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Kurdistan and Kurdish Politics (International Relations)

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Jul 19th, 2017
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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Kurds are an ethnic group in the Middle East and they constitute the biggest stateless nation in the world. It is estimated that more than 40 million Kurds live in Iraq, Turkey, Iran, and Syria and in other countries in the Middle East such as Lebanon. Approximately half of the world’s Kurdish population lives in Turkey. There is also a growing Kurdish diaspora in western Europe and in the United States, which emerged in the wake of both conflict-induced and voluntary migrations of the Kurds from their homeland. Although they constitute the largest or one of the largest minority groups in their respective homelands, their ethnic identity has not been historically recognized and they have been deprived of their minority rights. In each state in which they have lived, different mechanisms of oppression operated to deny them their identity, which in the end engendered different Kurdish resistance movements challenging the oppressive state authority that denied the Kurds their identity and their basic human rights. Because the Kurds have lived under different regimes, many linguistic, religious, ideological, and tribal differences emerged among Kurdish groups in the Middle East. In terms of religion, although the majority of the Kurds are Muslim, they belong to different sects of Islam (mainly Sunni or Alevi), and, thus, they cannot be treated as a homogenous group with the same affiliations and goals. Therefore, the sections in this article are divided into various subheadings that emphasize these differences. An important body of work has emerged on Kurdistan and Kurdish politics since the 1990s. Prior to then, it proved extremely difficult to conduct fieldwork in the region; nevertheless, many scholars did manage to contribute to the literature on the Kurds in completing careful ethnographic studies. Access to research opportunities is easier today and many scholarly works are based on ethnographic studies in all parts of Kurdistan. An established scholarship exists in various fields of social science, such as political science, international relations, sociology, and history. In addition, many scholarly works adopt an interdisciplinary approach. The topic attracts international scholars as well as scholars from the region. Therefore, literature on Kurdish studies is sufficiently abundant to include both insider and outsider views. The sources cited here serve as a guide to Kurdish studies, which offer an introduction to a deeper engagement with the literature.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. An important body of work has been established in Kurdish studies especially since the 1990s. Among them, several works listed here provide a general overview of the Kurds as a society and the Kurds as political actors in the Middle East. Van Bruinessen 1992 on the societal and political structures of Kurdistan is a classic in this regard. Randal 1998 and McDowall 2003 are also two books that are widely cited when it comes to defining who the Kurds are in treating their plight, aspirations, and conditions. Ozoglu 2004 is a valuable study of the Kurdish notables in Ottoman times and it highlights the emergence of Kurdish ethno-nationalism before the Turkish republic was founded. Meiselas 2008 is an excellent source full of visual material that narrates the historical story of the Kurds. Manafy 2005 is a detailed account of the Kurdish struggle and the reasons behind it in the Middle East. Natali 2005 portrays the dilemmas that the Kurds have faced from an international relations perspective. Klein 2011 is one of the substantial books that analyzes the Kurdish groups during the Ottoman Empire and their relations with other ethnic groups, such as the Armenians.
  8.  
  9. Klein, Janet. The Margins of Empire: Kurdish Militias in the Ottoman Tribal Zone. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
  10. DOI: 10.11126/stanford/9780804775700.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. Klein explores how states incorporate minority groups as part of their aim to incorporate them into the state structure and how groups that seek autonomy try to reach their goals through the use of state mechanisms. Although that may sound contradictory, Klein, by examining the Ottoman state’s use of Kurdish tribal militias to deal with the perceived Armenian threat in eastern Turkey, demonstrates that it can be done. One of the best books that deals with the issues of Kurdish and Armenian groups in the Ottoman Empire.
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  13.  
  14. Manafy, A. The Kurdish Political Struggle in Iraq, Iran and Turkey: A Critical Analysis. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2005.
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  16. A well-written analysis of the Kurdish movements of the 20th century enriched with details from the author’s personal observations.
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  18.  
  19. McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
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  21. A comprehensive book on the history of Kurds that looks at Kurdish history from 1800 onward and methodically explains the plight of Kurds, who are divided among four different countries.
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  23.  
  24. Meiselas, Susan. Kurdistan: In the Shadow of History. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
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  26. Meiselas’s book is an important contribution to Kurdish studies as it is a compilation of photographs, archival documents, and diaries as well as well-written historical narratives, which are rarely found in other academic studies.
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  28.  
  29. Natali, Denise. The Kurds and the State: Evolving National Identity in Iraq, Turkey and Iran. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.
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  31. This is one of the best books to read to acquire an understanding of the evolution of Kurdish identities and nationalisms and their complex nature.
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  33.  
  34. Ozoglu, Hakan. Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004.
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  36. An excellent and well-written volume on the Kurdish notables during Ottoman times. The book dwells on the evolution of Kurdish nationalism in premodern Turkey. Ozoglu’s work is based on a careful archival study of Ottoman and British sources as well as parliamentary minutes and interviews. He argues that the Kurdish notables remained loyal to the Ottoman Empire until its collapse and Kurdish nationalism emerged just before the end of the empire. He also explains the clashes with the Kemalist regime.
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  38.  
  39. Randal, Jonathan C. After Such Knowledge, What Forgiveness? My Encounters with Kurdistan. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998.
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  41. A must-read book written by journalist Jonathan Randal. Full of insights and personal experiences about the situation of the Kurds in the Middle East.
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  43.  
  44. van Bruinessen, Martin. Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. London: Zed Books, 1992.
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  46. This is one of the essential books to be read for beginners of Kurdish studies and it has been viewed as the most important contribution to this literature. It is based on a major ethnographic study and it gives an overall picture of the Kurdish societies and their relations with the states in which they live.
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  48.  
  49. Reference Works
  50.  
  51. Izady 1992 is a concise handbook on the Kurds. Meho 1997 also provides an excellent bibliography. Meho and Maglaughlin 2001 is a work that complements the previous studies of the authors, this time focusing on culture and society. Gunter 2009 and Gunter 2010 are well-prepared sources that can be used as a dictionary for Kurdish studies. Kurdish Studies Network Bibliography provides a rich selection of articles on Kurds and Kurdish politics and it is available online. The Kurdish Library in Sweden and the library of the Kurdish Institute in Paris are excellent repositories of books, articles, reports, maps, and other materials on the Kurds. They also provide partial online access to books and other sources when available.
  52.  
  53. Gunter, Michael M. The A to Z of the Kurds. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2009.
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  55. An excellently prepared volume about the Kurds and Kurdish politics.
  56. Find this resource:
  57.  
