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The Medieval Papacy (Medieval Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The papacy is the world’s oldest continuously functioning institution. A full history of the papacy would have four aspects. First, it would take account of the “Petrine Idea,” the legitimation of papal leadership in both church and world based on the text of Matthew 16:16–18. The essential idea is that because Christ granted leadership to Peter, Peter’s successors inherit that leadership. This central doctrine, which began emerging in the 3rd century, has been both powerful and controversial. Second, the papacy is an institution; papal history must therefore treat the bureaus and offices by means of which the popes have exercised their authority. Third, as a quasi-state, the papacy has entertained complex relations with numerous political entities—empires, kingdoms, principalities, and cities. Fourth, papal history is the serial biography of the 327 men who have held the office (as of 2010), not counting a few dozen “antipopes” and the rival claimants during the Great Schism (1378–1417). These themes are always but somewhat differently evident in the major periods into which papal history can be divided. The papacy emerged as a self-conscious institution in the 3rd century but functioned openly only after 313, when Constantine I granted Christianity toleration in the Roman Empire. In the 4th and 5th centuries the papacy began to elaborate both a theology of leadership and a set of institutions, both of which proved controversial. With the disappearance of the western Roman Empire, the emergence of a Byzantine Empire, and the sudden eruption of the Islamic caliphate, the papacy’s effective zone of authority shrank to western Europe. The popes opened relations with various Germanic kingdoms and in the 8th century allied with the Franks. With the decline of Frankish authority in the 9th century, the popes were entangled in the tumultuous politics of Rome, and the western church was increasingly brought under lay control. In the 11th century, reform-minded popes struggled to improve clerical morality and free the church from lay control. The “Investiture Controversy” presented the papacy with both challenges and opportunities. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the so-called Papal Monarchy emerged. The popes of this era were powerful and confident. They both built and reformed institutions while also newly articulating the ideology of papal leadership. In the late 13th century, a conflict between France and the papacy opened a host of challenges to traditional forms of papal rule. For several decades (1309–1378) the popes were resident in Avignon. The Avignon period was damaging to the papacy’s prestige and authority. Worse was yet to come. When the papacy attempted to return to Rome, factions among the cardinals disagreed, and during the Great Schism there were rival claimants to the papacy in both Rome and Avignon, and occasionally elsewhere too. The Schism further weakened the ideological and practical bases of papal authority. The Council of Constance brought the Schism to an end in 1417, but the subsequent Renaissance papacy proved to be a very different kind of institution than its predecessor.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. The writing of papal history emerged in the ferocious polemics of the Reformation era. For many years, such histories tended to be confessional and partisan. Massive papal histories (Haller 1950, Mann 1902–1914, Seppelt 1931) were fairly common years ago but have been rare in recent decades. Several single-volume treatments (Duffy 2002, Schimmelpfennig 1992, Seppelt 1932, Ullmann 1972) can be recommended and have, not surprisingly, different strengths and weaknesses. The sheer scale of the subject has tended to result in studies of specific reigns, periods, and problems. Many of these books are included in the chronological sections of this bibliography. Noble 1995 constitutes a historiographical reflection on late antique and early medieval papal history.
  8.  
  9. Duffy, Eamonn. Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes. 2d ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
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  11. Lavishly illustrated and beautifully written, the first half of this book is the best place to start an exploration of papal history.
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  13. Haller, Johannes. Das Papsttum: Idee und Wirklichkeit. 5 vols. Urach, Germany: Port Verlag, 1950.
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  15. Protestant and sometimes polemical, this elegant work was published posthumously (Haller died in 1947) and then edited and reprinted many times. It covers the period from papal beginnings to the early 15th century.
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  17. Mann, Horace Kinder. The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages. 10 vols. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, and Trübner, 1902–1914.
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  19. Readable and written very close to the sources, Mann’s work remains unmatched as a massive narrative history for the period from 590 to 1198.
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  21. Noble, Thomas F. X. “Morbidity and Vitality in the History of the Early Medieval Papacy.” Catholic Historical Review 81 (1995): 505–540.
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  23. Reflections on how changing historiographical interests have diminished the papacy as a subject of research.
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  25. Schimmelpfennig, Bernhard. The Papacy. Translated by James Sievert. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.
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  27. Covering the entire medieval period and running down to 1534, this volume is clear and readable, but sometimes slightly idiosyncratic in coverage and interpretation.
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  29. Seppelt, Franz Xaver. Geschichte des Papsttums: Eine Geschichte der Päpste von den Anfängen bis zum Tod Pius X. Vols. 1–4. Leipzig: J. Hegner, 1931.
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  31. Seppelt’s is the great large-scale, modern Catholic history of the papacy. Balanced and comprehensive, the first four volumes treat the period down to 1534.
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  33. Seppelt, Franz Xaver. A Short History of the Popes. St. Louis, MO: Herder, 1932.
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  35. A substantially abridged translation of Seppelt’s massive general history.
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  37. Ullmann, Walter. A Short History of the Papacy in the Middle Ages. London: Methuen, 1972.
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  39. Still perhaps the best single-volume history, this book reflects the vast learning and pointed interpretations of its famous author.
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  41. Reference Resources
  42.  
  43. Works in this category tend to be encyclopedic, albeit on varying scales. Kelly 1986 and Cross and Livingstone 1997 are the most readily accessible. The Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche and The New Catholic Encyclopedia (Carson and Cerrito 2002) are comprehensive. The Lexikon des Mittelalters (Auty, et al. 1977–1999) is current, scholarly, and comprehensive. Levillain 2002– is a fine, dedicated encyclopedic work.
  44.  
  45. Auty, Robert, et al., eds. Lexikon des Mittelalters. 9 vols. Munich: Artemis Verlag, 1977–1999.
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  47. The most comprehensive and scholarly medieval encyclopedia, with ample coverage of the papacy.
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  49. Bjork, Robert J., ed Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages. 4 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
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  51. Comprehensive medieval reference work with solid coverage of the papacy in all its aspects.
