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Buddhism and Politics (Buddhism)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Politics has always been part of Buddhism. The earliest Buddhists texts, the Tipiṭaka, contain numerous references to and discussions of kings, princes, wars, and policies. Later Buddhist texts, up to the present day, likewise contain advice to rulers about how to govern well, warnings about the dire consequences of ruling poorly, and admonitions to avoid arrogance and ignoring the needs of the common people. In the realm of political practice, since the time of the historical Buddha, Siddhattha Gotama (Sanskrit, Siddhārtha Gautama), Buddhism has both influenced governments and been identified by governments as a source of their authority and legitimacy. Buddhist monarchs have ruled Buddhist-majority realms across Southeast and East Asia at various times over the past two thousand years, and even today many nations in Asia understand their governments to have a duty to rule in a way that is consistent with Buddhist values. In many other Asian nations, Buddhism is an important ethical and religious tradition, even if it is not explicitly incorporated into the political system. Despite this long history of a connection between Buddhism and politics, Western scholarship in the 20th century went through two phases—an early phase, strongly influenced by Max Weber, which saw Buddhism as being either apolitical or even antipolitical and focused solely on releasing practitioners from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara); and a later phase, in which Western scholars began to study the political writings and history of Buddhism more carefully, revealing both the normative political ideas in the Buddhist tradition and the complex practice of politics by Buddhists and in the name of Buddhism. Thus, the earlier controversy over whether Buddhism contains any political ideas at all has been replaced by more nuanced debates about how to interpret the primary texts that do overtly discuss things like kings and laws, about whether those texts reflect a normative preference for monarchy or republicanism, and about the future direction of Buddhist political thinking. (That said, many Buddhists today continue to see Buddhism as rightly being apolitical.) There are also a number of narrower questions that scholars are focusing on, such as how “Buddhist” the political and legal systems are in countries that nominally have governments guided or inspired by Buddhism, the compatibility or incompatibility of Buddhism and ostensibly “Western” ideas like human rights and international law, and how to understand the various ways in which Buddhists today are engaging in political action.
  3.  
  4. Overviews
  5. There are at least three separate issues that scholars investigate under the title “Buddhism and politics”: (1) the normative political content of Buddhist texts and practices, as discussed in Moore 2016; (2) the historical interaction of Buddhist teachers and communities with various political authorities and forces, as explored in Harris 2007; and (3) the contemporary political activity of Buddhists, as explained in Friedlander 2009. Gard 1952, Gard 1956, and Gard 1962 are essential sources for identifying primary texts relevant to politics. Pardue 1971 provides a broad overview of how Buddhism has affected politics in Asia, while Bechert 1973 focuses on changes in Buddhist ideas about politics beginning in the 19th century. Myint 2015 focuses on the political ramifications of the “emptiness” doctrine. Moore 2016 references and discusses a large proportion of the primary and secondary literature, and is an essential starting point.
  6.  
  7. Bechert, Heinz. “Sangha, State, Society, ‘Nation’: Persistence of Traditions in ‘Post-Traditional’ Buddhist Societies.” Daedalus 102.1 (1973): 85–95.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. An analysis of how the relationship between sangha and state has evolved over time, especially since the 19th century, by one of the preeminent Western scholars of Buddhism.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Friedlander, Peter. “Buddhism and Politics.” In Routledge Handbook of Religion and Politics. Edited by Jeffrey Haynes, 11–25. London and New York: Routledge, 2009.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. A helpful overview of the history of Buddhist interactions with politics, including fairly up-to-date discussions of the political status of Buddhism in countries with large Buddhist populations.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Gard, Richard A. Buddhist Political Thought: A Bibliography. Washington, DC: School of Advanced International Studies, 1952.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. An essential source for information about primary texts that discuss politics, though in some cases discussions of the texts are so brief as to not convey much information about their contents. Gard was one of the few American scholars to focus on Buddhism and politics in the mid-20th century, and his work is seminal for identifying sources and issues.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Gard, Richard A. Buddhist Political Thought: A Study of Buddhism in Society. Bangkok: Mahamakuta University, 1956.
  35.  
  36. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  37.  
  38. More like an outline of how to study this topic than a thorough treatment of it, but still containing some helpful information.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Gard, Richard A. “The Saṅgha: Buddhist Society and the Laity.” In Buddhism. Edited by Richard A. Gard, 191–231. New York: Washington Square Press, 1962.
  44.  
  45. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  46.  
  47. An essential source, with helpful information about primary sources that discuss politics.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Harris, Ian, ed. Buddhism, Power and Political Order. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
  53.  
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55.  
  56. An essential collected volume, with essays on a variety of topics by leading scholars.
  57.  
  58. Find this resource:
  59.  
  60.  
  61. Kawanami, Hiroko. Buddhism and the Political Process. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.
  62.  
  63. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-137-57400-8Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  64.  