  58. Gunter, Michael M. Historical Dictionary of the Kurds. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2010.
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  60. Revised version of Gunter 2009. An excellent dictionary of the Kurds that provides essential information, including maps, chronology, bibliography, photos, and historical accounts.
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  62.  
  63. Izady, Mehrdad R. The Kurds: A Concise Handbook. London: Taylor & Francis, 1992.
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  65. A great source for beginners who want to understand the Kurds from cultural and political perspectives.
  66. Find this resource:
  67.  
  68. Kurdish Institute in Paris.
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  70. The institute has a library that has a rich collection of books written about Kurds and Kurdish politics, society, religion, and culture.
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  72.  
  73. Kurdish Library in Sweden.
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  75. The Kurdish Library in Sweden was launched in 1996. It is supported by the government of Sweden and serves as an important institution for the Kurds in Sweden and elsewhere. It has an excellent collection of books, some of which are available online.
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  77.  
  78. Kurdish Studies Network Bibliography.
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  80. A bibliography on the website of the Kurdish Studies Network that contains mostly contemporary articles, books, and book chapters. A very useful source for those who want to be updated about recent publications on Kurdish politics.
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  82.  
  83. Meho, Lokman. The Kurds and Kurdistan: A Selective and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1997.
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  85. It includes approximately eight hundred bibliography entries and an introductory chapter that presents historical facts about the Kurds.
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  87.  
  88. Meho, Lokman I., and Kelly L. Maglaughlin. Kurdish Culture and Society: A Selective and Annotated Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2001.
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  90. A comprehensive bibliography of Kurdish culture and society, which assembles academic work from various fields, including political science, anthropology, and history.
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  92.  
  93. Journals
  94.  
  95. Various journals publish articles from the social sciences on the Kurds and Kurdish politics. The sources cited here are those that serve as the main journals that treat topics relevant to Kurdish studies. They are usually published in English, Turkish, and Kurdish, with the exception of the Journal of Kurdish Studies, which also published articles in French.
  96.  
  97. International Journal of Kurdish Studies. 2013–.
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  99. This journal was first conceived in 2012 and launched in 2013 with the inaugural issue in October 2013.
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  101.  
  102. Journal of Kurdish Studies. 1990–2009.
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  104. This was a peer-reviewed journal operating from 1990 to 2009. It contributed immensely to the field of Kurdish studies in publishing articles by scholars worldwide, who wrote about numerous aspects of Kurdish society and politics.
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  106.  
  107. Kurt Tarihi Dergisi.
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  109. This is a nonacademic bimonthly journal published in Turkey (in Turkish) on the Kurds and Kurdish history. Its board members are well-known academics.
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  111.  
  112. Le Monde Diplomatique Kurdî.
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  114. This is the Kurdish-language edition of Le Monde Diplomatique. Based in Berlin, the monthly magazine brings significant Kurdish linguists together in articles that contribute to the development of the Kurdish language. Various articles are translated into Kurdish. It is published only online.
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  116.  
  117. Nûbihar Akademî.
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  119. Nubihar Akademi is an international peer-reviewed academic journal that publishing articles biannually in spring and autumn in the field of Kurdology. It is published both in English and in Kurdish (all dialects).
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  121.  
  122. Toplum ve Kuram-Lêkolîn û Xebatên Kurdî. 2009–.
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  124. The journal publishes in both Turkish and Kurdish. It is an interdisciplinary journal founded by the Institute for Social, Political, and Economic Studies.
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  126.  
  127. Historical Background
  128.  
  129. The books listed in this section provide a historical background that can serve to guide the reader in Kurdish studies. They can be considered as classics in this field and they incorporate various aspects of study of the Kurds and Kurdish politics in taking an interdisciplinary approach. Entessar 1992 is an excellent historical overview, while Hassanpour 1992 is an excellent source on cultural and linguistic aspects in addition to providing political discussions. Kreyenbroek and Sperl 1992 includes concisely written articles on the history of the Kurds from historical and sociopolitical perspectives. Vali 2003 is a compilation of articles that are written by authors well known in this field. Besikci 2004 is a classic in Kurdish studies. It was highly controversial when it was first published in Turkey in having a revolutionary impact among academics in understanding the situation of the Kurds. Bozarslan 2004 focuses on the Kurdish struggle from the perspective of political violence.
  130.  
  131. Besikci, Ismail. International Colony Kurdistan. London: Taderon, 2004.
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  133. An essential book that needs to be read to understand the division of Kurdistan among four different states and its consequences for the Kurds.
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  135.  
  136. Bozarslan, Hamit. From Political Struggle to Self-Sacrifice: Violence in the Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Marcus Wiener, 2004.
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  138. A seminal work on the nationalist struggles in the Middle East. This academic study is unique in that rather than relating historical accounts, it looks at the issues from a political violence lens and attempts to explain why certain groups use violence as a means to achieve their goals.
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  140.  
  141. Entessar, Nader. Kurdish Ethnonationalism. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992.
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  143. This is an-depth volume that provides a comprehensive narrative about the Kurds in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran. It specifically analyzes the social, political, and legal dimensions of the Kurdish situation in the Middle East.
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  145.  
  146. Hassanpour, Amir. Nationalism and Language in Kurdistan. San Francisco: Mellen Research University Press, 1992.
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  148. A great academic work by Hassanpour on nationalism and language in Kurdistan. It focuses particularly on Iraqi Kurdistan but offers an understanding of the linguistic situation of the Kurds in other countries as well. A must read especially with respect to debates on the standardization of the Kurdish language.
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  150.  
  151. Kreyenbroek, Philip, and Stefan Sperl, eds. The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview. London: Routledge, 1992.
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  153. An interdisciplinary edited volume that compiled articles from well-known authors, who focus on different aspects of the Kurdish struggle in Kurdistan.
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  155.  
  156. Vali, Abbas, ed. Essays on the Origins of Kurdish Nationalism. California: Mazda, 2003.
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  158. An edited volume that brings together works by famous names in Kurdish studies, such as van Bruinessen and Hassanpour. The chapters provide theoretical and historical insights into Kurdish nationalisms.
  159. Find this resource:
  160.  
  161. Kurds in Turkey
  162.  
