Rebeca. Paracas: Cultural Elements. Lima, Perú: Corporación Nacional de Turismo, 1949.
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  239. Provides an introduction to the basic artifact types found at Paracas, ceramic classes as well as the content of funerary bundles, which was principally textile. Also addresses the evidence of cranial deformations and surgical trephining.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Lang, Werner, and José Antonio de Lavalle. Culturas Precolombinas: Paracas. Colección Arte y Tesoros del Perú. 2d ed. Lima, Perú: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 1990.
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  243. Part of a larger series in Spanish on the major cultures and art forms of Peru. Features color illustrations of multiple pieces, many in Peruvian collections, as well as commentary.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Lavallée, Danièle. Paracas: Trésors inédits du Pérou ancien. Paris: Musée du quai Branly, 2008.
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  247. The catalogue of a recent major exhibition of Paracas textiles. Features short essays by archaeologists and textile experts, including a contribution by Ann Peters on color patterning. Catalogue has high-quality illustrations with multiple details. In French.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Focused Analyses
  250.  
  251. Yacovleff and Muelle 1934 is a detailed description of the unwrapping of one Paracas mummy bundle. Stafford 1941 is an early study of patterning in Paracas embroideries. Paul 1982 establishes the three main styles of Paracas embroideries and their chronological relationships. Paul and Niles 1984 charts evidence of different hands working on a single Paracas mantle. Paul 1991 is the first comprehensive study of Paracas textiles, focusing on their status as garments. However, Paul and Turpin 1986 has had the most impact, proposing that a certain embroidered motif represents a flying shaman. Scholars have sought to overturn this interpretation; Peters 1991, for example, looks to the ecology of the Paracas region to interpret the iconography. Frame 2001 is the most thoroughgoing alternative interpretation, proposing an entire ideology of the afterlife.
  252.  
  253. Frame, Mary. “Blood, Fertility, and Transformation: Interwoven Themes in the Paracas Necropolis Embroideries.” In Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru. Edited by Elizabeth P. Benson and Anita G. Cook, 55–92. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001.
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  255. Analyzes figure types from multiple garments and bundles, providing line drawings as illustration. Arranges figures in a sequence that, Frame argues, represented the mythic transformation of the dead in the afterlife.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Paul, Anne. “The Chronological Relationship of the Linear, Block Color, and Broad Line Styles of Paracas Embroidered Images.” In Pre-Columbian Art History: Selected Readings. Edited by Alana Cordy-Collins, 255–277. Palo Alto, CA: Peek, 1982.
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  259. Outlines the main features of each style of embroidery and clarifies questions about chronology. Also establishes that broad-line style garments are concentrated in related mummy bundles, suggesting that broad line is perhaps a “family” style.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Paul, Anne. Paracas Ritual Attire: Symbols of Authority in Ancient Peru. Civilization of the American Indian Series 195. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
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  263. Based on surviving mummy wrappings, reconstructs the garment types worn by the Paracas elite and proposes that the figures embroidered on Paracas block-color textiles represent costumed ritual performers.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Paul, Anne, ed. Paracas Art and Architecture: Object and Context in South Coastal Peru. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991.
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  267. Features articles by specialists on the art and archaeology of Paracas. Includes several chapters on textile materials and iconography.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Paul, Anne, and Susan A. Niles. “Identifying Hands at Work on a Paracas Mantle.” Textile Museum Journal 23 (1984): 5–15.
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  271. Based on study of an unfinished burial mantle at Lima’s Museo Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología, the authors conclude that multiple embroiderers worked on a single piece, including workers of different skill levels. Also includes hypotheses on the work process and types of skill specialization.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Paul, Anne, and Solveig Turpin. “The Ecstatic Shaman Theme of Paracas Textiles.” Archaeology 39.5 (1986): 20–27.
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  275. A brief article suggesting that back-bent figures holding fans on Paracas textiles represent shamans in ecstasy.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Peters, Ann. “Ecology and Society in Embroidered Images from the Paracas Necropolis.” In Paracas Art and Architecture: Object and Context in South Coastal Peru. Edited by Anne Paul, 240–314. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1991.
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  279. Identifies plants and animals that appear on Paracas textiles as flora and fauna that actually lived in the region, and suggests that relationships between creatures may point to native Paracan ways of classifying the natural and social worlds.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Stafford, Cora Elder. Paracas Embroideries: A Study of Repeated Patterns. New York: J.J. Augustin, 1941.