  65. An essential collected volume of essays by leading scholars from several fields, in part reflecting on the pioneering work of Ian Harris (several of whose books are mentioned elsewhere in this entry).
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69.  
  70. Moore, Matthew J. Buddhism and Political Theory. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
  71.  
  72. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190465513.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  73.  
  74. Focuses on the normative discussions of politics in early and traditional-era texts, and then compares them to the ideas of several Western thinkers. Contains extensive bibliographic references to primary and secondary literature.
  75.  
  76. Find this resource:
  77.  
  78.  
  79. Myint, Tun. “Buddhist Political Thought.” In The Encyclopedia of Political Thought. Edited by Michael T. Gibbons, 390–396. New York: John Wiley, 2015.
  80.  
  81. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  82.  
  83. Focuses on the relevance of the Buddhist “emptiness” doctrine for politics.
  84.  
  85. Find this resource:
  86.  
  87.  
  88. Pardue, Peter A. Buddhism: A Historical Introduction to Buddhist Values and the Social and Political Forms They Have Assumed in Asia. New York and London: Macmillan, 1971.
  89.  
  90. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  91.  
  92. Broad historical overview, now a bit dated.
  93.  
  94. Find this resource:
  95.  
  96.  
  97. Primary Texts
  98. The logical starting point for looking at the intersection of Buddhism and politics is the primary texts of the various Buddhist traditions. The texts listed below are grouped into those from the early period (c. 500 BCE–c. 100 BCE—i.e., from the birth of the historical Buddha until the earliest texts were written down), and those from the traditional period (c. 100 BCE–c. 1850 CE—i.e., from the earliest written versions of the texts until the fall of the traditional Buddhist monarchies during colonialism). Although there have obviously been countless important Buddhist texts written since 1850 (the modern period), Buddhism has become sufficiently complex and diverse that no texts are canonical for all or even most Buddhists, and thus only three uniquely important texts are listed for this period.
  99.  
  100. From the Early Period (c. 500 BCE–c. 100 BCE)
  101. The texts collected in the Tipiṭaka (“three baskets”) represent the oldest Buddhist texts. The three major traditions of contemporary Buddhism—the Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayāna—each have distinct versions of the Tipiṭaka, which vary considerably.
  102.  
  103. Cowell, E. B., ed. The Jataka; or, Stories of the Buddha’s Former Births. Vol. 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1897.
  104.  
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  106.  
  107. Jātaka No. 385 (Nandiyamiga-Jātaka) gives a clear statement of the rajādhamma, the ten duties of a righteous king: “Alms, morals, charity, justice and penitence, Peace, mildness, mercy, meekness, patience” (p. 174).
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. Fausbøll, Viggo, ed. The Jātaka, Together with Its Commentary. Vol. 3. London: Pali Text Society, 1963.
  113.  
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  115.  
  116. The original-language (Pali) text from which Cowell’s 1897 translation was made.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120.  
  121. Rhys Davids, T. W., and J. E. Carpenter, eds. Dīgha-níkāya. 3 vols. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1889–1910.
  122.  
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  124.  
  125. The original-language (Pali) text from which Walshe’s 1987 translation was made. The Pali Text Society editions of Pali Buddhist texts are the definitive scholarly versions.
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129.  
  130. Walshe, Maurice, trans. The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Dīgha Níkāya. Boston: Wisdom, 1987.
  131.  
  132. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133.  
  134. The Dīgha Níkāya contains the four most important suttas relevant to early Buddhist thinking about politics: the Aggañña-Sutta, the Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta, the Mahāsudassana Sutta and the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta.
  135.  
  136. Find this resource:
  137.  
  138.  
  139. From the Traditional Period (c. 100 BCE–c. 1850 CE)
  140. By the end of the early period, the sangha had already split into various factions, from which ultimately emerged the modern sects of the Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayāna. Despite important doctrinal differences among the sects, the core of a Buddhist theory of government remained consistent: rule by an enlightened monarch in the interest of all. During the Traditional Period, this theory was modified slightly to emphasize the idea that the Buddha himself had been the first monarch (Mahāsammata), that only nearly enlightened beings (bodhisattvas) could become human kings, and that contemporary kings could trace their lineage to Mahāsammata or the Buddha’s Sākya clan, or both.
  141.  
  142. Dawa, Losang, trans. The King of Glorious Sutras Called the Exalted Sublime Golden Light [Suvarnaprabhāsauttamarāja-sūtra]. Portland, OR: Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition, 2006.
  143.  
  144. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  145.  
  146. Dating to sometime before the fifth century CE, this is one of the most important Mahayana suttas. Several sections discuss kingship, arguing that the Buddha and other celestial beings will protect kings who rule in accordance with dhamma and punish those who do not, and repeating the idea that kings are bodhisattvas.
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150.  