  163. Kirisci and Winrow 1997 takes a theoretical approach to better understand the complexities of the Kurdish question in Turkey. Barkey and Fuller 1998 is one of the classics in Kurdish studies. It is very well received by scholars in this field and widely cited. White 2000 is a useful account of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) and the evolution of its ideology through the years. Bozarslan 2001 presents a critical analysis of human rights crimes in Turkey from 1984 until 1999. Rugman and Hutchings 1996 is a book for both academic and popular audiences and includes journalistic work enriched with eyewitness accounts and other testimonies. Özcan 2005 focuses on the PKK ideology and its cult leader Abdullah Öcalan. Romano 2006 is an excellent source that approaches the Kurdish movement from a social movements perspective in emphasizing mobilization and resource-finding strategies. Jongerden 2007 provides a spatial analysis of the conflict and its consequences. Marcus 2009 is a well-received journalistic account that provides abundant information on the PKK and its leader.
  164.  
  165. Barkey, Henri J., and Graham E. Fuller. Turkey’s Kurdish Question. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1998.
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  167. An in-depth analysis of the root causes of the Kurdish question in Turkey with insights from various separatist movements and liberation struggles from all over the world. The book offers a solid introduction to the essential issues and it guides the reader with historical accounts and discussions.
  168. Find this resource:
  169.  
  170. Bozarslan, Hamit. “Human Rights and the Kurdish Issue in Turkey, 1984–1999.” Human Rights Review 3 (2001): 45–54.
  171. DOI: 10.1007/s12142-001-1005-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172. Bozarslan argues that a majority of human rights violations were related to the Kurdish question and suggests that truth commissions and other investigations are needed for restoration of justice in the future. For those who are interested in the current peace process in Turkey, this impressive historical account and discussion will be highly useful.
  173. Find this resource:
  174.  
  175. Jongerden, Joost. The Settlement Issue in Turkey and the Kurds: An Analysis of Spatial Policies, Modernity and War. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  176. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155572.i-355Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  177. This book goes beyond historical accounts of the Turkish-Kurdish question and offers a spatial analysis of the settlement and resettlement policies in the decades before as well as during the 1980s and 1990s. A pioneering work on an understudied but highly important topic.
  178. Find this resource:
  179.  
  180. Kirisci, Kemal, and Gareth M. Winrow. The Kurdish Question and Turkey: An Example of a Trans-state Ethnic Conflict. London: Routledge, 1997.
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  182. The book summarizes the root causes of the Kurdish conflict, discusses Turkish citizenship policies, and illustrates how it failed to meet the demands of the Kurdish population. It also makes suggestions and policy recommendations with regards to a possible resolution of the conflict.
  183. Find this resource:
  184.  
  185. Marcus, Aliza. Blood and Belief: The PKK and the Kurdish Fight for Independence. New York: New York University Press, 2009.
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  187. This book can be considered as one of the first in-depth accounts on the PKK. Marcus combines her journalistic talent with academic scholarship to examine the mobilization strategies, aims, and aspirations of the PKK. She interviews a number of former PKK members as well as PKK dissidents.
  188. Find this resource:
  189.  
  190. Özcan, Ali Kemal. Turkey’s Kurds: A Theoretical Analysis of the PKK and Abdullah Öcalan. London: Routledge, 2005.
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  192. A scholarly work on the philosophy of the PKK’s leader Abdullah Öcalan, the PKK’s recruitment philosophy, and the complex nature of the Kurdish resistance, including its successes and failures. This is an excellent source especially for those who are interested in learning more about the leadership of the PKK.
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. Romano, David. The Kurdish Nationalist Movement: Opportunity, Mobilization and Identity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  196. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511616440Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  197. Romano’s book is one of the pioneering academic works that analyzes the Kurdish movement from a social movement studies perspective. The book contains highly thought-provoking discussions about the strategies, recruitment, and resource efforts of the PKK.
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  199.  
  200. Rugman, Jonathan, and Roger Hutchings. Atatürk’s Children: Turkey and the Kurds. London: Cassell, 1996.
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  202. A pioneering work that brings visual material together with eyewitness accounts. Rugman and Hutchings’s book presents an introduction to the conflict in Turkey with a balanced account that covers different groups and their narratives.
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  204.  
  205. White, Paul J. Primitive Rebels or Revolutionary Modernizers? The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey. London: Zed Books, 2000.
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  207. An impressive study on the Kurdish movement in Turkey. White offers a balanced account of the mobilization of the PKK under the cult leadership of Öcalan. He has interviewed important names from the movement and the quotes he uses to illustrate his points make this book all the more interesting.
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  209.  
  210. Kurds in Iraq
  211.  
  212. Stansfield 2003 is a scholarly analysis of the different political parties in Iraqi Kurdistan and an evaluation of policymaking procedures in the region in general. Olson 2005, Aziz 2011, and Ahmed 2012 focus on contemporary Iraqi Kurdistan and provide an overview. Yildiz 2007 offers a historical account of the situation of the Kurds in Iraq from a human rights perspective.
  213.  
  214. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A. Iraqi Kurds and Nation-Building. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  215. DOI: 10.1057/9781137034083Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  216. This is an important contribution to the recent literature on the Iraqi Kurds. It provides up-to-date information regarding the political situation today and it provides solid background material on the political developments that have led to the current situation in the region.
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  218.  
  219. Aziz, Mahir. The Kurds of Iraq: Ethnonationalism and National Identity in Iraqi Kurdistan. London: I. B. Tauris, 2011.
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  221. An informative source to understand how the Kurds position themselves in today’s Iraq. It also includes the author’s extensive fieldwork with university students in Iraqi Kurdistan that records their devotion to Kurdish nationalism.
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  223.  
  224. Olson, Robert. Goat and the Butcher: Nationalism and State Formation in Kurdistan-Iraq since the Iraqi War. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2005.
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  226. An excellent source to understand the immediate effects of the invasion of Iraq in 2003 on the Kurds in Iraq. The author also provides a careful analysis of Iraqi-Kurdish and Turkish relations that makes it an excellent reference for understanding the evolving relations between the Kurdish region and Turkey.
  227. Find this resource:
  228.  
  229. Stansfield, Gareth. Iraqi Kurdistan: Political Development and Emergent Democracy. London: Routledge, 2003.
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  231. An interesting account of current Kurdish politics within the Kurdish Regional Government. Based on extensive fieldwork in the region, the author presents the complexities involved in political alliances and the cleavages between the major political parties, the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK).
  232. Find this resource:
  233.  
  234. Yildiz, Kerim. The Kurds in Iraq: The Past, Present and Future. 2d ed. London: Pluto, 2007.
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  236. The book examines the implications of the Treaty of Sèvres for the Kurds and provides a historical narrative from the early leadership of Barzani and the Anfal campaign to the autonomous position today. Detailed in terms of empirical data and discussions on highly sensitive and important topics.
  237. Find this resource:
  238.  
  239. Kurds in Iran
  240.  