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  283. An analysis of color patterning in Paracas textiles. Maps color sequences in various garment types and suggest color patterning as an avenue of creativity for Paracan artists. Uses “geometrical” as opposed to “conventionalized” to distinguish between styles, which were later renamed “linear” and “block” color in Paul 1982.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Yacovleff, Eugenio, and J. C. Muelle. “Un fardo funerario de Paracas.” Revista del Museo Nacional 3 (1934): 63-153.
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  287. A meticulous description of the unwrapping of mummy bundle #217, excavated at Cerro Colorado in 1927. Describes each item with text, drawings, and photographs and provides explanatory information culled from Spanish chronicles of Peru. Establishes that many textile pieces were wearable garments. Distinguishes between “geometric” and “seminaturalistic” embroidery styles.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Nasca (Nazca)
  290.  
  291. The Nasca culture, which developed in the river valleys of the Sechura Desert south of Paracas, mastered a multitude of textile techniques. Early Nasca textiles are distinguished by fine needlework, and include embroideries similar to those of the Paracas tradition—though the exact relationship between these two cultures remains a point of debate. Many early Nasca pieces are beautifully illustrated and discussed in Sawyer 1997. Another excellent visual survey of Nasca textiles is Jiménez Borja and Reid 1986. Horié 1990–1991 and Rowe 1990–1991 both discuss Nasca textile figurines. Frame 2004 provides an in-depth analysis of the relations of symmetry as seen in Nasca embroidered borders. Sawyer 1979 discusses the iconography of Nasca painted textiles and Frame 2003–2004 provides important clarifications on such works.
  292.  
  293. Frame, Mary. “What Women Were Wearing: A Deposit of Early Nasca Dresses and Shawls from Cahuachi, Peru.” Textile Museum Journal 42–43 (2003–2004): 13–53.
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  295. Discusses the painted and feather-covered textiles found in a deposit at the Nasca site of Cahuachi, reconstructing them as women’s garments.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Frame, Mary. “Motion Pictures: Symmetry as Animator, Classifier, and Syntax in the Nasca Embroideries of Peru.” In Symmetry Comes of Age: The Role of Pattern in Culture. Edited by Dorothy K. Washburn and Donald W. Crowe, 133–176. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004.
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  299. Studies the arrangements of figures on multiple Paracas Necropolis textile borders (which Frame understands as coming from the Nasca region), arguing that the arrangements refer to animals’ movement through space and stages of transformation in the afterlife.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Horié, Donna M. “A Family of Nasca Figures.” Textile Museum Journal 29–30 (1990–1991): 77–92.
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  303. An analysis of a group of Nasca textile figurines at Duke University.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Jiménez Borja, Arturo, and James W. Reid. Culturas Precolombinas: Nazca. Colección Arte y Tesoros del Perú. Lima, Perú: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 1986.
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. Part of a larger series in Spanish on the major cultures and art forms of Peru. Features color illustrations of multiple pieces, many in Peruvian collections, as well as commentary.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Rowe, Ann Pollard. “Nasca Figurines and Costume.” The Textile Museum Journal 29–30 (1990–1991): 93–128.
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  311. A discussion of two groups of Nasca textile figurines, one at the Textile Museum and one in a private collection, providing insights on Nasca dress.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Sawyer, Alan R. “Painted Nasca Textiles.” In The Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference, May 19th and 20th, 1973. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, Elizabeth P. Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, 129–150. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1979.
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  315. Discusses the iconography of several Nasca painted textiles in museum collections, focusing especially on the various crop symbols that appear in works identified as having “harvest festival” themes. Includes comparisons to motifs on Nasca ceramics.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Sawyer, Alan R. Early Nasca Needlework. London: Laurence King Publishing, 1997.
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  319. A splendidly illustrated introduction to Nasca needlework, including embroideries and cross-knit pieces. Features a useful discussion of the differences between Paracas and Nasca embroideries.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Moche
  322.  
  323. The Moche (Mochica) culture of the north coast of Peru (1–750 CE) appears to have had a strong textile tradition, but works from this culture have not been well preserved. Examples of Moche textiles can be found in general works on Moche art, such as Benson 1972, where insights can be drawn from the depiction of textiles on Moche ceramics. Alva and Donnan 1993 illustrates a Moche textile in color and explains the excavation of various tombs whose inhabitants were likely dressed in rich textiles. Conklin 1979 is the only in-depth analysis of Moche textile fragments.
  324.  
  325. Alva, Walter, and Christopher B. Donnan. Royal Tombs of Sipán. Los Angeles: University of California, 1993.
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  327. An account of the discovery of several tombs at the Moche site of Sipán. Illustrates a colorful Moche textile not from the site and provides insight on possible textiles buried in the tombs.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Benson, Elizabeth P. The Mochica: A Culture of Peru. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1972.