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  53. Carson, Thomas, and Joann Cerrito, eds. The New Catholic Encyclopedia. 15 vols. (to date). New York: Thomson/Gale, 2002–.
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  55. Replacing the New Catholic Encyclopedia of 1967, this work is learned and comprehensive, with good bibliography.
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  57. Cross, F. E., and E. A. Livingstone, eds. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
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  59. The best brief encyclopedia on all things Christian; entries on individual popes and on institutions.
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  61. Kelly, J. N. D. The Oxford Dictionary of Popes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
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  63. Brief but scholarly, this work is organized strictly chronologically.
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  65. Levillain, Philippe, ed. The Papacy: An Encyclopedia. 3 vols. New York: Routledge, 2002.
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  67. Superb coverage of all aspects of papal history, with useful bibliographies.
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  69. Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche. 11 vols. 3d ed. Freiburg, Germany: Herder, 1993–2001.
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  71. Comprehensive and learned, this work contains entries on all popes and most papal institutions.
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  73. Journals
  74.  
  75. There is only one scholarly journal addressed directly to papal history (Archivum Historiae Pontificiae), but most major ecclesiastical history journals contain regular coverage of books on the popes and papacy and well as reviews and, in the case of the Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique, substantial annual bibliographies. Listed here are the major journals in each of the major languages: Catholic Historical Review, Church History, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique, Rivista di storia della chiesa in Italia, and Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte.
  76.  
  77. Archivum Historiae Pontificiae. 1963–.
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  79. Fundamentally important, this journal covers all periods.
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  81. Catholic Historical Review. 1915–.
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  83. American Catholic journal with broad coverage and excellent, albeit short, reviews.
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  85. Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture. 1932–.
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  87. American Protestant journal with occasional coverage of papal history and numerous short reviews.
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  89. Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 1950–.
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  91. British journal with occasional, often lengthy articles on the papacy.
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  93. Revue d’histoire ecclésiastique. 1900–.
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  95. The best overall journal in its field, with massive annual bibliography.
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  97. Rivista di storia della chiesa in Italia. 1947–.
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  99. The best general Italian journal of church history.
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  101. Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte. 1876–.
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  103. Deeply learned, comprehensive in coverage, with excellent reviews.
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  105. Letters, Documents, Councils, Sermons
  106.  
  107. The critical importance of the papacy within medieval civilization means that popes turn up repeatedly in all kinds of sources. Relatively few papal sources have been translated, but a selection is offered here. Records of the major church councils are conveniently available in Tanner 1990. Shotwell and Loomis 1927 offers a fine anthology of key texts from Antiquity. Martyn (Gregory I 2004) offers a translation of the more than 800 letters of Gregory I. Emerton (Gregory VII 1932) gives a judicious selection of the letters of Gregory VII. Tierney 1964 provides a wonderful selection of key documents of several kinds. Vause and Gardiner (Innocent III 2004) translates six sermons of Innocent III.
  108.  
  109. Gregory I. The Letters of Gregory the Great. Translated by John R. Martyn. 3 vols. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 2004.
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  111. This, the largest collection of papal letters before the late Middle Ages, reveals the life, times, and thought of one of the greatest of all popes.
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  113. Gregory VII. The Correspondence of Pope Gregory VII: Selected Letters from the Registrum. Edited and translated by Ephraim Emerton. New York: Columbia University Press, 1932.
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  115. Well-chosen and expertly translated, these letters reveal the thought and activities of a crucial pope.
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  117. Innocent III. Between God and Man: Six Sermons on the Priestly Office. Edited and translated by Corinne Vause and Frank C. Gardiner. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2004.
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  119. These interesting sermons show the pastoral side of the lordly pope.
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  121. Shotwell, James T., and Louise Ropes Loomis, eds. and trans. The See of Peter. New York: Columbia University Press, 1927.
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  123. An exceptionally thorough anthology of texts running from the 1st century through the 4th.
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  125. Tanner, Norman P. S. J., ed. Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils. Vol. 1, Nicaea-Lateran V. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 1990.
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  127. Produced by a large team of translators, this work is an exceptionally valuable collection of material that often reveals key aspects of papal policy and aspirations.
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  129. Tierney, Brian, ed. The Crisis of Church and State, 1050–1300. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1964.
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  131. A valuable collection of documents of many kinds beginning with the Investiture Controversy and running though the controversial pontificate of Boniface VIII. Tierney’s expert commentary is highly useful.
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  133. Biographical Sources
  134.  
  135. Papal lives are available in two sources: The late Antique and early medieval Liber Pontificalis, translated by Davis (Davis 2007, Davis 1995, Davis 2000), and the Renaissance Liber Pontificalis by Bartolomeo Platina, translated fully by Benham (Platina 1888) and partially by D’Elia (Platina 2008). Under somewhat opaque circumstances, the papacy compiled a first version of the lives of all the early popes in the first decades of the 6th century. Then the collection was occasionally expanded down through the late 7th century, when it became a contemporary record for the next two centuries. The great humanist and papal librarian Platina then compiled a new Liber Pontificalis (Book of the Pontiffs).
  136.  
  137. Davis, Raymond, ed. and trans. The Lives of the Ninth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis). Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 1995.
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  139. This volume, which runs down to where the Liber Pontificalis stopped being compiled (shortly after 891), reveals the fascinating politics of Rome and the shifting fortunes of the Franko-papal alliance.
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  141. Davis, Raymond, ed. and trans. The Book of Pontiffs—Liber Pontificalis: The Ancient Biographies of the First Ninety Roman Bishops to AD 715. 2d ed. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 2000.
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  143. Expertly translated and annotated, the material in Davis’s first volume is of high interest even though a great deal of it cannot be corroborated.
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  145. Davis, Raymond, ed. and trans. The Lives of the Eighth-Century Popes (Liber Pontificalis). 2d rev. ed. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 2007.
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  147. The lives in this volume reveal the papacy’s separation from Byzantium, assumption of leadership in Italy, and alliance with the Franks. These are fundamental sources for the period—and not just for papal history.
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  149. Platina, Bartolomeo. The Lives of the Popes. Translated by W. Benham. London: Griffin, Farran, Okeden, and Welsh, 1888.