  151. Geiger, Wilhelm, ed. Mahāvaṃsa. London: Pali Text Society, 1912.
  152.  
  153. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  154.  
  155. This is the Pali original on which Geiger and Bode 1912 was based.
  156.  
  157. Find this resource:
  158.  
  159.  
  160. Geiger, Wilhelm, and Mabel Haynes Bode, trans. The Mahavamsa; or, the Great Chronicle of Ceylon. London: Pali Text Society, 1912.
  161.  
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  163.  
  164. The Dīpavaṃsa (c. 3rd–4th century CE) and the Mahāvaṃsa (c. 6th century CE) are the national chronicles of Sri Lanka, as well being important sources for Theravada Buddhism in Southeast Asia more broadly. Regarding politics, they present a similar though not identical genealogy to that found in the Mahāvastu, making the Buddha a descendant of Mahāsammata, and historical Sri Lankan kings descendants from the Buddha’s Sākya clan.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168.  
  169. The Golden Light Sutra. Foundation for the Preservation of the Mahayana Tradition.
  170.  
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  172.  
  173. This is the Sanskrit original from which Dawa’s 2006 translation was made.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177.  
  178. Jamspal, Lozang, trans. The Range of the Bodhisattva, a Mahāyāna Sūtra (Ārya-Bodhisattva-Gocara). New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2010.
  179.  
  180. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181.  
  182. In English, translated from Tibetan. This text, composed between the 3rd century BCE and 1st century CE, mostly endorses ideas about governance familiar from earlier texts. However, it explicitly says something that is only implicit in many other texts: that enlightened beings do not need government. It also appears to justify the use of violence by Buddhist governments. The Sanskrit has been lost, and the oldest source materials we have are Tibetan and Chinese translations.
  183.  
  184. Find this resource:
  185.  
  186.  
  187. Jones, J. J., trans. The Mahāvastu. 3 vols. Sacred Books of the Buddhists 19. London: Luzac, 1949–1956.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. The Mahāvastu (c. 2nd century BCE–4th century CE) contains a genealogy that makes the Buddha a descendant of the first king (Mahāsammata), and is frequently cited or repeated by later texts. It also recounts a tale of a former incarnation of the Buddha (a jātaka) in which three birds give advice to a king about how to govern well.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195.  
  196. Kārunīkarāja-Prajñāparamitā-sūtra. In Ancient Buddhism in Japan. By M. W. de Visser. Vol. 1. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1935.
  197.  
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199.  
  200. The author of this text from the 3rd–4th century CE is unknown. It is directed to kings, and advises them to rule in accordance with dhamma. The text played a major role in forming the East Asian Buddhist conception of kingship, especially the idea that kings are bodhisattvas.
  201.  
  202. Find this resource:
  203.  
  204.  
  205. King Ruang. Three Worlds According to King Ruang [Traiphum Phra Ruang]. Translated by Frank E. Reynolds and Mani B. Reynolds. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1982.
  206.  
  207. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  208.  
  209. This Thai Theravada text, traditionally dated to the 14th century CE, identifies Mahāsammata as a previous incarnation of the Buddha, and extends the role of the cakkavatti, making him a spiritual leader in the absence of a living Buddha. It also contains advice to kings about moral behavior and wise policies. The translators used a 1912 Thai edition by Prince Damrong Rachanuphab and a more recent edition by Acharn Pitoon Maliwan.
  210.  
  211. Find this resource:
  212.  
  213.  
  214. Nāgārjuna. Nagarjuna’s Letter to a Friend [Suhṛllekha]. Translated by Padmakara Translation Group. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2005.
  215.  
  216. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  217.  
  218. Nāgārjuna is widely thought to be the most important Buddhist thinker after the Buddha himself. This text (c. 150–250 CE) is framed as advice to kings, and the main message is that they should rule in accordance with dhamma. The Sanskrit original of this text is lost; this edition has both the Tibetan text and an English translation.
  219.  
  220. Find this resource:
  221.  
  222.  
  223. Oldenberg, Hermann. Dîpavamsa: An Ancient Buddhist Historical Record. Oxford: Pali Text Society, 2000.
  224.  
  225. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  226.  
  227. See Geiger and Bode 1912.
  228.  
  229. Find this resource:
  230.  
  231.  
  232. Senart, Émile, ed. Le Mahâvastu: Texte sanscrit publié pour la première fois. Paris: Société Asiatique, 1882.
  233.  
  234. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235.  
  236. Senart’s edition is apparently the earliest published version of the Sanskrit text, and in any case is the basis of Jones 1949–1956.
  237.  
  238. Find this resource:
  239.  
  240.  
  241. Takakusu, Junjirō, and Watanabe Kaigyoku, eds. Taishō shinshū daizōkyō. 85 vols. Tokyo: Taishō Issaikyō Kankōkai, 1924–1932.
  242.  