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  331. A survey of Moche art that features a short section on textiles, largely focused on how they appear in ceramic works.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Conklin, William J. “Moche Textile Structures.” In The Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference, May 19th and 20th, 1973. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, Elizabeth P. Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, 165–184. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1979.
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  335. Analyzes the structure of several (mostly fragmentary) Moche textiles and provides a general sketch of the style and subject matter of such works.
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  337. Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco)
  338.  
  339. Art of the Tiwanaku civilization, along with that of the Wari, characterizes the Middle Horizon (600–1000 CE), a period in which a distinctly recognizable art style spread throughout the Andes. Tiwanaku was centered at its capital of the same name south of Lake Titicaca in modern-day Bolivia. Its fine textiles include stunning tapestries, which have often been confused with those associated with the Wari. Oakland 1986 is the first to establish the differences between the two traditions and study archaeological Tiwanaku textiles in depth. Young Sánchez 2004 features images and commentary on multiple Tiwanaku textiles, relating them to the larger culture. Isbell and Knobloch 2009 and Conklin 2009, both part of the same volume of conference proceedings, provide important insights on Tiwanaku textile iconography.
  340.  
  341. Conklin, William J. “The Iconic Dimension in Tiwanaku Art.” In Tiwanaku: Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez, 115–132. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2009.
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  343. Suggests that the Tiwanaku represented the supernatural realm as two-dimensional, a hypothesis that relates directly to textiles, a largely two-dimensional medium. Analyzes textiles recently discovered at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Isbell, William H., and Patricia J. Knobloch. “SAIS—The Origin, Development, and Dating of Tiahuanaco-Huari Iconography.” In Tiwanaku: Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez, 165–210. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2009.
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  347. Although not focused solely on textiles, an important article outlining the spread of Tiwanaku and Wari iconography throughout the Andes, and presenting the current state of research on this matter.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Oakland, Amy Sue. “Tiwanaku Textile Style from the South Central Andes, Bolivia, and North Chile.” PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin, 1986.
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  351. Analyzes several archaeological textiles from Bolivia and Chile and establishes them as directly related to Tiwanaku. Also establishes the differences between Tiwanaku and Wari tapestries.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Young Sánchez, Margaret, ed. Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2004.
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  355. A sumptuously illustrated exhibition catalogue covering the range of Tiwanaku arts and those of related cultures, including the Wari. Includes chapters and commentary by experts in the field. Copublished by University of Nebraska Press.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Wari (Huari)
  358.  
  359. After and overlapping Tiwanaku, Wari is the second civilization understood to characterize the Middle Horizon (600–1000 CE). Centered at the site of the same name (Wari or Huari) near modern-day Ayacucho, the Wari developed a highly abstracted approach to textile imagery, seen especially in fine tapestries. Lavalle 1984 illustrates multiple examples. Sawyer 1963 was the first to decipher Wari tapestry imagery, and Stone 1986 considers the use of color and patterning on Wari tapestries. Conklin 1986 suggests new ways of understanding perspective as employed in Wari textiles. Both Stone and McEwan 1990–1991 and Stone 1992 use Wari tapestry imagery to help understand the nature of the Wari state. Cook 1992 considers the garments that appear on a set of Wari figurines for insight into Wari bureaucracy, and Bergh 2009 provides further insight into Wari state hierarchies by studying the evidence of ranking found in two tapestry tunics. Zuidema 2009 offers a calendrical interpretation for a Wari mantle.
  360.  
  361. Bergh, Susan E. “The Bird and the Camelid (Or Deer): A Ranked Pair of Wari Tapestry Tunics?” In Tiwanaku: Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez, 225–245. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2009.
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  363. Relying on evidence of dualism in Andean cultures, proposes that pairs of tunics, one technically superior to the other but with similar iconography, might have been worn by ranked pairs of officials, the finer garment being used by the higher-ranking official.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Conklin, William J. “The Mythic Geometry of the Ancient Southern Sierra.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Edited by Anne Pollard Rowe, 123–135. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  367. Considers how Middle Horizon textiles would have looked on the loom, essentially rotated ninety degrees from how they appear when worn. Proposes that weavers employed a “vanishing line format,” where figures meant to be seen as farther away and located in a supernatural otherworld were compressed along a horizon line.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Cook, Anita G. “The Stone Ancestors: Idioms of Imperial Attire and Rank among Huari Figurines.” Latin American Antiquity 3.4 (1992): 341–364.