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  151. The great humanist and papal librarian Platina (1421–1481) produced a Liber Pontificalis based partly on the old one but including new material and running down almost to his own times. Benham’s translation is serviceable.
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  153. Platina, Bartolomeo. Lives of the Popes. Translated by Anthony F. D’Elia. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
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  155. D’Elia’s translation is superb, although it covers only the ancient period.
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  157. History by Periods
  158.  
  159. In some respects it is incorrect to divide papal history into chronological slices. That is, papal ecclesiology maintains that the Petrine office was always present and operative regardless of changing outward circumstances. Over against that theological view, however, one might place the evident fact of much change and development in the history of the papacy.
  160.  
  161. Antiquity
  162.  
  163. Traditionally, papal history begins with St. Peter. Historically, it is rather more difficult to view Peter as the first pope if that means a man with an office, entourage, and institutions. Nevertheless, archaeological studies (Toynbee and Ward-Perkins 1956, Guarducci 1960, O’Connor 1969) of the traces Peter left behind in Rome are extremely valuable for watching the slow, steady emergence of a cult of Peter. Similarly, close study of the literary evidence (Pesch 1980) supports the same discussion. Pani Ermini and Siniscalco 2000, along with Pietri 1976 and Curran 2000, provide splendid accounts of the emergence of the Roman church in the context of Rome and the empire. Batiffol 1924 remains a valuable study of papal beginnings.
  164.  
  165. Batiffol, Pierre. Le Siege apostolique 359–451. Paris: Librairie Victor Lecoffre, 1924.
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  167. Still a fundamental study of the ideas and institutions of the popes in the period of their true emergence.
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  169. Curran, John. Pagan City and Christian Capital: Rome in the Fourth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
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  171. A scholarly yet readable evocation of Rome as it became a Christian and papal city.
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  173. Guarducci, Margherita. The Tomb of St. Peter: New Discoveries in the Sacred Grottoes of the Vatican. New York: Hawthorn, 1960.
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  175. Archaeological studies that aggressively put the case of Peter’s presence and prominence in Rome.
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  177. O’Connor, Daniel William. Peter in Rome: The Literary, Liturgical, and Archaeological Evidence. New York: Columbia University Press, 1969.
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  179. Balanced and comprehensive, this is the fullest and fairest treatment of a controversial subject.
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  181. Pani Ermini, Letizia, and Paolo Siniscalco, eds. La comunità cristiana di Roma: La sua vita e la sua cultura dalle origini all’alto medioevo. Vatican City: Libreria editrice vaticana, 2000.
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  183. An important collection of papers bearing on many aspects of Rome, its society, and its church.
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  185. Pesch, Rudolf. Simon-Petrus: Geschichte und Geschichtliche Bedeutung des ersten Jüngers Jesu Christi. Päpste und Papsttum 15. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1980.
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  187. A careful and balanced study of the early literary evidence pertaining to St. Peter.
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  189. Pietri, Charles. Roma Christiana: Recherches sur l’Église de Rome, son organization, sa politique, son ideologie de Miltiade à Sixte III (311–440). 2 vols. Rome: École Française de Rome, 1976.
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  191. Magisterial study of virtually all aspects of the emergence of the Roman church and the papacy.
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  193. Toynbee, Jocelyn, and John Ward-Perkins. The Shrine of St. Peter and the Vatican Excavations. London: Longmans Green, 1956.
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  195. A careful study of the plausible results concerning St. Peter.
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  197. The Early Middle Ages
  198.  
  199. The magnificent surveys of Caspar 1930–1933 and Grisar 1911–1912 begin in Antiquity and run into the 8th century. Richards 1979 surveys the same period more briefly. Noble 1984 explores the papal alliance with the Franks, while Noble 1995 surveys papal history in the 8th and 9th centuries. Hack 2006 is a superb study of the papal correspondence and of the many subjects revealed by the letters. Ekonomou 2007 studies papal relations with the Byzantine East.
  200.  
  201. Caspar, Erich. Geschichte des Papsttums. Vols. 1 and 2. Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1930–1933.
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  203. Monumental, detailed, and still influential, these volumes are by a Protestant author but nevertheless fair and reliable. Volume 3, Das Papsttum unter fränkischer Herrschaft, was published from the author’s papers in the Zeitschrifr für Kirchengeschichte in 1935 and then separately published as a small book (Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1956).
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  205. Ekonomou, Andrew J. Byzantine Rome and the Greek Popes: Eastern Influences on Rome and the Papacy from Gregory the Great to Zacharias, A.D. 590–752. Lanham, MD: Lexington, 2007.
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  207. An important albeit exaggerated estimation of Greek influences on Rome.
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  209. Grisar, Hartmann. History of Rome and the Popes in the Middle Ages. Translated by Luigi Cappadelta. 3 vols. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, and Trübner, 1911–1912.
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  211. Solid on the papacy and exceptionally rich in details on the Roman scene and the sources.
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  213. Hack, Achim Thomas. Codex Carolinus: Päpstliche Epistolographie im 8. Jahrhundert. 2 vols. Päpste und Papsttum 35. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 2006.
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  215. An extraordinary study based on the ninety-nine surviving papal letters to the Franks that covers diplomacy, economics, politics, and intellectual culture.
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  217. Noble, Thomas F. X. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
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  219. Detailed study of the inception and character of the Franko-papal alliance and of the growth of papal institutions.
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  221. Noble, Thomas F. X. “The Papacy in the Eighth and Ninth Centuries.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 2. Edited by Rosamond McKitterick, 563–586. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  223. A rounded treatment of papal history, papal relations with European powers, especially the Franks, and papal institutions.
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  225. Richards, Jeffrey. The Popes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages, 476–752. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979.
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  227. Straightforward and rather unimaginative, but written close to the sources and generally reliable.
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  229. The High Middle Ages
  230.  