  243. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  244.  
  245. Visser’s 1935 translation of the Kārunīkarāja-Prajñāparamitā-sūtra was based on the two Japanese originals in this edition of the Chinese Tipiṭaka and related Japanese commentaries.
  246.  
  247. Find this resource:
  248.  
  249.  
  250. From the Modern Period (c. 1850 CE–Present)
  251. Although there are many Buddhist texts from this period, few if any can claim to represent a consensus view among the various sectarian and national schools of Buddhism. The three texts mentioned here are noteworthy because they represent rare occasions when Buddhist thinkers engaged directly with the question of whether monarchy or republicanism is more appropriate for a Buddhist polity.
  252.  
  253. Hpo Hlaing, U. Maha-Samata Vinicchaya Kyàn (An Analysis of the Mahāsammata Concept), 1871.
  254.  
  255. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256.  
  257. This text, written by a Burmese court minister, is now lost. Apparently, it argued that Buddhist monarchy rests on the consent of the people. It represents one of the few texts written by a Buddhist political actor living in a realm with an explicitly Buddhist government that self-consciously addresses the transformation from monarchy to republicanism. For discussion, see Harris 2009, cited under Transition from Monarchy to Republican Government.
  258.  
  259. Find this resource:
  260.  
  261.  
  262. Hpo Hlaing, U. Rajadhammasangaha. Translated by L. E. Bagshawe. Online Burma/Myanmar Library, 2004.
  263.  
  264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. Although U. Hpo Hlaing’s 1871 book has been completely lost, this text from 1878 has been preserved. It argues that parliamentary democracy is the best way for government to reflect Buddhist principles, and it represents one of the few such analyses from this era. The one English translation is available on the Internet; it was based on a Burmese edition that has recently been republished.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270.  
  271. Kyaw Htun, U. Essay on the Sources and Origins of Buddhist Law. Rangoon, Burma: Daily News Press, 1877.
  272.  
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. This is a late-traditional era text that argues that Buddhism supports the idea of restraining government by subjecting it to higher laws, such as a constitution.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279.  
  280. Maung Htin. Yaw Mingyi U Hpo Hlaing’s Biography and “Rajadhammasangahagyan.” Yangon, Myanmar: Unity, 2002.
  281.  
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283.  
  284. This is the Burmese original from which Bagshawe’s translation (Hpo Hlaing 2004) was made.
  285.  
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288.  
  289. Scholarly Commentary on the Primary Texts
  290. The sources mentioned here focus specifically on the political content and significance of various primary texts. Gokhale 1968, Gokhale 1969, Tambiah 1987, Tambiah 1989, and Collins 1993 are pioneering works that provide foundational political interpretations of various primary texts. Huxley 1996 and Collins 1996 debate conflicting interpretations of the Aggañña-Sutta, especially whether it can rightly be read as depicting a social contract. Collins and Huxley 1996 examines how the Buddhist first king Mahāsammata is portrayed and put to use in post-canonical primary texts. Huxley 2007 is a pioneering work on late-traditional-era primary texts that discuss the transition from Buddhist monarchy to European-inspired republicanism.
  291.  
  292. Collins, Steven. “The Discourse on What Is Primary (Aggañña-Sutta): An Annotated Translation.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 21 (1993): 301–393.
  293.  
  294. DOI: 10.1007/BF01089255Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. This is an essential scholarly analysis of the Aggañña-Sutta by one of the preeminent contemporary scholars of Buddhism. Among other issues, the essay discusses whether the sutta should be read as a serious cosmology or as a satire of Vedic origin stories, and whether the creation of the first government and elevation of the first king (Mahāsammata) can rightfully be called an example of a social contract.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300.  
  301. Collins, Steven. “The Lion’s Roar on the Wheel-Turning King: A Response to Andrew Huxley’s ‘The Buddha and the Social Contract.’” Journal of Indian Philosophy 24.4 (1996): 421–446.
  302.  
  303. DOI: 10.1007/BF00219198Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  304.  
  305. Part III in the important dialogue between Collins and Huxley on political issues in the early texts.
  306.  
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309.  
  310. Collins, Steven, and Andrew Huxley. “The Post-Canonical Adventures of the Mahāsammata.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 24 (1996): 623–648.
  311.  
  312. DOI: 10.1007/BF00165541Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313.  
  314. Essential discussion of what traditional-era texts say about Mahāsammata and the origins of government.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind. “Dhamma as a Political Concept in Early Buddhism.” Journal of Indian History 46.2 (1968): 249–261.
  320.  
  321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  322.  
  323. Discussion of the political content of early Buddhism by a leading 20th-century scholar of Buddhism and politics.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327.  
  328. Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind. “The Early Buddhist View of the State.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 89.4 (1969): 731–738.
  329.  
  330. DOI: 10.2307/596944Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331.  
  332. Another seminal discussion of the political content of early Buddhism by a major scholar in the field.
  333.  