  370. DOI: 10.2307/971953Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Analyzes a set of turquoise figurines found at the Wari site of Pikillacta, proposing that the garments seen on the figures may have been indicators of status.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Lavalle, José Antonio de, ed. Culturas Precolombinas: Huari. Colección Arte y Tesoros del Perú. Lima: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 1984.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Part of a larger series in Spanish on the major cultures and art forms of Peru. Features color illustrations of multiple pieces, many in Peruvian collections, as well as commentary.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Sawyer, Alan R. “Tiahuanaco Tapestry Design.” Textile Museum Journal 1.2 (1963): 27–38.
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  379. A foundational study of Wari tapestries, albeit written when the differences between Wari and Tiwanaku pieces were not yet understood (see Oakland 1986, cited in Tiwanaku). Deciphers the staffbearer motif in the famous “Lima Tapestry.”
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Stone, Rebecca R. “Color Patterning and the Huari Artist: The “Lima Tapestry” Revisited.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Edited by Anne Pollard Rowe, 137–149. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  383. After Sawyer 1963, further analyzes the “Lima Tapestry” and its characteristic abstraction in relation to the use of color.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Stone, Rebecca R., and Gordon F. McEwan. “The Representation of the Wari State in Stone and Thread.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 19–20 (1990–1991): 53–80.
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  387. A comparison of Wari architecture and tapestry textiles. Demonstrates an emphasis on preplanning and the use of grid plans, but also some room for variations on the template.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Stone, Rebecca R.. “Camelids and Chaos in Huari and Tiwanaku Textiles.” In The Ancient Americas: Art from Sacred Landscapes. Edited by Richard F. Townsend, 334–345. Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 1992.
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  391. A brief article featuring fine illustrations of many Wari tapestries. Illustrates the importance of camelids for the Wari state, both in economic and ideological terms. Suggests that the orderly and highly abstract Wari style communicated a message of control over chaos.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Zuidema, R. T. “Tiwanaku Iconography and the Calendar.” In Tiwanaku: Papers from the 2005 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez, 83–100. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2009.
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  395. Although focused mainly on Tiwanaku stone monuments such as the “Sun Gate,” proposes that a richly colored Wari mantle in Munich represents a solar calendar.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Late Intermediate Period
  398.  
  399. Following the decline of the Tiwanaku and Wari civilizations, several regional cultures flourished during the Late Intermediate Period (1000–1250 CE). Many produced rich textiles, using fine materials and virtuosic techniques. The literature on these textile traditions is not extensive, but a brief introduction can be found in Young-Sánchez 1992. Rowe and O’Neill 1984 addresses textiles of the Chimú culture centered on Peru’s north coast. Lavalle and Lang 1982 illustrates works of the Chancay culture from Peru’s south coast, and Fung Pineda 1999 provides further insight on Chancay gauzes. Rowe 2001–2002 addresses women’s dress from the Ica region further south. See also O’Neale and Kroeber 1930, cited in Chronology and Classification. Regarding textiles from Chile during this period, Cassman 2000 analyzes the textiles found on mummies from Arica, and Horta Tricallotis and Agüero Piwonka 2009 discusses ritual cloths from the Azapa Valley.
  400.  
  401. Cassman, Vicki. “Prehistoric Ethnicity and Status Based on Textile Evidence from Arica, Chile.” Chungará: Revista de Antropología Chilena 32.2 (July 2000): 253–257.
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  403. Studies textiles found on 436 mummies from three sites in Arica, proposing that the buried individuals shared a similar ethnicity. Based on radiocarbon dates, also makes the important point that styles overlapped from 900 to 1400 CE and were not strictly successive over time.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Fung Pineda, Rosa. “Los encajes ‘hechizados’ de la cultura chancay/The Witching Laces of the Chancay Culture.” In Tejidos milenarios del Perú. Edited by Rosario de Lavalle de Cárdenas and José Antonio de Lavalle, 553–570. Lima, Perú: Integra AFP, 1999.
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  407. Describes some of the technical features of Chancay gauze and reticular-weave head cloths. Argues for their sacred significance based on their iconography and the predominance of S-spun threads. English translation is loose.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Horta Tricallotis, Helena, and Maria Carolina Agüero Piwonka. “Estilo, iconografía y función de las inkuñas prehispánicas del norte de Chile durante el Periodo Intermedio Tardío (1000–1470 DC).” Chungará: Revista de Antropología Chilena 41.2 (2009): 183–227.