  231. The books gathered here treat in various ways the period from about 1000 to 1300. Morris 1989 remains the best general introduction to the period and contains ample material on the papacy as well as on the church and general background. Scholz 2006 presents a splendid account of the papacy’s conception of itself in the dark days of the 10th century. Herrmann 1973 and Hägermann 2008 present the essential background to the Investiture Controversy. Robinson 1990 is the best account of the 12th century. Watt 1999 is by far the best introduction to the 13th century. Bayer 2002 is the most recent discussion of the schism between East and West. Stroll 1987 is an excellent account of the tangled circumstances in 1130. Greenaway 1931 remains the only full study devoted to the secular uprising in Rome of 1148–1152.
  232.  
  233. Bayer, Axel. Spaltung der Christenheit: Das sogennante Morgenländische Schisma von 1154. Beihefte zum Archiv für Kulturgeschichte 53. Cologne: Böhlau, 2002.
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  235. Up-to-date treatment of the schism of 1054 that emphasizes its long-term antecedents and accidental character.
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  237. Greenaway, George William. Arnold of Brescia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1931.
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  239. A readable and reliable account of a colorful character and the incredibly complicated politics of Rome in the middle of the 12th century.
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  241. Hägermann, Dieter. Das Papsttum am Vorabend des Investiturstreits: Stephan IX (1057–1058, Benedikt X (1058), und Nikloaus II (1058–1061). Päpste und Papsttum 36. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 2008.
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  243. Outstanding study of the pontificates during which the reform party seated itself in Rome and began its earth-shattering work.
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  245. Herrmann, Klaus J. Das Tuskulanerpapsttum (1012–1046): Benedikt VIII, Johannes XIX, Benedikt IX. Päpste und Papsttum 4. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1973.
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  247. Fundamental study of the family-dominated papacy of the early 11th century that brought the German emperors into Rome in a serious way.
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  249. Morris, Colin. The Papal Monarchy: The Western Church from 1050 to 1250. Oxford: Clarendon, 1989.
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  251. The best general history of the church in the High Middle Ages in any language with extensive attention to the papacy.
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  253. Robinson, Ian S. The Papacy, 1073–1198. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  255. Sound, balanced, and comprehensive treatment of the crucial 12th century.
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  257. Scholz, Sebastian. Politik—Selbstverständnis—Selbstdarstellung: Die Päpste in karolingischer und ottonischer Zeit. Historische Forschungen 26. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2006.
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  259. Outstanding presentation of how the papacy represented (“constructed”) itself in the dark years of the 10th century; excellent coverage of the age of Marozia and Theophylact.
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  261. Stroll, Mary. The Jewish Pope: Ideology and Politics in the Papal Schism of 1130. Brill’s Studies in Intellectual History 8. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1987.
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  263. Important treatment of the contested election of 1130 that temporarily brought Piero Pierleoni, from a family of Jewish converts, to the papal throne as Anaceltus II. Innocent II eventually prevailed, but Christendom was divided.
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  265. Watt, J. A. “The Papacy.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History (ca. 1198–ca. 1300). Vol. 5. Edited by David Abulafia, 107–163. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
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  267. An elegant and expert essay that covers a complex century effectively.
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  269. The Investiture Controversy
  270.  
  271. The struggle over lay investiture was at the heart of the “Gregorian Reform” or the Gregorian Revolution. The controversy has attracted as much attention as any other single aspect of papal history. Hence it receives separate inclusion here. Blumenthal 1988 is the best introduction. Fliche 1924–1937 is the largest-scale study and the one most sympathetic to the papal cause. Cushing 1998 is very good on the legal ramifications of the controversy. Tellenbach 1959 remains a profound analysis of the deep underlying issues. Robinson 1978 investigates the massive polemical literature unleashed by the controversy. Becker 1955 studies the controversy in France, while Cantor 1958 looks at England and Schieffer 1981 at Germany.
  272.  
  273. Becker, Alfons. Studien zum Investiturproblem in Frankreich: Papsttum, Königtum und Episkopat in Zeitalter der gregorianischen Reform (1049–1119). Saarbrücken, West Germany: West-Ost Verlag, 1955.
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  275. The basic study of the investiture controversy in France, with attention to the French canonist Ivo of Chartres.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Blumenthal, Uta-Renate. The Investiture Controversy: Church and Monarchy from the Ninth to the Twelfth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1988.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A remarkably good introduction to the whole subject, with especially good coverage of the whole range of background issues.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Cantor, Norman F. Church, Kingship and Lay Investiture in England, 1098–1135. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1958.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Although modified in some details and interpretations, this remains the only full study of the topic in England.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Cushing, Kathleen G. Papacy and Law in the Gregorian Revolution: The Canonistic Works of Anselm of Lucca. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. The importance of law in the investiture controversy and Gregorian age has always been recognized but not so often studied in detail. This book opens up the important topic of law by looking closely at one major figure.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Fliche, Augustin. La Réforme grégorienne. 3 vols. Louvain, Belgium: Spicilegium Sacrum Lovaniense, 1924–1937.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. The fullest overall study, still valuable although more sympathetic to the papal position than most subsequent work.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Robinson, Ian S. Authority and Resistance in the Investiture Contest: The Polemical Literature of the Late Eleventh Century. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1978.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A penetrating analysis of the vast literature unleashed by the investiture controversy.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Schieffer, Rudolf. Die Entstehung des päpstlichen Investiturverbots für den deutschen König. Schriften der Monumenta Germaniae Historica 28. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1981.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Profoundly learned and, apart from covering the crucial area of Germany, essential on lay investiture itself.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Tellenbach, Gerd. Church, State, and Christian Society at the Time of the Investiture Contest. Translated by R. F. Bennett. Oxford: Blackwell, 1959.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Succinct and brilliant, the author explores the “struggle for right order in the world.”
  304. Find this resource:
  305. The Late Middle Ages
  306.  
  307. In the later Middle Ages the removal of the popes to Avignon and then the Great Schism dominated all other issues. The Avignon papacy generated copious sources that have still not been fully studied. Zutschi 2000 is a fine introduction to Avignon, while Mollat 1963 and Renouard 1970 remain the key older studies. Favier, who edited the last edition of Renouard, published his own history in Favier 2006. Kaminsky 2000 is an excellent introduction to the Great Schism. Schmidt 1989 studies the controversy over the trail of Pope Boniface VIII and the outbreak of the Avignon period. Favier 1980 is an important collection of essays on the Schism. Brandmüller 1990 addresses the central problem of the authority of popes and councils.