  334. Find this resource:
  335.  
  336.  
  337. Huxley, Andrew. “The Buddha and the Social Contract.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 24.4 (1996): 407–420.
  338.  
  339. DOI: 10.1007/BF00219197Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. A retort to Collins 1993 by one of the leading scholars of Buddhism and law, arguing that the Aggañña-Sutta’s discussion of the origin of government cannot properly be called a social contract theory.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Huxley, Andrew. “Rajadhamma Confronts Leviathan: Burmese Political Theory in the 1870s.” In Buddhism, Power and Political Order. Edited by Ian Harris, 26–51. London and New York: Routledge, 2007.
  347.  
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349.  
  350. Essential discussion of three important texts in late-traditional-era Buddhist political and legal philosophy.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
  353.  
  354.  
  355. Reynolds, Frank. “The Two Wheels of Dharma: A Study of Early Buddhism.” In The Two Wheels of Dharma: Essays on the Theravada Tradition in India and Ceylon. Edited by Gananath Obeyesekere, Frank Reynolds, and Bardwell L. Smith, 6–30. Chambersburg, PA: American Academy of Religion, 1972.
  356.  
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358.  
  359. An important early essay arguing for the now-dominant interpretation that early Buddhism had political content.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja. The Buddhist Conception of Universal King and Its Manifestations in South and Southeast Asia. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: University of Malaya, 1987.
  365.  
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367.  
  368. An essential reading of the ancient texts regarding the cakkavatti (wheel-turning king) idea by a major scholar in the field.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372.  
  373. Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja. “King Mahāsammata: The First King in the Buddhist Story of Creation, and His Continuing Relevance.” Journal of the Anthropological Society of Oxford 20.2 (1989): 101–122.
  374.  
  375. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  376.  
  377. Essential survey of primary texts regarding Mahāsammata.
  378.  
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381.  
  382. Particular Buddhist Realms/Countries
  383. These works provide overviews of the history of Buddhism and politics in various realms and countries. Tambiah 1976 examines Thailand, though in the service of making larger arguments about the cakkavatti ideal. Huxley 1996 examines the legal traditions of Thailand, Laos, and Burma, and their influence on other (mostly Theravada) societies. Harris 2001 is an essential survey of Buddhism and politics in the 20th century, with essays from major scholars covering nearly every country with a significant Buddhist population. Walton 2016 represents a new generation of research on Buddhism and politics, from a political science perspective, but also grounded in linguistic and historical expertise.
  384.  
  385. Harris, Ian, ed. Buddhism and Politics in Twentieth-Century Asia. New York and London: Pinter, 2001.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. An essential edited volume, with chapters from major scholars in the field and covering nearly every country with a substantial Buddhist population.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Huxley, Andrew. Thai Law, Buddhist Law: Essays on the Legal History of Thailand, Laos, and Burma. Bangkok: White Orchid, 1996.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. Helpful and detailed discussion of the development of lay law in Thailand, and its influence on other realms.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Tambiah, Stanley Jeyaraja. World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against a Historical Background. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
  404.  
  405. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511558184Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. A seminal and essential text, by a major scholar in the field, that provides close readings of the ancient texts and analysis of modern political development.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Walton, Matthew J. Buddhism, Politics and Political Thought in Myanmar. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2016.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. Leading example of a new generation of scholarship on Buddhism and politics, focusing on Myanmar/Burma but raising issues relevant to other countries as well.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. Monarchy and Democracy/Republicanism
  422. This section covers three ongoing scholarly debates. The first concerns the status of monarchy in the early texts. Although nearly all of the early texts that appear to discuss government in a normative way endorse monarchy, there are some texts (the beginning of the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, and various discussions of the functioning of the monastic community, or sangha) that at least appear to endorse republican forms of governance. A second, related debate concerns the relationship of Buddhism and democracy today. Virtually all Buddhists today agree that Buddhism and democracy are at least compatible, with some going so far as to argue that Buddhism either favors or requires democracy. Third, and finally, there is the fascinating question of how Buddhist realms transitioned from monarchy to democracy, starting in the mid-19th century.
  423.  
  424. In the Early- and Traditional-Period Texts
  425. Gokhale 1966, Chakravarti 1987, and Bareau 1993 see monarchy as being the form of government implicitly endorsed by Gotama Buddha. Ling 1983 and Jayasuriya 2008 argue that the ancient texts reveal a preference for republicanism.
  426.  
  427. Bareau, André. “Le Bouddha et les Rois.” Bulletin de l’Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient 80.1 (1993): 15–39.
  428.  
  429. DOI: 10.3406/befeo.1993.2187Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  430.  
  431. A helpful close reading of the Pali texts on monarchy; Bareau concludes that the Buddha maintained a separation between secular and religious power, and avoided intervening in politics.