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  411. Reports on the analysis of 147 ritual cloths from the Late Intermediate Period, in an attempt to define the main formal and technical features of this type of cloth. Available online.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Lavalle, José Antonio de, and Werner Lang. Culturas Precolombinas, Chancay. Colección Arte y Tesoros del Perú. Lima, Perú: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 1982.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Part of a larger series in Spanish on the major cultures and art forms of Peru. Features color illustrations of multiple pieces, many in Peruvian collections, including several pieces of Chancay fiber sculpture.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Rowe, Ann Pollard. “Ica Style Women’s Dress.” Textile Museum Journal 40–41 (2001–2002): 98–117.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. A discussion of women’s garments from the Ica region of southern Peru.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Rowe, Ann Pollard, and John Patton O’Neill. Costumes and Featherwork of the Lords of Chimor: Textiles from Peru’s North Coast. Washington, DC: Textile Museum, 1984.
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  423. A detailed introduction to the textile styles of the Chimu state, with fine illustrations, many in color. Conclusions regarding museum pieces are based on the study of similar archaeologically recovered pieces. Includes a section identifying the feathers used in Chimu textiles, thus providing evidence of trans-Andean trade networks.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Young-Sánchez, Margaret. “Textile Traditions of the Late Intermediate Period.” In To Weave for the Sun: Ancient Andean Textiles in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Edited by Rebecca R. Stone, 43–49. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1992.
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  427. Describes the main textile traditions of the main Late Intermediate Period culture areas, showing that works of the period are characterized by variety and inventiveness.
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  429. Inca (Inka)
  430.  
  431. Textiles created under Inca rule reached a peak of technical sophistication. The most well-studied examples are the tapestry tunics worn by elite Inca males. Rowe 1978 provides a detailed introduction to this technique, while Rowe 1995–1996 offers a wider overview of Inca weaving and garment types. Desrosiers 1986 uses an early colonial diagram to reconstruct the form of an Inca belt. Murra 1962 is a fundamental study of the role of textiles within the Inca state. Rowe 1978 establishes the main types of state-sponsored Inca tunics. Articles focused on the motifs that appear on Inca tunics, including the geometric motifs known as tocapu, are Zuidema 1991 and Stone 2007. Hogue 2006 links motifs found in textiles to those seen in Inca stonework.
  432.  
  433. Desrosiers, Sophie. “An Interpretation of Technical Weaving Data found in an Early 17th-Century Chronicle.” In The Junius B. Bird Conference on Andean Textiles, April 7th and 8th, 1984. Edited by Anne Pollard Rowe, 219–241. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1986.
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  435. Uses the diagram for weaving an Inca belt created by the Mercedarian friar Martín de Murúa to reconstruct a possible pattern, weaving technique, and loom setup. Shows it was probably a complementary-warp patterned weave.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Hogue, Marianne. “Cosmology in Inca Tunics and Tectonics.” In Andean Textile Traditions: Papers from the 2001 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez and Fronia W. Simpson, 101–119. Denver: Denver Art Museum, 2006.
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  439. Brief article identifying Inca textile motifs that also appear in Inca stone relief carvings and suggesting metaphorical links between Inca stonemasonry and weaving.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Murra, John V. “Cloth and Its Functions in the Inca State.” American Anthropologist 64.4 (1962): 710–728.
  442. DOI: 10.1525/aa.1962.64.4.02a00020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Outlines the ideological importance of cloth, both for the Incas and over time in the Andes. Explains the role of cloth in the reciprocal economy of the Inca state.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Rowe, Ann Pollard. “Technical Features of Inca Tapestry Tunics.” Textile Museum Journal 17 (1978): 5–28.
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  447. A necessary introduction to the tapestry technique used by the Incas for their most high-status male garments.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Rowe, Ann Pollard. “Inca Weaving and Costume.” Textile Museum Journal 34–35 (1995–1996): 5–53.
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  451. A discussion of what is known of Inca weaving techniques and garment and ornament types, using Spanish chronicles and surviving examples. Also outlines what is known of provincial Inca textiles.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Rowe, John H. “Standardization in Inca Tapestry Tunics.” In The Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference, May 19th and 20th, 1973. Edited by Ann P. Rowe, Elizabeth P. Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, 239–261. Washington, DC: The Textile Museum, 1979.
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  455. Identifies and outlines the main features of four standard Inca tunic designs: the black-and-white checkerboard, the “Inca key” checkerboard, and tunics with tocapu and diamond waistbands.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Stone, Rebecca R. “‘And All Theirs Different From His’: The Dumbarton Oaks Royal Inka Tunic in Context.” In Variations in the Expression of Inka Power: A Symposium at Dimbarton Oaks, 18 and 19 Cotober 1997. Edited by Richard Burger, Craig Morris, and Ramiro Matos, 385–422. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2007.