  241. Vali is a prolific author of Kurdish studies but especially on the Kurds in Iran. Vali 1995 focuses on the evolution of Kurdish identity in Iran, and Vali 1997 presents an overview of the period from 1942 to 1947 while also covering the foundation of the short-lived Kurdish Republic in Mahabad. Koohi-Kamali 2003 examines the dynamics of Kurdish nationalism from a political economy angle. Yildiz and Taysi 2007 is a concisely written account of the Kurds in Iran, which covers both the past and today.
  242.  
  243. Koohi-Kamali, Farideh. The Political Development of Kurds in Iran. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
  244. DOI: 10.1057/9780230535725Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  245. This is a valuable source for understanding Kurdish nationalism in Iran. Throughout the book, the author argues that transitioning from a tribal society to an agrarian one affected how Kurds formed their identity, and the economic development of Kurdish society has had an impact on the formation of different Kurdish movements in Iran. A rare source that uses a political economy approach in analyzing Kurdish nationalism.
  246. Find this resource:
  247.  
  248. Vali, Abbas. “The Making of Kurdish Identity in Iran.” Journal for Critical Studies of the Middle East 4 (1995): 1–22.
  249. DOI: 10.1080/10669929508720071Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250. This article stems from the author’s research on the stateless nations in the contemporary Middle East, an effort funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. He argues that Kurdish nationalism in Iran is a modern phenomenon that emerged as an outcome of the socioeconomic and cultural dislocations that emerged after the First World War.
  251. Find this resource:
  252.  
  253. Vali, Abbas. “Kurdish Nationalism in Iran: The Formative Period, 1942–1947.” Journal of Kurdish Studies 11 (1997): 1–12.
  254. DOI: 10.2143/JKS.2.0.519231Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. A very important article discussing the emergence of Kurdish nationalism in Iran between 1942 and 1947 and that includes the formation of the short-lived Kurdish Republic in Mahabad in 1946.
  256. Find this resource:
  257.  
  258. Yildiz, Kerim, and Tanyel B. Taysi. The Kurds in Iran: The Past, Present and Future. London: Pluto, 2007.
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  260. One of the best books written about the status of the Kurds in Iran. It not only traces the evolution of Kurdish politics in Iran, but also gives a comprehensive account of Iran’s political history.
  261. Find this resource:
  262.  
  263. Kurds in Syria
  264.  
  265. Yildiz 2005 is an excellent resource on the Kurds in Syria. Tejel 2009 provides a historical account of the Kurdish presence in Syria, starting from the French mandate years. White 2010 is an article that explores the initial period of Kurdish activism in Syria.
  266.  
  267. Tejel, Jordi. Syria’s Kurds: History, Politics and Society. London: Routledge, 2009.
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  269. A historical account of the situation of the Kurds in Syria starting from the French mandate years until 2004. It includes rich empirical data that sheds light on current developments in the region.
  270. Find this resource:
  271.  
  272. White, Benjamin Thomas. “The Kurds of Damascus in the 1930s: Development of a Politics of Ethnicity.” Middle Eastern Studies 46.6 (2010): 901–917.
  273. DOI: 10.1080/00263206.2010.520413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274. An article exploring the roots of early Kurdish nationalism in Syria when the country was under the French mandate.
  275. Find this resource:
  276.  
  277. Yildiz, Kerim. The Kurds in Syria: The Forgotten People. London: Pluto, 2005.
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  279. An excellent book by Yildiz that focuses on the situation of the Kurds in Syria treating every topic, including culture, religion, language, and politics. The author uses a human rights lens in analyzing the plight of the Kurds in Syria and puts their status in the country in a broader international perspective.
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282. Kurds in Lebanon
  283.  
  284. Kurds living outside Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey are an understudied population and little scholarly work has been undertaken on them. Meho 2002 and Hourani 2011 are seminal articles that focus on the Kurds in Lebanon.
  285.  
  286. Hourani, Guita. The Kurds of Lebanon: Socioeconomic Mobility and Political Participation via Naturalization. LERC Research Paper Series 1/2011. 2011. Zouk Mosbeh, Lebanon: Notre Dame University, 2011.
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  288. A comprehensive account of the Kurds residing in Lebanon. The report explains the roots of the Kurdish presence in and their migration to Lebanon and then examines their citizenship practices.
  289. Find this resource:
  290.  
  291. Meho, Lokman L. “The Kurds in Lebanon; A Social and Historical Overview.” International Journal of Kurdish Studies 16 (2002): 59–82.
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  293. An important paper that looks at the Kurdish community in examining linguistic, cultural, and social as well as associational practices in Lebanon. A well-written account on an understudied topic.
  294. Find this resource:
  295.  
  296. Contemporary Kurdish Politics
  297.  
  298. The articles in this section offer a general overview on the Kurds and Kurdish politics in the contemporary Middle East. They cover all aspects of Kurdish political movements in different parts of Kurdistan.
  299.  
  300. Overview of Kurdish Politics
  301.  
  302. Each of these works provides a brief history of Kurdish politics and then emphasizes recent developments in the region especially after 2003. Gunter 2011 will shortly become a classic in the study of the Kurds. It provides an excellent overview of Kurdish politics in Iraq and Turkey. Ahmed and Gunter 2013 is an edited book that includes valuable articles on Kurdish politics. Bengio 2014 presents various articles that cover key aspects of Kurdish politics today. Phillips 2015 focuses on the transformation of politics and the changing borders in the Middle East. Romano and Gürses 2014 includes contributions from authors working in this field. This edited volume offers a general overview on the situation of the Kurds in Iraq, Syria, Iran, and Turkey.
  303.  
  304. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A., and Michael M. Gunter, eds. The Kurdish Spring: Geopolitical Changes and the Kurds. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2013.
  305. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  306. A compilation of articles from the leading names in Kurdish studies on the “Kurdish Spring” and the factors at play in its impact on the future. It not only includes academic work about the Kurdish positionality in the different states where Kurds reside, but also includes transnational perspectives in articles authored by Vera Eccarius-Kelly and Thomas Schimidinger.
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309. Bengio, Ofra, ed. Kurdish Awakening: Nation Building in a Fragmented Homeland. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2014.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A fresh look at contemporary Kurdish politics from various angles, such as relations between tribalism and nationalism, constitution making, gender issues, nonviolent resistance, and literature. It addresses the issues related to Kurds and Kurdish politics in all parts of Kurdistan.
  312. Find this resource:
  313.  