  308.  
  309. Brandmüller, Walter. Papst und Konzil im Grossen Schisma (1378–1431): Studien und Quellen. Paderborn, Germany: Schöningh, 1990.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. Key study of the complex legal bases for papal and conciliar authority from the outbreak of the Schism to the opening of the Council of Basle.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Favier, Jean, ed. Genèse et débuts du Grand Schisme d’Occident: Colloque tenu à Avignon 25–28 septembre 1978. Paris: Éditions du Centre Nationale de Recherche Scientifique, 1980.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. Very valuable set of papers in several languages treating the Avignon period, Avignon as a prelude to the Schism, and the early phase of the Schism itself.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Favier, Jean. Les Papes d’Avignon. Paris: Fayard, 2006.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. At more than 800 pages, this book surveys the popes and deals with the great internal and external issues.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Kaminsky, Howard. “The Great Schism.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 6. Edited by Michael Jones, 674–696. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. An excellent introduction with massive bibliography.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Mollat, Guillaume. The Popes at Avignon, 1305–1378. London: T. Nelson, 1963.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. If one were to read one book on Avignon, this should be it. The 1965 French edition, however, has a superb bibliography whereas the 1963 English version has an abridged one.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Renouard, Yves. The Avignon Papacy, 1305–1403. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1970.
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Second only to Mollat and covers the period after the Roman restoration.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Schmidt, Tilmann. Der Bonifaz-Prozess: Verfahren der Papstanklage in der Zeit Bonifaz’ VIII und Clemens’ V. Cologne: Böhlau, 1989.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. A careful study of how the efforts by the French and papal courts to resolve the crisis of Boniface VIII inadvertently moved the papal court to Avignon.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Zutschi, P. N. R. “The Avignon Papacy.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 6. Edited by Michael Jones, 653–673. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. An excellent introduction with massive bibliography.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Biographies: Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages
  342.  
  343. For the most part, it is difficult to write papal biographies before relatively modern times because the sources, while permitting substantial treatment of “times,” reveal very little about “lives.” Grant 1995 is good on St. Peter, but one then waits until the 5th-century popes before decent separate studies appear: Jalland 1941 on Leo I and Ullmann 1981 on Gelasius I. There are numerous studies of Gregory the Great; Homes-Dudden 1905 is a classic, and Markus 1997 is superb. Hartmann 2006 on Hadrian I, Charlemagne’s frequent collaborator, is excellent, as is Herbers 1996 on Leo IV. Grotz 1970 on Hadrian II is reliable. Crucial popes like Nicholas I and John VIII await modern studies.
  344.  
  345. Grant, Michael. Saint Peter: A Biography. New York: Scribner, 1995.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Not really a biography, this readable book by an eminent classicist assembles what can be known.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Grotz, Hans. Erbe wider Willen: Hadrian II (867–872) und seiner Zeit. Vienna: Böhlau, 1970.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. A valuable study of an important 9th-century pope.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Hartmann, Florian. Hadrian I (772–795): Frühmittelalterliches Adelspapsttum und die Lösung Roms vom byzantinischen Kaiser. Päpste und Papsttum 34. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 2006.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. An excellent study of one of the most important popes of the early Middle Ages, a pope given freedom to act by Charlemagne, who defeated the pope’s Lombard foes.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Herbers, Klaus. Leo IV. und das Papsttum in der Mitte des 9. Jahrhundert: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen päpstlicher Herrschaft in der späten Karolingerzeit. Päpste und Papsttum 27. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1996.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A marvelous study of the pope who struggled with Germans, Italians, Romans, and Muslims, and who built the Leonine City. Excellent treatment of canonical sources.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Homes-Dudden, F. Gregory the Great: His Place in History and Thought. 2 vols. London: Longmans, Green, 1905.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. Beautifully written in the grand style, this remains a valuable study of one of the greatest of all the popes. Reprinted in 2007 (London: Gardners).
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Jalland, Trevor. The Life and Times of St. Leo the Great. New York: Macmillan, 1941.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Although modified by many specialist studies, this remains the only thorough study of a major figure in papal history.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Markus, Robert. Gregory the Great and His World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Brilliant and readable, this is likely to be the definitive study for many years.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Ullmann, Walter. Gelasius I. (492–496): Das Päpsttum an der Wende der Spätantike zum Mittelalter. Päpste und Papsttum 18. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1981.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. A major study by a major scholar of a short but influential pontificate.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Biographies: The High Middle Ages
  378.  
  379. As more information becomes available, fuller studies are possible. Schmidt 1977 treats Alexander II, the immediate predecessor of Gregory VII. Cowdrey 1998 culminates a lifetime of work. Becker 1964–1988 is magisterial on Urban II. Servatius 1979 treats both the pope and the compromises that failed to end the Investiture Controversy. Almedingen 1925 is a charming study of the only English pope. Pacaut 1956 remains fundamental on the little-known but important Alexander III. There are numerous books on Innocent III: Tillmann 1980 is hefty and reliable; Sayers 1994 is an excellent introduction.
  380.  