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  459. Article considering the Inca royal tunic with all-over tocapu patterning. Establishes that this tunic type was reserved for the Inca ruler.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Zuidema, R. Tom. “Guaman Poma and the Art of Empire: Towards an Iconography of Inca Royal Dress.” In Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century. Edited by Kenneth J. Andrien and Rolena Adorno, 151–202. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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  463. Uses the colonial period work of the native Andean author Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala to propose meanings for the motifs that appear on Inca textiles, as well as suggest functions for garments with certain motifs.
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  465. Provincial Inca
  466.  
  467. Scholars are striving for a better understanding of textiles created during the Inca period, but outside of the main center and in different styles. Rowe 1992 considers “provincial,” and thus less standardized, Inca tunics. Bjerregaard 2007 and Ulloa, et al. 2000 present groups of textiles that substantially advance our current understanding of Inca textiles on the periphery, both north and south.
  468.  
  469. Bjerregaard, Lena, ed. Chachapoya Textiles: The Laguna de los Cóndores Textiles in the Museo Leymebamba, Chachapoyas, Peru. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2007.
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  471. A very well illustrated catalogue of the textiles recovered from the Laguna de los Cóndores mummies, many of which show Inca influence. Chapters introduce the Chachapoya and their culture, while catalogue entries focus on technical details. A chapter by Gary Urton describes the khipus that were found (see Khipus (Quipus)).
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Rowe, Ann Pollard. “Provincial Inca Tunics of the South Coast of Peru.” The Textile Museum Journal 31 (1992): 5–52.
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  475. An in-depth analysis of surviving Inca tunics created in styles that differ from the state-regulated imperial designs.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Ulloa, Liliana, Vivien G. Standen, and Vivian Gavilán. “Estudio de una prenda textil asociada al Inca en la Costa Norte de Chile (Camarones 9): Las ‘Mantas’ que envuelven los cuerpos.” Chungará: Revista de Antropología Chilena 32.2 (July 2000): 259–261.
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  479. Discusses Inca funerary mantles found at the mouth of the Camarones River in northern Chile and links the works to those worn by Aymara people in the region today.
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  481. Khipus (Quipus)
  482.  
  483. The sets of knotted cords known as khipus and used by the Incas as a form of writing also fall within the Andean textile tradition. The literature on the decipherment of khipus is too large to fully survey here, but the sources listed are the most essential for an introduction to the topic. Ascher and Ascher 1981 provides the most basic introduction to the khipu, and Conklin 1982 addresses pre-Inca Middle Horizon khipus. Urton 2003 is an in-depth analysis moving toward the decipherment of khipus, and Quilter and Urton 2002 is an edited volume with multiple perspectives on the nature and history of the khipu. Salomon 2004 is a consideration of the significance of the khipu in the Andes today.
  484.  
  485. Ascher, Marcia, and Robert Ascher. Code of the Quipu: A Study in Media, Mathematics, and Culture. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1981.
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  487. Based on the study of four hundred Inca khipus, a compact and readable introduction to the device that illustrates how numbers were recorded.
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  489. Conklin, William J. “The Information System of Middle Horizon Quipus.” In Ethnoastronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the American Tropics. Vol. 385. Edited by Anthony Aveni and Gary Urton, 261–282. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 385. New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1982.
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  491. Considers Middle Horizon “wrapped” quipus, some Wari, and proposes that most of their information was encoded by way of color patterning.
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  493. Quilter, Jeffrey, and Gary Urton, eds. Narrative Threads: Accounting and Recounting in Andean Khipu. Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
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  495. Selections by multiple scholars on the historical, archaeological, and ethnographic aspects of khipus.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Salomon, Frank. The Cord Keepers: Khipus and Cultural Life in a Peruvian Village. Latin America Otherwise: Languages, Empires, Nations. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
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  499. An anthropological study of the continued significance of khipus for an Andean village with deep cultural roots. Grapples with ways of understanding ancient Andean writing without being able to read it.
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  501. Urton, Gary. Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records. Linda Schele Series in Maya and Pre-Columbian Studies. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003.
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  503. A consideration of the ways in which information may have been encoded on Inca khipus, arguing especially for a binary form of coding.
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  505. Colonial
  506.  
  507. Andean weaving traditions were transformed, but also remained strong, after the Spanish conquest of Peru in 1532. The tapestry tradition that had been supported under Inca rule continued into the colonial period and has been the focus of most study. Zimmern 1943–1944 set the groundwork for the study of colonial tapestries. Pillsbury 2006 considers a group of early colonial tunics that present transformations of the Inca tradition, and Iriarte 1992 analyzes three important tapestries that present narrative Christian scenes. The greatest advancement in this field is Phipps, et al. 2004, which illustrates the entire trajectory of colonial tapestry production. Stanfield-Mazzi 2009 deals with collectors of textiles in the colonial period, and Ramos 2010 considers evidence on colonial tapestries found in colonial documents, providing insights on ethnic identity and the textile economy. For textiles of colonial Bolivia, see also Adelson and Tracht 1983 and Gisbert, et al. 1987 under Modern.