  314. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds Ascending: The Evolving Solution to the Kurdish Problem in Iraq and Turkey. 2d rev. ed. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
  315. DOI: 10.1057/9780230338944Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316. This text examines the ways in which Kurds in Iraq and Turkey are becoming more and more influential in shaping the politics of the Middle East. A great source to read to acquire an understanding of contemporary Kurdish politics, which are coming to the fore.
  317. Find this resource:
  318.  
  319. Phillips, David L. The Kurdish Spring: A New Map of the Middle East. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2015.
  320. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  321. A well-received book despite the fact that it has just been released. It clearly outlines the plight of the Kurds during the last several decades, and it explores the situation of the Kurds in the wake of the new developments in the Middle East.
  322. Find this resource:
  323.  
  324. Romano, David, and Mehmet Gürses, eds. Conflict, Democratization, and the Kurds in the Middle East: Turkey, Iran, Iraq and Syria. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
  325. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  326. An edited volume that deals with contemporary Kurdish politics in four different countries. The contributors to this volume include influential names, such as Nicole Watts, Nader Entessar, and Ofra Bengio. The contributions examine the status of the Kurds in light of the so-called Arab Spring and the consequences for the Kurds of developments in the Middle East.
  327. Find this resource:
  328.  
  329. Kurdish Politics in Turkey
  330.  
  331. Yavuz 2000 offers a framework that examines the evolution of Kurdish nationalism in five stages. Aydinli 2002 gives a security-centric point of view on PKK-Turkish state interactions and illustrates the barriers confronting the peace process. Zeydanlioğlu 2007 sheds light on the assimilation policies of the Turkish state toward the Kurds since the foundation of the republic and evaluates their consequences. Olson 2009 compiles data for those who want to understand the complexities of Justice and Development Party (AKP) politics, the transformation the Kurdish movement is undergoing, as well as the Ergenekon trials in Turkey. Watts 2010 is an important text on the political struggle of the Kurds within the Turkish parliamentary system. Tezcur 2010 takes a novel approach to explaining the strategies of survival of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) in a Turkey that is experiencing relatively democratic reforms with regard to its Kurdish minority. Gunes 2012 is a useful source for understanding the rationale behind the PKK’s strategy in analyzing PKK documents since the 1980s. Aras 2013 reveals the complexities of Kurdish society in Turkey today in examining the Kurdish conflict in Turkey. Bayir 2013 is a unique book in evaluating the situation of the Kurds from a legal point of view in Turkey.
  332.  
  333. Aras, Ramazan. The Formation of Kurdishness in Turkey: Political Violence, Fear and Pain. London: Routledge, 2013.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. An in-depth study of the Kurds in contemporary Turkey and their perceptions and aspirations under the influence of the armed struggle between the Kurdish guerrillas and the Turkish state.
  336. Find this resource:
  337.  
  338. Aydinli, Ersel. “Between Security and Liberalization: Decoding Turkey’s Struggle with the PKK.” Security Dialogue 33.2 (2002): 209–225.
  339. DOI: 10.1177/0967010602033002008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340. The author provides a security-centric point of view in terms of interpreting the post-violence period between the Turkish state and the PKK. The author focuses on the perceptions of each party in the conflict and presents the dilemmas that block resolution of issues.
  341. Find this resource:
  342.  
  343. Bayir, Derya. Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2013.
  344. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  345. A unique source for understanding the situation of the Kurds in Turkey from a legal perspective. A detailed analysis of the treatment of Kurds and other minorities by the Turkish state’s judiciary mechanisms.
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348. Gunes, Cengiz. The Kurdish National Movement in Turkey: From Protest to Resistance. London: Routledge, 2012.
  349. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  350. A good source to read to understand the evolution of the PKK’s ideology through their own publications and propaganda material.
  351. Find this resource:
  352.  
  353. Olson, Robert. Blood, Beliefs and Ballots: The Management of Kurdish Nationalism in Turkey, 2007–2009. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2009.
  354. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. One of the most influential books that analyzes the Kurdish movement in Turkey in extensive detail, focusing on the period from 2007 to 2009. Provides a great insight into the Ergenekon trials, the political transformation of Turkey under the AKP rule, and the Turkish response to the emergence of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) on its southern border.
  356. Find this resource:
  357.  
  358. Tezcur, Murat G. “When Democratizaton Radicalizes: The Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Turkey.” Journal of Peace Research 47.6 (2010): 775–789.
  359. DOI: 10.1177/0022343310386156Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  360. In this article Tezcur argues that the democratization process in Turkey will not automatically end the armed conflict even as the PKK struggles with sustaining its hegemony over its ethnic constituency. It has a “radicalized” strategy in place so as to remain an actor in the political field. Based on the author’s ethnographic study in the region as well as on quantitative data, this article adopts a fresh approach to this topic and presents a novel academic angle.
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363. Watts, Nicole F. Activists in Office: Kurdish Politics and Protest in Turkey. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2010.
  364. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365. This widely influential book presents the experience of Kurds in Turkey’s political system by looking into Kurdish political parties and politicians and their strategies of survival in an oppressive system. It sheds light into the reasons why Kurds were unable to exert influence in using state political channels just a few decades ago.
  366. Find this resource:
  367.  
  368. Yavuz, Hakan M. “Five Stages of Construction of Kurdish Nationalism in Turkey.” Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 7.3 (2000): 1–24.
  369. DOI: 10.1080/13537110108428635Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370. An article on the evolution of Kurdish nationalism according to five different stages by focusing on its transformation according to various factors. The author suggests that the Turkish state should acknowledge the cultural rights of the Kurds and establish a new social contract between the state and the Kurdish minority population in order to peacefully resolve the conflict.
  371. Find this resource:
  372.  
  373. Zeydanlioğlu, Welat. “Kemalism’s ‘Others’: The Reproduction of Orientalism in Turkey.” PhD diss., Anglia Ruskin University, 2007.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. A well-written critical analysis of the Turkish nation-building project and its impact on the Kurds in Turkey. The author emphasizes the link between Orientalism and Kemalism and how the Turkish state’s assimilation policies tried to “turkify” Kurds within a colonial mindset.
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378. The “Kurdish Initiative” and the Peace Process after 2008
  379.  