  432.  
  433. Find this resource:
  434.  
  435.  
  436. Chakravarti, Uma. The Social Dimensions of Early Buddhism. Delhi and New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.
  437.  
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439.  
  440. Chapter 6 focuses on the role and status of kings in early Buddhism, and addresses the debate over whether the Buddha favored democratic or monarchical government.
  441.  
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444.  
  445. Gokhale, Balkrishna Govind. “Early Buddhist Kingship.” Journal of Asian Studies 26.1 (1966): 15–22.
  446.  
  447. DOI: 10.2307/2051828Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. A discussion of the early texts on monarchy, by one of the leading scholars of Buddhism and politics in the 20th century.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453.  
  454. Jayasuriya, Laksiri. “Buddhism, Politics, and Statecraft.” International Journal of Buddhist Thought & Culture 11 (2008): 41–74.
  455.  
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457.  
  458. Argues that the ancient texts display a discreet endorsement of democracy.
  459.  
  460. Find this resource:
  461.  
  462.  
  463. Ling, Trevor. “Kingship and Nationalism in Pali Buddhism.” In Buddhist Studies: Ancient and Modern. Edited by Philip Denwood and Alexander Piatigorsky, 60–73. Collected Papers on South Asia. London and Dublin: Curzon, 1983.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. Discussion of monarchy in the early texts. Ling is sympathetic to the idea that the early texts may indicate a preference for republican government.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471.  
  472. The Compatibility of Buddhism and Democracy
  473. Gyatso 1991 and Gyatso 1993 argue that Buddhism contains inherently democratic elements, while Aung San Suu Kyi 1991 argues that, in modernity, democracy is the form of government most compatible with Buddhism.
  474.  
  475. Aung San Suu Kyi. Freedom from Fear and Other Writings. London and New York: Viking, 1991.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. A well-known text from the Burmese dissident and Nobel Peace Prize winner, notable in this context for its argument that in modernity democracy is the form of government most compatible with Buddhism.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Gyatso, Tenzin (His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama). “Buddhism, Asian Values, and Democracy.” Journal of Democracy 10.1 (1991): 3–7.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. Clear argument that Buddhism is consistent with democratic government.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. Gyatso, Tenzin (His Holiness the Fourteenth Dalai Lama). “Buddhism and Democracy.” Dharamsala, India: The Office of His Holiness the Dalai Lama, 1993.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. A clear statement of the compatibility of Buddhism and democracy.
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501.  
  502. The Transition from Monarchy to Republican Government
  503. Harris 2009 directly examines how Buddhist thinkers understood and rationalized the change from monarchy to republicanism. Halkias 2013 examines differences in Buddhist understandings of monarchy.
  504.  
  505. Halkias, Georgios T. “The Enlightened Sovereign: Buddhism and Kingship in India and Tibet.” In A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. Edited by Steven M. Emmanuel, 491–511. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley, 2013.
  506.  
  507. DOI: 10.1002/9781118324004.ch32Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. Very helpful overview of the development of different ideas of Buddhist kingship over time and in different traditions.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513.  
  514. Harris, Ian. “Something Rotten in the State of Buddhaland: Good Governance in Theravāda Buddhism.” In Destroying Mara Forever: Buddhist Ethics Essays in Honor of Damien Keown. Edited by John Powers and Charles S. Prebish, 221–236. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion, 2009.
  515.  
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. Very helpful discussion of the republican transition.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522.  
  523. Just War/Justified Violence
  524. Demiéville 1973 and Nakamura 1974 argue that Buddhism may contain some justifications for violence, and that, historically, Buddhist thinkers and leaders have treated violence as being justified. Schmithausen 1999 and Jayasuriya 2009 argue that Buddhism does not and cannot justify violence under any circumstances. Bartholomeusz 2002 examines how Buddhist monks in Sri Lanka justified violence during that country’s civil war.
  525.  
  526. Bartholomeusz, Tessa J. In Defense of Dharma: Just-War Ideology in Buddhist Sri Lanka. London and New York: Routledge, 2002.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. Primarily about the role of Buddhism in Sri Lanka’s long civil war, but also examines whether the ancient texts permit any justification for violence.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Demiéville, Paul. “Le Bouddhisme et la guerre.” In Choix d’études bouddhiques. Edited by Paul Demiéville, 261–385. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1973.
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. Survey of Buddhist texts that appear to justify the use of violence in some circumstances.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Jayasuriya, Laksiri. “Just War Tradition and Buddhism.” International Studies 46.4 (2009): 423–438.
  545.  