  508.  
  509. Iriarte, Isabel. “Tapices con escenas bíblicas del Perú colonial.” Revista Andina 10.1–2 (July 1992): 81–105.
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  511. Article in Spanish considering three tapestries in Buenos Aires that present large-scale biblical scenes in their central panels, similar in style to European tapestries but also with Andean qualities. Makes suggestions related to dating, iconography, techniques, and work process.
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  513. Phipps, Elena, Johanna Hecht, and Cristina Esteras Martín, eds. The Colonial Andes: Tapestries and Silverwork, 1530–1830. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
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  515. A comprehensive exhibition catalogue with articles by multiple experts dealing with both Andean tapestries and silverwork. Sumptuously illustrated, the book reproduces in color virtually every surviving colonial Andean tapestry, as well as many Inca works. Chapters by Phipps are especially useful for contextualizing the colonial weaving tradition.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Pillsbury, Joanne. “Inka Colonial Tunics: A Case Study of the Bandelier Set.” In Andean Textile Traditions: Papers from the 2001 Mayer Center Symposium at the Denver Art Museum. Edited by Margaret Young-Sánchez and Fronia W. Simpson, 120–168. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum, 2006.
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  519. An examination of the group of early colonial tunics in the American Museum of Natural History known as the Bandelier Set. Shows that traditional Inca motifs survived into the colonial period but were made to coexist with new European-influenced elements.
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  521. Ramos, Gabriela. “Los tejidos en la sociedad colonial andina.” Colonial Latin American Review 29.1 (April 2010): 115–149.
  522. DOI: 10.1080/10609161003643719Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. An article in Spanish exploring the role of tapestry textiles as ethnic signifiers in the colonial period. Also considers the economic aspects of tapestry production in the colonial period.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Stanfield-Mazzi, Maya. “The Possessor’s Agency: Private Art Collecting in the Colonial Andes.” Colonial Latin American Review 18.3 (2009): 339–364.
  526. DOI: 10.1080/10609160903336150Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Addresses the collecting of textiles within the larger frame of art collecting in colonial Peru, and considers as an example a tapestry made for the rebel leader Túpac Amaru II.
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  529. Zimmern, Nathalie Herman. “The Tapestries of Colonial Peru.” Brooklyn Museum Journal (1943–1944): 27–52.
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  531. Based on the identification of fifty-seven examples of colonial Peruvian tapestries in North American and European collections, many of which were misattributed to other cultures. Outlines the main features of the tapestries, focusing on history, materials, and imagery, and proposes a periodization based on composition. Includes a discussion of Chinese elements, or “chinoiserie.”
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  533. Modern
  534.  
  535. Andean weaving remained strong after the region won its independence from Spain in 1824, and it continues into the 21st century, especially in the form of warp-patterned weaving. Several scholars have looked to the more traditional aspects of modern Andean weaving, while others have sought to chart change and innovation in relation to global changes.
  536.  
  537. Stewarding Traditions
  538.  
  539. Scholars that study traditional Andean textiles have certainly acknowledged change over time, but many of their studies are ethnographic and concerned with tracing roots to the past or preserving traditions perceived to be in danger of extinction. Corcuera 1999 focuses on the history of the poncho, a male garment type that became more popular after independence. Cereceda 1987 provides perspectives on the aesthetics of Andean weavers, while Callañaupa Alvarez 2007 and Silverman 2008 offer differing views on the symbolism of woven motifs. Silverman 2008 focuses on textiles created by the people of the Q’ero region, and Rowe and Cohen 2002 can also be read for an introduction to the weavings of this region. Rowe, et al. 2007 focuses on traditional backstrap weaving in Ecuador. Adelson and Tracht 1983, Cason and Cahlandar 1976, and Gisbert, et al. 1987 offer substantial analyses of the weaving traditions of Bolivia. Cason and Cahlandar 1976 explains these traditions and also teaches weaving techniques.
  540.  
  541. Adelson, Laurie, and Arthur Tracht. Aymara Weavings: Ceremonial Textiles of Colonial and 19th Century Bolivia. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, 1983.
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  543. The catalogue of an exhibition of Aymara weavings from colonial and 19th-century Bolivia. Greatly contributes to an understanding of the continuities in Bolivian weaving over time, from the pre-Hispanic era to the present. Very well illustrated in color.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Callañaupa Alvarez, Nilda. Weaving in the Peruvian Highlands: Dreaming Patterns, Weaving Memories. Cusco, Peru: Centro de Textiles Tradicionales del Cusco, 2007.