  380. The citations in Kurdish Politics in Turkey list a selection of books and articles that deal with contemporary Kurdish politics in Turkey. The works in this section focus on the current peace process whose roots date back to the Kurdish opening that was initiated by the government under the Justice and Development Party (AKP) in Turkey. The scholarly works listed provide insights into the issues and can serve as an aid to a peaceful resolution to the Kurdish conflict. Somer and Liaras 2010 assesses the Kurdish opening. Casier, et al. 2011 takes a rather critical approach toward the whole process, while Çiçek 2011 brilliantly demonstrates the pitfalls of the new policies toward the Kurds. Ayata and Hakyemez 2013 analyzes the current discourse on coming to terms with the past, and Ercan 2013 focuses on the negotiation process from a critical point of view. Kayhan Pusane 2014 explains why the initiative did not meet the expectations of both parties. Al 2015 presents a provocative discussion of the interplay between state and minority nationalisms. As the peace process continues, additional scholarly work will undoubtedly be forthcoming.
  381.  
  382. Al, Serhun. “Elite Discourses, Nationalism and Moderation: A Dialectical Analysis of Turkish and Kurdish Nationalisms.” Ethnopolitics 14.1 (2015): 94–112.
  383. DOI: 10.1080/17449057.2014.937638Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  384. The article focuses on the latest developments in Turkey with regard to the Kurdish question and argues that the current AKP policies have had a softening impact on Kurdish demands. Although it downplays the other political developments in the region, it presents an interesting analysis of the interdependency between state and minority nationalism discourses.
  385. Find this resource:
  386.  
  387. Ayata, Bilgin, and Serra Hakyemez. “The AKP’s Engagement with Turkey’s Past Crimes: An Analysis of PM Erdoğan’s ‘Dersim Apology.’” Dialectical Anthropology 37 (2013): 131–143.
  388. DOI: 10.1007/s10624-013-9304-3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  389. In this article, Ayata and Hakyemez critically analyze the efforts of the Turkish government to come to terms with the past.
  390. Find this resource:
  391.  
  392. Casier, Marlies, Joost Jongerden, and Nic Walker. “Fruitless Attempts? The Kurdish Initiative and Containment of the Kurdish Movement in Turkey.” New Perspectives on Turkey 44 (2011): 103–127.
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394. A useful article that captures the contents of the Kurdish initiative launched by the AKP government and its consequences for the Kurdish question in Turkey.
  395. Find this resource:
  396.  
  397. Çiçek, Cuma. “Elimination or Integration of Pro-Kurdish Politics: Limits of the AKP’s Democratic Initiative.” Turkish Studies 12.1 (2011): 15–26.
  398. DOI: 10.1080/14683849.2011.563498Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A detailed analysis of the shortcomings of the Kurdish initiative.
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402. Ercan, Harun. “Talking to the Ontological Other: Armed Struggle and the Negotiations between the Turkish State and the PKK.” Dialectical Anthropology 37 (2013): 113–122.
  403. DOI: 10.1007/s10624-013-9300-7Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  404. The article approaches the current peace process from a critical point of view.
  405. Find this resource:
  406.  
  407. Kayhan Pusane, Özlem. “Turkey’s Kurdish Opening: Long Awaited Achievements and Failed Expectations.” Turkish Studies 15.1 (2014): 81–99.
  408. DOI: 10.1080/14683849.2014.891348Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409. The article examines the fragmented nature of reactions from both Turkish and Kurdish sides toward recent developments.
  410. Find this resource:
  411.  
  412. Somer, Murat, and Evangelos G. Liaras. “Turkey’s New Kurdish Opening: Religious versus Secular Values.” Middle East Policy 17 (2010): 152–165.
  413. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4967.2010.00445.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  414. An analysis of the current debates on the Kurdish initiative from a Turkish studies perspective.
  415. Find this resource:
  416.  
  417. Kurdish Politics in Iraq
  418.  
  419. Contemporary scholarly writing on the Kurds in Iraq usually focuses on the postwar period and evaluates the developing situation in the region after 2003. In this regard, Leezenberg 2005 provides a solid analysis of the challenges ahead for the Kurdish region and offers a brief glimpse of the situation immediately after the fall of Saddam Hussein’s regime. O’Leary, et al. 2006 is a useful edited volume that presents various points of view on the future of Iraqi Kurdistan from scholars in this field. Lawrence 2008 provides an overview of Kurdish politics and the politics in the Middle East that affects the Kurdish situation. Anderson and Stansfield 2009 is an in-depth study on the disputed issue of Kirkuk. Natali 2010 offers a critical assessment of the Kurdish achievements in the region and the limits these new developments place on Kurdish aspirations for independence. Bengio 2012 is authored by one of the most well-known names in this field and the book focuses on the state-building and nation-building efforts of the Iraqi Kurds. King 2013 is an anthropological work that focuses on current developments at the societal level. Voller 2014 provides significant empirical material but the merit of this book is that it rests on a solid theoretical background, which enables the author to contribute to theory-building efforts in Kurdish studies.
  420.  
  421. Anderson, Liam, and Gareth Stansfield. Crisis in Kirkuk: The Ethnopolitics of Conflict and Compromise. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. The authors take up the significant issue of Kirkuk, which remains a disputed area in Iraq. A valuable source for understanding the complexities of postwar Iraq and Kurdistan’s position in the state.
  424. Find this resource:
  425.  
  426. Bengio, Ofra. The Kurds of Iraq: Building a State within a State. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2012.
  427. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  428. A great source to understand contemporary relations between the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) and the Iraqi state. The book offers fresh insights in examining the empirical data but at the same time contributes to theoretical discussions on state-building and nation-building mechanisms by critically assessing the Kurdish achievements after 2003.
  429. Find this resource:
  430.  
  431. King, E. Diane. Kurdistan on the Global Stage: Kinship, Land, and Community in Iraq. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2013.
  432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  433. An anthropological look at Kurdish society in Iraq after 2003.
  434. Find this resource:
  435.  
  436. Lawrence, Quil. Invisible Nation: How the Kurds’ Quest for Statehood Is Shaping Iraq and the Middle East. New York: Walker, 2008.
  437. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  438. This book is essential for understanding the situation of the Kurds in Iraq. It is intended for both academic and popular audiences.
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441. Leezenberg, Michiel. “Iraqi Kurdistan: Contours of a Post–Civil War Society.” Third World Quarterly 26 (2005): 631–647.
  442. DOI: 10.1080/01436590500127867Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Leezenberg clearly outlines the situation in Kurdistan in the post-Saddam era and critically assesses the challenges ahead for Kurdish society in the postwar period. Provides a more realistic view with sound analysis compared to other studies, which praise Kurdish achievements without considering the complexities of the current situation.
  444. Find this resource:
  445.  
  446. Natali, Denise. The Kurdish Quasi-State: Development and Dependency in Post–Gulf War Iraq. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2010.
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448. A rather skeptical look at Kurdistan’s future in Iraq. The author affirms that the Kurdish region is relatively prosperous compared to the rest of Iraq in the postwar period but the future of the region is still very much intertwined with the future of Iraq at large.