  381. Almedingen, Edith Mary. The English Pope (Adrian IV). London: Heath Cranton, 1925.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Brief and readable, this book is addressed to a popular audience but still repays close reading.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Becker, Alfons. Papst Urban II. 2 vols. Schriften der Monumenta Germaniae Historica 19. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1964–1988.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Essential and wide-ranging: Volume 1 treats the pope and the western church; volume 2 treats relations with the Greek East and the Crusade.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Cowdrey, H. E. J. Pope Gregory VII, 1073–1085. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. A magnificent study by the greatest student of one of history’s most important and controversial popes.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Pacaut, Marcel. Alexandre III: Étude sur la conception du pouvoir pontifical dans sa pensée et dans son oeuvre. L’Église et l’état au moyen âge 11. Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1956.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Still the fundamental study of the pope who faced anti-popes and stared down Frederick Barbarossa.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Sayers, Jane. Innocent III: Leader of Europe. London: Longman, 1994.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A splendid introduction to a crucial pontificate. Manages in brief compass to put the pope in European perspective.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Schmidt, Tilmann. Alexander II (1061–1073) und die römische Reformgruppe seiner Zeit. Päpste und Papsttum 11. Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1977.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. A valuable study of Rome once the reformers were securely in place.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Servatius, Carlo. Paschalis II (1099–1118): Studien zu seiner Person und seiner Politik. Päpste und Papsttum 14. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1979.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. An outstanding study of the ongoing crisis of the Investiture Controversy, with an important analysis of the “Pravilegium” of 1111.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Tillmann, Helene. Pope Innocent III. Translated by Walter Sax. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1980.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Beyond the classic, older, and multivolume studies (which are fully referenced), this is the fullest modern treatment.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Biographies: The Late Middle Ages
  414.  
  415. Relatively few late medieval popes have received individual studies. Celestine V, the only pope to have resigned, and whose resignation led to problems for Boniface VIII and then on to the Avignon papacy, has been treated by Herde 1981 and Golinelli 1996. On Boniface VIII one may still read with profit Boase 1933, while Tosti-Croce 2000 contains a study in the context of an exhibition catalogue. Menache 1998 studies Clement V, the archbishop of Bordeaux whose election was to have settled the trial of Boniface VIII. Wood 1989 is a fine study of Clement VI, one of the better-known Avignon popes. Vones 1998 treats Urban V, who returned to Rome from Avignon and then went back. Gill 1961 treats Eugenius IV, who tried to restore unity between the eastern and western churches.
  416.  
  417. Boase, T. S. R. Boniface VIII. London: Constable, 1933.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Old but still worthwhile, this book treats a controversial pope fairly and fully.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Gill, Joseph. Eugenius IV: The Pope of Christian Union. Westminster, MD: Newman, 1961.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. At once scholarly and popular, this book treats the pope who tried to break the conciliar movement while devoting himself to restoring union between East and West.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Golinelli, Paolo. Il papa contadino: Celestino V e il suo tempo. Florence: Camunia, 1996.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. The most recent attempt to make sense of the profoundly spiritual and administratively inept Celestine V.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Herde, Peter. Cölestin V: Peter von Morrone der Engelpapst; Mit einer Urkundenanhang und Edition. Päpste und Papsttum 16. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1981.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. By far the best work on Celestine, with important documents.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Menache, Sophia. Clement V. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. An excellent study of the French pope who, in trying to settle the trial of Boniface VIII, settled the papacy in France for decades.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Tosti-Croce, Marina Righetti, ed. Bonifacio VIII e il suo tempo: Anno 1300 il primo Giubileo. Milan: Electa, 2000.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. A valuable contribution with superb illustrations, focused on the Jubilee of 1300.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Vones, Ludwig. Urban V (1362–1370): Kirchenreform zwischen Kardinalkollegium, Kurie and Klientel. Päpste und Papsttum 28. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1998.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. A superb, learned study of the pope who returned to Rome and, amid controversy, went back to Avignon.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Wood, Diana. Clement VI: The Pontificate and Ideas of an Avignon Pope. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A full study of the most magnificent of the Avignon popes, who wanted to return to Rome, confronted revolution in the city, deepened the French hold on the Curia, and streamlined papal finances.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Central Government and Institutions
  450.  
  451. The papal government began emerging in late Antiquity, assumed regular shape in the early Middle Ages, and then experienced transformations in the age of the Investiture Controversy, under the “Papal Monarchy” of the High Middle Ages, and then again during the Avignon period. Noble 1984 and Halphen 1907 survey the early periods. Paravicini Bagliani 1995 is excellent on the 13th century, while Guillemain 1962 treats the Avignon period. Schneider 1914 is still worthwhile on one of the papacy’s key courts of law. Kortüm 1995 is superb on the chancery in the early Middle Ages. Santifaller 1940 and di Carpegna Falconieri 2002 are valuable on the personnel.
  452.  
  453. di Carpegna Falconieri, Tommaso. Il clero di Roma nel medioevo: Istituzione e politica cittadina (secoli VIII–XIII). Rome: Viella, 2002.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. A lively and comprehensive study of all Rome’s clergy—both dependent on and independent of the papacy. Good for papal history and for the history of Rome itself.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Guillemain, Bernard. La cour pontificale d’Avignon (1309–1376): Étude d’une société. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1962.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. An excellent discussion of the personnel and workings of the papal court after it removed from Rome to Avignon and set up shop more or less permanently.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Halphen, Louis. Étude sur l’administration de Rome au moyen âge (751–1252). Paris: H. Champion, 1907.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Still the fullest study of papal and secular government in Rome in the Middle Ages.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Kortüm, Hans-Henning. Zur päpstlichen Urkundensprache im frühen Mittelalter: Die päpstlichen Privilegien 896–1046. Beiträge zur Geschichte und Quellenkunde des Mittelalters 17. Sigmaringen, Germany: Jan Thorbecke, 1995.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. A meticulous analysis of the language of papal documents aimed at determining who wrote them, how the popes responded to letters, and what kind of (small) chancery operated.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Noble, Thomas F. X. The Republic of St. Peter: The Birth of the Papal State, 680–825. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Chapters 6 and 7 treat the emergence of the papal government and its functioning in the 8th and 9th centuries.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino. La cour des papes au XIIe siècle. Paris: Hachette, 1995.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. A fascinating study of the tangled situation of papal Rome when the popes were often absent, the cardinals contentious, and lawyers prominent.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Santifaller, Leo. Saggio di un elenco dei funzionari, impiegati e scrittori della cancellaria pontificia dall’inizio all’anno 1099. Rome: Bardi, 1940.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Essentially a prosopography of officeholders, the book also has detailed analysis of offices.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Schneider, Franz Egon. Die römische Rota: Die Verfassung der Rota. Paderborn, Germany: Schöningh, 1914.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. As the papacy’s European reach grew greater in the 12th century, this court emerged to deal with appeals to the pope and with exemptions from canon law.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Patrimonies and Finances
  486.  