  546. DOI: 10.1177/002088171004600403Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. Argues that Buddhism does not contain and cannot support a just-war theory.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. Nakamura, Hajime. “Violence and Nonviolence in Buddhism.” In Violence and Aggression in the History of Ideas. Edited by Philip P. Wiener and John Fishser, 173–186. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1974.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. Argues that Buddhism has tacitly accepted the idea of just war.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Schmithausen, Lambert L. “Aspects of the Buddhist Attitude towards War.” In Violence Denied: Violence, Non-Violence and the Rationalization of Violence in South Asian Cultural History. Edited by Jan E. M. Houben and Karel R. van Kooij, 45–67. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. Argues that the ancient texts explicitly forbid even defensive war.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Human Rights
  572. There is a lively scholarly debate about whether Buddhism contains or can accommodate the concept of human rights. This issue arises partially because of the controversy over whether “Asian values” (typically Confucian values) are in conflict with a “Western” ideology of human rights, but also because of the Buddhist doctrine of anattā (no-self), which seems to raise the question of who or what could be the bearer of fundamental rights. Keown, et al. 1998 is an essential collection of essays from leadings scholars on all sides of the debate.
  573.  
  574. Keown, Damien V., Charles S. Prebish, and Wayne R. Husted, eds. Buddhism and Human Rights. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1998.
  575.  
  576. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577.  
  578. Essential edited volume, with essays from leading scholars in the field.
  579.  
  580. Find this resource:
  581.  
  582.  
  583. Authority/Legitimacy
  584. As with the broader topic of Buddhism and politics, there is more than one issue being studied under the aegis of authority/legitimacy. Gard 1962 examines the normative question of whether and how, from a Buddhist perspective, governments can obtain the authority to rule legitimately. Bechert 1978 and Suksamran 1993 examine how Buddhism has been used historically to justify the rule of various regimes.
  585.  
  586. Bechert, Heinz. “S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike and the Legitimation of Power through Buddhist Ideals.” In Religion and Legitimation of Power in Sri Lanka. Edited by Bardwell L. Smith, 199–211. Chambersburg, PA: ANIMA Books, 1978.
  587.  
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589.  
  590. Focuses on Bandaranaike’s role in Sri Lankan politics, but also discusses the broader issue of legitimation of authority in Buddhism.
  591.  
  592. Find this resource:
  593.  
  594.  
  595. Gard, Richard A. “Buddhism and Political Authority.” In The Ethic of Power: The Interplay of Religion, Philosophy, and Politics. Edited by Harold D. Lasswell and Harlan Cleveland, 39–70. New York: Harper, 1962.
  596.  
  597. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  598.  
  599. Essential discussion of authority and monarchy in early Buddhism, as well as discussion of whether Buddhist concepts could support republican government.
  600.  
  601. Find this resource:
  602.  
  603.  
  604. Suksamran, Somboon. “Buddhism, Political Authority, and Legitimacy in Thailand and Cambodia.” In Buddhist Trends in Southeast Asia. Edited by Trevor Oswald Ling, 101–153. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1993.
  605.  
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607.  
  608. Discusses the role of Buddhism and the national sanghas in political legitimation.
  609.  
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612.  
  613. Buddhist Law, Legal Systems, and Punishment
  614. Huxley 1990, Huxley 1994, Huxley 1995, and Huxley 1996 all examine the question of how “Buddhist” precolonial Buddhist law was, especially with regard to the question of the relative influence of Hindu law. Huxley 2002 and Hinüber 1995 ground Buddhist law in the code for monastics (the Vinaya). French 1995 details the on-the-ground practice of law in Tibet, while French 2007 reveals some of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama’s views on law, including a notable claim that legal punishment is compatible with Buddhism. Jayatilleke 1967, Weeramantry 1998, Weeramantry 2004, and Moore 2017 discuss the relationship between Buddhism and international law.
  615.  
  616. French, Rebecca Redwood. The Golden Yoke: The Legal Cosmology of Buddhist Tibet. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995.
  617.  
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619.  
  620. A rich anthropology of law and legal practices in Tibet.
  621.  
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624.  
  625. French, Rebecca Redwood. “The Dalai Lama Speaks on Law.” Buffalo Law Review 55 (2007): 647–674.
  626.  
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628.  
  629. Transcript and discussion of a speech by the Fourteenth Dalai Lama on law, notable for a Buddhist defense of the appropriateness of punishment.
  630.  
  631. Find this resource:
  632.  
  633.  
  634. Hinüber, Oskar von. “Buddhist Law according to the Theravāda-Vinaya: A Survey of Theory and Practice.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 18.1 (1995): 7–45.
  635.  
  636. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  637.  
  638. Examination of the foundations of Buddhist law in the Vinaya (the code for monastics).
  639.  
  640. Find this resource:
  641.  
  642.  
  643. Huxley, Andrew. “How Buddhist Is Theravāda Buddhist Law? A Survey of Legal Literature in Pāli-Land.” In The Buddhist Forum. Vol. 1, Seminar Papers 1987–1988. Edited by Tadeusz Skorupski, 41–85. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1990.
  644.  