  449. Find this resource:
  450.  
  451. O’Leary, Brendan, John McGarry, and Khaled Salih, eds. The Future of Kurdistan in Iraq. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
  452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  453. A must-read book to understand the complex nature of politics in Iraqi Kurdistan. Each chapter treats debates about important aspects of Kurdish politics ranging from federative possibilities in a comparative perspective to state-building mechanisms and postwar reconstruction.
  454. Find this resource:
  455.  
  456. Voller, Yaniv. The Kurdish Liberation Movement in Iraq: From Insurgency to Statehood. London: Routledge, 2014.
  457. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  458. The author addresses the emergence of the KRG as an important actor in the region by focusing on the Kurdish Liberation Movement. It is an in-depth study of the KRG but at the same time has important, well-informed theoretical components on liberation movements and the quest for statehood.
  459. Find this resource:
  460.  
  461. Kurdish Politics in Iran
  462.  
  463. Gresh 2009 examines the KRG as a rising power in the region and its impact on the situation of Kurds in Iran. Ahmadzadeh and Stansfield 2010 focuses on the Kurds in Iran and narrates their experience with the Iranian state starting from the 1940s until today.
  464.  
  465. Ahmadzadeh, Hashem, and Gareth Stansfield. “The Political, Cultural, and Military Re-awakening of the Kurdish Nationalist Movement in Iran.” Middle East Journal 64.1 (2010): 11–27.
  466. DOI: 10.3751/64.1.11Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. A historical examination of the situation of the Kurds from the 1940s until today.
  468. Find this resource:
  469.  
  470. Gresh, Geoffrey F. “Iranian Kurds in an Age of Globalisation.” Iran and the Caucasus 13.1 (2009): 187–196.
  471. DOI: 10.1163/160984909X12476379008241Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472. A topical article that focuses on the impact of the emergence of the KRG and other global developments on the Kurds in Iran.
  473. Find this resource:
  474.  
  475. Kurdish Politics in Syria
  476.  
  477. Allsopp 2013 narrates the story of the Kurds in Syria by presenting different actors and interests that are at stake. Gunter 2014 provides an excellent overview of Syrian Kurdish politics, which facilitates an understanding of the current dynamics in the region.
  478.  
  479. Allsopp, Harriet. The Kurds of Syria: Political Parties and Identity in the Middle East. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.
  480. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  481. Allsopp’s analysis provides a great introduction to an overlooked topic, namely the Kurds in Syria. A great source for those who want to be informed about different Kurdish political movements and actors in Syria and a timely contribution to the literature on Kurds and Kurdish politics.
  482. Find this resource:
  483.  
  484. Gunter, M. Michael. Out of Nowhere: The Kurds of Syria in Peace and War. London: Hurst, 2014.
  485. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  486. An informative book on the Kurds in Syria. Considering the fact that they are becoming increasingly significant in the wake of current developments, this book assumes an increasing importance for understanding both the inner and the wider dynamics of the Kurdish struggle.
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489. Kurds in World Politics
  490.  
  491. The books cited here focus on the Kurds and Kurdish politics but add another dimension in specifically examining Kurdish foreign relations with other states or supranational institutions. Olson 1998 puts the Kurdish question in the context of Turkey-Iran relations. Meho 2004 compiles documents concerning the Kurdish question in US foreign policy. It is an excellent source that contains extensive empirical material. Park 2005 examines the amicable Turkish foreign policy toward the Kurdistan Regional Government that emerged following the invasion of Iraq. Hiltermann 2007 presents an overview of foreign responses to the Halabja massacre by focusing on the situation before and after the attacks. Yildiz and Muller 2008 looks at the situation of the Kurds through the lens of relations between Turkey and the European Union (EU). Ahmed 2010 is a critical attempt to evaluate the consequences of the invasion of Iraq in 2003 and is an excellent volume for understanding intergroup rivalries. Charountaki 2011 provides a systematic study of US foreign policy toward the Kurds in Iraq. These books and articles provide a comprehensive understanding of Kurdish relations both with neighboring countries as well as with other countries whose policies have an impact in the region.
  492.  
  493. Ahmed, Mohammed M. A. America Unravels Iraq: Kurds, Shiites and Sunni Arabs Compete for Supremacy. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2010.
  494. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. A critical approach to the consequences of the invasion of Iraq in 2003. The author brilliantly demonstrates how the war affected various political and religious groups in Iraq and examines in detail the power struggles between them.
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498. Charountaki, Marianna. The Kurds and US Foreign Policy: International Relations in the Middle East since 1945. London: Routledge, 2011.
  499. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  500. The author presents a fresh approach to US engagement with the Kurdish region in Iraq in five different stages. She also offers a critique of the current literature on international theories, which, she affirms, fails to supply sufficient tools to examine nonstate actors such as the Kurdish Regional Government.
  501. Find this resource:
  502.  
  503. Hiltermann, Joost R. A Poisonous Affair: America, Iraq, and the Gassing of Halabja. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505. An excellent account of the events surrounding the Halabja massacre. It affirms that the major world powers kept silent or turned a blind eye to the atrocities that were committed by Saddam Hussein’s regime during the 1980s.
  506. Find this resource:
  507.  
  508. Meho, Lokman I. The Kurdish Question in US Foreign Policy: A Documentary Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004.
  509. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  510. A great source that contains compilation of documents with regard to US foreign policy toward the Kurds in the Middle East.
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513. Olson, Robert. Kurdish Question and Turkish-Iranian Relations: From World War I to 1998. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 1998.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. The book presents an overview of Turkish-Iranian relations in the light of the Iran-Iraq War and the Persian Gulf War in emphasizing the situation of the Kurds in both countries.
  516. Find this resource:
  517.  
  518. Park, Bill. Turkey’s Policy towards Northern Iraq: Problems and Perspectives. Adelphi Paper 374. London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 2005.
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520. Written by one of the most prolific authors on Kurdish politics from the perspective of international relations. Park examines the increasingly important Kurdish region in Iraq and its relations with Turkey and the United States.
  521. Find this resource:
  522.  
  523. Shareef, Mohammed. The United States, Iraq and the Kurds: Shock, Awe and Aftermath. London: Routledge, 2014.
  524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  525. Shareef’s analysis provides a comprehensive historical narrative of US foreign policy in Iraq with special emphasis on the evolution of US foreign policy toward Iraqi Kurdistan.
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528. Yildiz, Kerim, and Mark Muller. The European Union and Turkish Accession: Human Rights and the Kurds. London: Pluto, 2008.