  487. Pope Gregory the Great considered the wealth of the church an endowment for the poor. Maintaining the Roman church was also a huge expense—the Liber Pontificalis is full of construction records—and the cardinals were expensive, too. Papal finances have never been studied as a whole. Lunt 1934 is less broad than its title implies. Fabre 1892 studies papal revenues at the dawn of the 13th century. The fullest study is Favier 1966, but it treats only the Schism period in detail. The patrimonies always constituted the largest source of revenue. Partner 1972 is the best introduction. Marazzi 1998 is excellent on the early period, for which sources are skimpy. Waley 1961 is an exemplary study of one period, as is Esch 1969 for one Avignon pope. Arnaldi 1987 is a good account of the origins of the patrimonies.
  488.  
  489. Arnaldi, Girolamo. Le origini dello stato della chiesa. Turin, Italy: UTET, 1987.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. At once a study of patrimonial management and state-building, by a master historian.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Esch, Arnold. Bonifaz IX. und der Kirchenstaat. Bibliothek des deutschen historischen Instituts in Rom 29. Tübingen, Germany: Deutschen historischen Instituts in Rom, 1969.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Boniface IX (1389–1404) faced the task of reconstituting the Papal States after the papacy’s long absence in Avignon.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Fabre, Paul. Étude sur le Liber Censuum de l’Église romaine. Paris: E. Thorin, 1892.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Cencio Savelli, later Pope Honorius III (1216–1227), drew up the book of revenues from all sources. Fabre edited the work but also published this separate study.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Favier, Jean. Les finances pontificales à l’époque du grand schism d’Occident (1378–1409). Bibliothèque des écoles françaises d’Athènes et de Rome 211. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1966.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. A masterful study of financial policy in an acutely difficult period.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Lunt, William Edward. Papal Revenues in the Middle Ages. 2 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1934.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Less comprehensive than its title implies, this work studies the revenues of the important camera apostolica.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Marazzi, Federico. I “Patrimonia Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae” nel Lazio, secoli IV–X: Struttura amministrativa e prassi gestionale. Rome: Istituto storico italiano per il Medioevo, 1998.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. An extraordinarily rich study of the period when the papal patrimonies came into being, and into focus for historians. Confined to the region of Latium around Rome.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Partner, Peter. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. An exceptionally clear yet detailed treatment of the territorial and economic policy of the popes.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Waley, Daniel. The Papal State in the Thirteenth Century. London: Macmillan, 1961.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. A valuable study treating the period when the popes struggled with the German emperors for rule in Italy and competed with Italian towns and powers.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Cardinals
  522.  
  523. Cardinal can mean “hinge” or “pivot,” or it can refer to the possibility of a churchman’s being transferred from one place to another (being “incardinated”). The cardinals emerged in late Antiquity and by the High Middle Ages formed a Sacred College that collaborated and competed with the popes. Füst 1967 is the best introduction. Kuttner 1945 is good on the meaning of the term. Klewitz 1936 analyzes the emergence of the cardinals as a self-conscious group. Hüls 1977 and Maleczek 1984 look at discrete periods. Paravicini Bagliani 1972 is a social and political history of the great cardinal families. Broderick 1987 lists the cardinals from 1099 to almost the present.
  524.  
  525. Broderick, J. “The Sacred College of Cardinals: Size and Geographical Composition (1099–1986).” Archivum Historiae Pontificiae 25 (1987): 7–71.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. A work that permits reflection on the growth and spread of the cardinalate.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Füst, Carl Gerold. Cardinalis: Prolegomena zu einer Rechtsgeschichte des römischen Kardinalskollegium. Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1967.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. The best overall introduction to the topic.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Hüls, Rudolf. Kardinäle, Klerus und Kirchen Roms, 1049–1130. Tübingen, Germany: Niemeyer, 1977.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. An excellent study of the cardinals as they rose to real prominence in the Roman church.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Klewitz, Hans Walter. “Die Entstehung des Kardinalskollegium.” Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, kanonistische Abteilung 25 (1936): 115–221.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Some material on the early period but essentially focused on the 11th and 12th centuries.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Klewitz, Hans Walter. Reformpapsttum und Kardinalkolleg. Darmstadt, Germany: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1956.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. The culmination of many years of study, emphasizing the difficult relations between popes and cardinals from the middle of the 11th century.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Kuttner, Stephan. “Cardinalis: The History of a Canonical Concept.” Traditio 3 (1945): 129–214.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Excellent on precisely what its title implies; begins in Antiquity and runs well into the Middle Ages.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Maleczek, Werner. Papst und Kardinalskolleg von 1191 bis 1216: Die Kardinäle unter Coelestin III und Innocent III. Publikationen des Österreichischen Kulturinstituts in Rom 6. Vienna: Verlag des Historischen Instituts beim Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1984.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Detailed investigation of one critical period.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino. Cardinali di curia e “familiae” cardinalizie. 2 vols. Padua, Italy: Antenore, 1972.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Important and interesting social history of the cardinals in the High Middle Ages.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Legates
  558.  
  559. Popes could always send envoys to communicate orders or to seek information. In the 11th century, the papacy began to regularize legates a latere—ad hoc agents—and also resident legates. Schieffer 1935 looks at the early period. Bachmann 1913, Dunken 1931, Janssen 1961, Säbekow 1931, and Tillmann 1926 are careful studies of the activities of legates in individual countries. There is as yet no full study of the law of legation for the Middle Ages.
  560.  