  645. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  646.  
  647. A helpful discussion of secular law texts in traditional-era Theravada monarchies.
  648.  
  649. Find this resource:
  650.  
  651.  
  652. Huxley, Andrew. “The Reception of Buddhist Law in S.E. Asia 200 BCE–1860 CE.” In La réception des systèmes juridiques: Implantation and destin. Edited by Michel Doucet and Jacques Vanderlinden, 139–237. Brussels: Bruylant, 1994.
  653.  
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655.  
  656. Essential source about the history of Buddhist law in Theravada realms.
  657.  
  658. Find this resource:
  659.  
  660.  
  661. Huxley, Andrew. “Buddhism and Law—the View from Mandalay.” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 18.1 (1995): 47–95.
  662.  
  663. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  664.  
  665. A discussion of the relationship between Buddhism and lay law, with a special focus against the idea that Buddhist law has historically been Hindu law with a veneer of Buddhism.
  666.  
  667. Find this resource:
  668.  
  669.  
  670. Huxley, Andrew. “When Manu Met Mahāsammata.” Journal of Indian Philosophy 24 (1996): 593–621.
  671.  
  672. DOI: 10.1007/BF00165540Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  673.  
  674. Essential discussion of the complex relationship between Hindu and Buddhist sources in the formation of Southeast Asian law.
  675.  
  676. Find this resource:
  677.  
  678.  
  679. Huxley, Andrew. “Buddhist Law.” In Legal Systems of the World: A Political, Social, and Cultural Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Edited by Herbert M. Kritzer, 205–208. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2002.
  680.  
  681. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  682.  
  683. Bold argument that Vinaya law should be thought of as the fundamental source for Asian legal systems.
  684.  
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687.  
  688. Jayatilleke, Kulatissa Nanda. “Principles of International Law in Buddhist Doctrine.” Recueil des Cours 120 (1967): 441–567.
  689.  
  690. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691.  
  692. Seminal discussion of the compatibility of Buddhism and international law, written by a leading scholar in this under-studied field.
  693.  
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696.  
  697. Moore, Matthew J. “Buddhism and International Law.” In Comparative Political Theory in Time and Place: Theory’s Landscapes. Edited by Daniel J. Kapust and Helen M. Kinsella, 51–77. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
  698.  
  699. DOI: 10.1057/978-1-137-52815-5_3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Thorough, critical survey of existing scholarship and arguments both for and against the compatibility of Buddhism and international law.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Weeramantry, C. G. “Some Buddhist Perspectives on International Law.” In Boutros Boutros-Ghali amicorum discipulorumque liber: Paix, développement, démocratie; Peace, Development, Democracy. Brussels: Bruylant, 1998.
  707.  
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709.  
  710. Essential discussion of the relationship between Buddhism and international law, by one of the leading authors in the field, who is also formerly a justice of the International Court of Justice.
  711.  
  712. Find this resource:
  713.  
  714.  
  715. Weeramantry, C. G. Universalising International Law: Developments in International Law. Leiden, The Netherlands, and Boston: Martinus Nijhoff, 2004.
  716.  
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. Includes substantial discussion of Buddhism’s relationship with international law.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723.  
  724. Engaged Buddhism and the Future of Buddhist Politics
  725. Kraft 1992; Queen and King 1996; Queen 2000; and Queen, et al. 2003 discuss socially engaged Buddhist movements, both East and West. McLeod 2006 is a broadly inclusive edited volume with essays from teachers and practitioners about the social and political implications of Buddhism and where Buddhist politics are heading in the future.
  726.  
  727. Kraft, Kenneth, ed. Inner Peace, World Peace: Essays on Buddhism and Nonviolence. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.
  728.  
  729. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  730.  
  731. Edited volume on socially engaged Buddhism.
  732.  
  733. Find this resource:
  734.  
  735.  
  736. McLeod, Melvin, ed. Mindful Politics: A Buddhist Guide to Making the World a Better Place. Boston: Wisdom, 2006.
  737.  
  738. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739.  
  740. Recent, inclusive compilation of analysis and advocacy about Buddhist-inspired political action.
  741.  
  742. Find this resource:
  743.  
  744.  
  745. Queen, Christopher S., ed. Engaged Buddhism in the West. Boston: Wisdom, 2000.
  746.  
  747. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  748.  
  749. Essential edited volume on recent Buddhist-inspired political activism, from one of the leading authors in the field.
  750.  
  751. Find this resource:
  752.  
  753.  
  754. Queen, Christopher S., and Sallie B. King, eds. Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
  755.  
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. Essential volume, edited by two leading scholars in the field.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762.  
  763. Queen, Christopher S., Charles Prebish, and Damien Keown, eds. Action Dharma: New Studies in Engaged Buddhism. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  764.  
  765. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  766.  
  767. Essential collection of recent scholarship on engaged Buddhism.
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