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  547. A stunningly illustrated book written by a Quechua weaver focusing on weaving in the Cusco region. Describes techniques and lists the names and symbolic significance of multiple motifs. Distributed in North America by Interweave Press (Loveland, CO).
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Cason, Marjorie, and Adele Cahlander. The Art of Bolivian Highland Weaving. New York: Watson-Guptill, 1976.
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  551. Provides an introduction to southern highland Andean weaving, explaining and diagramming the main techniques. Other chapters are designed as “projects” for readers wishing to learn to weave.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Cereceda, Verónica. “Aproximaciones a una estética andina: De la belleza al tinku.” In Tres reflexiones sobre el pensamiento andino. By Thérèse Bouysse-Cassagne, Olivia Harris, Verónica Cereceda, y Tristan Platt, 133–231. La Paz: Hisbol, 1987.
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  555. An important study in Spanish based on communication with Andean weavers; explains aspects of composition and color symbolism.
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  557. Corcuera, Ruth. Ponchos de las tierras del Plata. Buenos Aires: Fondo Nacional de las Artes, 1999.
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  559. A large-scale, beautifully illustrated book charting the history of the poncho from pre-Hispanic times to the present, focusing especially on the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Covers works from Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, and Peru.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Gisbert, Teresa, Silvia Arze, and Martha Cajías. Arte textil y mundo andino. La Paz: Gisbert y Cía, 1987.
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  563. An extensive historical survey of the weaving traditions of Bolivia. Introduces the historical and modern textile traditions of five regions and considers links to the Inca tradition. In Spanish; illustrated in color.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Rowe, Ann Pollard, and John Cohen. Hidden Threads of Peru: Q’ero Textiles. London: Merrell, 2002.
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  567. A comprehensive introduction to the Q’ero region and its weaving tradition. Includes excellent illustrations of textiles as well as many historical photographs. Published in association with the Textile Museum, Washington, DC.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Rowe, Ann Pollard, Lynn A. Meisch, and Laura M. Miller. Weaving and Dyeing in Highland Ecuador. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007.
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  571. A comprehensive edited study of Ecuadorian backstrap weaving, with consideration of a range of patterning techniques.
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  573. Silverman, Gail P. A Woven Book of Knowledge: Textile Iconography of Cuzco, Peru. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2008.
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  575. Written by an anthropologist who has conducted years of fieldwork in the Andes, this book outlines the meanings of the main motifs used by Q’ero weavers and argues that they can be “read” like writing. Includes a graphic lexicon illustrating important motifs, as well as a glossary of Quechua terms.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Responding to Change
  578.  
  579. Other scholars have considered modern artisanal textiles in relation to political movements and global tourist and export markets. Franger 1988, Sepúlveda 1996, and Agosín 1996 consider arpilleras, appliqué panels created by women’s cooperatives in Peru and Chile in response to economic and political strife. The 1997 film Weaving a Future (Freeman 1997) deals with weavers and commerce in Ecuador, and Zorn 2004 considers a similar topic on the remote island of Taquile in Peru.
  580.  
  581. Agosín, Marjorie. Tapestries of Hope, Threads of Love: The Arpillera Movement in Chile, 1974–1994. Translated by Celeste Kostopulos-Cooperman. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1996.
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  583. Studies Chilean arpilleras from the Pinochet era in relation to the political circumstances out of which they arose.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Franger, Gaby. Arpilleras, cuadros que hablan: Vida cotidiana y organización de mujeres. Lima, Peru: Taller de Artesanía “Mujeres Creativas,” 1988.
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  587. Presents Peruvian arpilleras arising from women’s movements in Lima. Connects the works to issues of migration, poverty, political violence, and gender inequality. Multiple color illustrations of arpilleras.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Sepúlveda, Emma, ed. We, Chile: Personal Testimonies of the Chilean Arpilleristas. Falls Church, VA: Azul Editions, 1996.
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  591. Records the first-person testimonies of several Chilean arpilleristas. Includes photographs of the artists but not of their works.
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  593. Freeman, Mark, dir. Weaving the Future. DVD. Fine Line Productions, 1997.
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  595. A film focusing on the community of Otavalo in northern Ecuador and illustrating its interaction with the global economy through the sale of handmade textiles. Distributed by Documentary Educational Resources (Watertown, MA).
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Zorn, Elayne. Weaving a Future: Tourism, Cloth, and Culture on an Andean Island. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2004.
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  599. Explains the case of the community of weavers and knitters on the island of Taquile in Lake Titicaca, which has managed to insert its traditional textiles into the global economy.
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