  561. Bachmann, Johannes. Die päpstlichen Legaten in Deutschland und Skandinavien (1125–1159). Historische Studien 115. Berlin: Ebering, 1913.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Comprehensive for Germany and Scandinavia in the 12th century.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Dunken, Gerhard. Die politische Wirksamkeit der päpstlichen Legaten in der Zeit des kampfen zwischen Kaisertum und Papsttum in Oberitalien unter Friedrich I. Historische Studien 209. Berlin: Ebering, 1931.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. A close look at northern Italy during the reign of Frederick Barbarossa, who battled constantly with the popes.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Janssen, Wilhelm. Die päpstlichen Legaten in Frankreich vom Schisma Anaklets II. Bis zum Tod Coelestins III. (1130–1198). Cologne: Böhlau, 1961.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Studies the legates in France.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Säbekow, Gerhard. Die päpstlichen Legationen nach Spanien und Portugal bis zum Ausgang des XII. Jahrhunderts. Berlin: Ebering, 1931.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Very brief, but the only such study dedicated to Iberia.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Schieffer, Theodor. Die päpstlichen Legaten in Frankreich vom Vertrage von Meersen (870) bis zum Schisma von 1130. Historische Studien 263. Berlin: Ebering, 1935.
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  579. Especially valuable for covering the early period before legation became more formalized and routine.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Tillmann, Helene. Die päpstlichen Legaten in England bis zur Beendigung der Legation Gaulas (1218). Bonn, Germany: H. Ludwig, 1926.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. Still unsurpassed for England.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Ceremony and Celebration
  586.  
  587. Baumgartner 2003 tells how popes were elected. From the middle of the 10th century, newly elected popes chose new names; Hergemöller 1980 tells that story. Zimmermann 1968 tells how popes were deposed. Borgolte 1989 studies papal funerals, burials, and tombs. Sirch 1975 explores the origins of the papal tiara, while Paravicini Bagliani 1998 looks at the tiara, the keys, and other symbols. Klewitz 1941 treats papal coronations. Twyman 2002 analyzes papal ceremonial in one period.
  588.  
  589. Baumgartner, Frederic J. A History of the Papal Elections. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. A great read, this accessible book carries its learning lightly.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Borgolte, Michael. Petrusnachfolge und Kaiserimitation: Die Grablegen der Päpste, ihre genese und Traditionsbildung. Veröffentlichungen des Max-Planck-Institut für Geschichte 95. Göttingen, Germany: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1989.
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  595. This fascinating book covers papal funerary affairs from late Antiquity to the 17th century.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Hergemöller, Bernd-Ulrich. Die Geschichte der Papstnamen. Münster, Germany: Verlag Regensberg, 1980.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. A fascinating account of how and why popes chose their names.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Klewitz, Hans Walter. “Die Krönung des Papstes.” Zeitschrift der Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte, kanonistische Abteilung 30 (1941): 96–130.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. A brief but stimulating account of papal coronations.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino. Le chiavi e la tiara: Immagini e simboli del papato medievale. Rome: Viella, 1998.
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Signs, symbols, words, and ceremonies in context primarily in the 13th century; brilliant and fascinating.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Sirch, Bernhard. Der Ursprung der bischöflichen Mitra und päpstlichen Tiara. Kirchenrechtliche Quellen und Studien 8. St. Ottilien, Germany: EOS Verlag, 1975.
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  611. Dense but learned, an account of the origins of the papal tiara.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Twyman, Susan. Papal Ceremonial at Rome in the Twelfth Century.Subsidia 4. London and Rochester, NY: Boydell, 2002.
  614. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  615. Primarily a study of papal adventus (ceremonial arrival).
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Zimmermann, Harald. Papstabsetzung des Mittelalters. Cologne: Böhlau, 1968.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Theory and practice of deposition down to the 14th century.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Ideology and Ecclesiology
  622.  
  623. From at least the 3rd century, the nature of the papal office has been a subject of study and controversy. In some respects the idea of the papacy is as important as the history of the papacy. Consequently, histories of that idea are prominent in the literature on the papacy. Ullmann 1970 is important and controversial. Maccarrone 1991 is comprehensive for the first millennium. Azzara 1997 is original and important for the early Middle Ages. Watt 1965 and Paravicini Bagliani 1996 are important for the 13th century. Tierney has produced two classics: Tierney 1955 on conciliarism and Tierney 1988 on papal infallibility. Oakley 2003 is also critical for conciliarism.
  624.  
  625. Azzara, Claudio. L’ideologia del potere regio nel papato altomedievale (secoli VI–VIII). Testi, Studi, Strumenti 12. Spoleto, Italy: Centro italiano di studi sull’alto medioevo, 1997.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Whereas most scholars emphasize imperial aspects of the papal office and ideology, this book sensitively looks at popes among kings.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Maccarrone, Michele, ed. Il primato del vescovo di Roma nel primo millennio. Pontificio comitato do scienze storiche, Atti e documenti 4. Vatican City: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1991.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. Eighteen studies by major scholars on the theoretical and practical aspects of papal primacy.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Oakley, Francis. The Conciliarist Tradition: Constitutionalism in the Catholic Church, 1300–1870. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. A brilliant study of conciliarism in thought and in action.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Paravicini Bagliani, Agostino. Il trono di Pietro: L’universalità del papato dal Alessandro III a Bonifacio VIII. Rome: NIS, 1996.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. A sensitive and thoughtful study of the development of papal thought across the critical 13th century.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Tierney, Brian. Foundations of the Conciliar Theory: The Contribution of the Medieval Canonists from Gratian to the Great Schism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1955.
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  643. Conciliarism was in some ways the antidote to papalism, and this classic book traces one powerful thread in the story of conciliarism.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Tierney, Brian. The Origins of Papal Infallibility 1150–1350: A Study on the Concepts of Infallibility, Sovereignty and Tradition in the Middle Ages. Studies in the History of Christian Thought 6. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1988.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Brilliant and controversial, this book attempts to locate the emergence of the ideal of papal infallibility in the religious disputes of the 13th century—in other words, in history and not in timeless ecclesiology.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Ullmann, Walter. The Growth of Papal Government in the Middle Ages. 3d ed. London: Methuen, 1970.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Despite its title, this important and controversial book has more to say about ideas than about institutions.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Watt, John A. The Theory of Papal Monarchy in the Thirteenth Century. New York: Fordham University Press, 1965.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Still valuable for its broad coverage of canonistic sources.
  656. Find this resource:
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