  529. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  530. The authors provide a general overview of EU-Turkish relations while discussing the Kurdish question in Turkey in this framework.
  531. Find this resource:
  532.  
  533. Gender Research in Kurdish Studies
  534.  
  535. Gender studies within Kurdish studies is a field that remains largely unexplored. The two scholarly works cited—Mojab 2001 and Mojab and Gorman 2007—can be considered seminal works in this field. Mojab 2001 brings together contributions from recognized scholars in exploring issues related to Kurdish women from a gender studies perspective. Mojab and Gorman 2007 is an article that examines Kurdish women’s agency within the Kurdish national movement and it looks at mobilization dynamics both in the homeland and transnationally.
  536.  
  537. Mojab, Shahrzad, ed. Women of a Non-state Nation: The Kurds. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2001.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. An excellent compilation of articles in a unique volume that focuses on the intersection of Kurdish nationalism and feminism. The volume includes articles written by recognized names in this field, such as Mirella Galletti, Janet Klein, Amir Hassanpour, and Martin van Bruinessen.
  540. Find this resource:
  541.  
  542. Mojab, Shahrzad, and Rachel Gorman. “Dispersed Nationalism: War, Diaspora and Kurdish Women’s Organizing.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 3.1 (2007): 58–85.
  543. DOI: 10.2979/MEW.2007.3.1.58Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544. An excellent overview of the diasporic activism of Kurdish women in various countries from Canada to Sweden.
  545. Find this resource:
  546.  
  547. Kurdish Women in Turkey
  548.  
  549. Kurdish women in Turkey and their role within the Kurdish movement has drawn significant attention from scholars since 2005. The articles cited here provide a sampling of the growing literature. Yüksel 2006 analyzes the position of Kurdish women within the discourse on Turkish state feminism from the early years of the Turkish Republic until today. Gökalp 2010 presents an overview of the perceptions of Kurdish women and the impact made by oppression and state violence on their identity and daily practices. Çağlayan 2012 deals with position of Kurdish women within the Kurdish movement itself and analyzes the limits and contradictions of the Kurdish nationalist discourse and the link between Kurdish feminism and nationalism.
  550.  
  551. Çağlayan, Handan. “From Kawa the Blacksmith to Ishtar the Goddess: Gender Constructions in Ideological-Political Discourses of the Kurdish Movement in Post-1980 Turkey.” European Journal of Turkish Studies 14 (2012).
  552. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553. The author finds that the leftist, secular discourse of the Kurdish movement was conducive for the development of Kurdish feminism but at the same time it imposed contradictions and limits. An interesting read that aids in understanding the Kurdish movement from a gender studies perspective.
  554. Find this resource:
  555.  
  556. Gökalp, Deniz. “A Gendered Analysis of Violence, Justice, and Citizenship: Kurdish Women Facing War and Displacement in Turkey.” Women’s Studies International Forum 33.6 (2010): 561–569.
  557. DOI: 10.1016/j.wsif.2010.09.005Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  558. A critical reading of the relationship between the Turkish state and Kurdish women under the shadow of state violence and oppressive polities toward their gender and ethnic identity.
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561. Yüksel, Metin. “The Encounter of Kurdish Women with Nationalism in Turkey.” Middle Eastern Studies 42.5 (2006): 777–802.
  562. DOI: 10.1080/00263200600828022Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. An informative article that deals with the early policies of the Turkish Republic and how they positioned Kurdish women into a wider discourse on Turkish feminism.
  564. Find this resource:
  565.  
  566. Kurdish Women in Iraq
  567.  
  568. Fischer-Tahir 2010 focuses on contemporary Iraq and the presence of women in political circles after 2003. Hardi 2011 provides a gendered account of the Anfal genocide. An ethnographic work, it makes for an interesting read. Al-Ali and Pratt 2011 examines the women’s movements in Erbil and Suleymaniyah. Mlodoch 2012 presents the perspectives of Kurdish women on genocide and their call for acknowledgment of their agency. Hague, et al. 2013 focuses on the sensitive topic of honor killings in the context of both the homeland and the diaspora. Fischer-Tahir 2012 looks at the aspects of harmed masculinity and defeat from a gender studies perspective. Rasool and Payton 2014 emphasizes contemporary issues related to women’s rights in Kurdistan, including self-immolation and suicide as a mechanism to communicate trauma and pain among Kurdish women.
  569.  
  570. Al-Ali, Nadje, and Nicola Pratt. “Between Nationalism and Women’s Rights: The Kurdish Women’s Movement in Iraq.” Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication 4.3 (2011): 337–353.
  571. DOI: 10.1163/187398611X590192Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  572. The article examines the women’s movement in post-2003 Iraq in focusing solely on Iraqi Kurdistan. Based on extensive fieldwork in Erbil and Suleymaniyah, the article discusses the link between feminism and nationalism and how the interviewees perceive these concepts.
  573. Find this resource:
  574.  
  575. Fischer-Tahir, Andrea. “Competition, Cooperation and Resistance: Women in the Political Field in Iraq.” International Affairs 86.6 (2010): 1381–1394.
  576. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2010.00949.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  577. Written by one of the leading scholars in this field, this article treats the presence of women in political decision-making procedures and in the political field in general after the invasion of Iraq in 2003. The article offers an informed discussion on women’s rights issues in contemporary Kurdistan.
  578. Find this resource:
  579.  
  580. Fischer-Tahir, Andrea. “Gendered Memories and Masculinities: Kurdish Peshmerga on the Anfal Campaign in Iraq.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 8.1 (2012): 2–114.
  581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  582. The author takes a critical approach and analyzes the gendered experiences through the eyes of the male victims in focusing on issues of harmed masculinity and defeat. The author challenges the usual studies, which perceive Kurdish women as victims and Kurdish men as actors of resistance.
  583. Find this resource:
  584.  
  585. Hague, Gill, Aisha K. Gill, and Nazand Begikhani. “‘Honour’-Based Violence and Kurdish Communities: Moving towards Action and Change in Iraqi Kurdistan and the UK.” Journal of Gender Studies 22.4 (2013): 383–396.
  586. DOI: 10.1080/09589236.2012.708825Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. The article focuses on honor-based violence within the Kurdish communities in Kurdistan as well as in the diaspora in the United Kingdom. It discusses the reasons behind such acts and the ways to prevent it from a gender studies perspective.
  588. Find this resource:
  589.  
  590. Hardi, Choman. Gendered Experiences of Genocide: Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan–Iraq. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2011.
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592. Hardi conducted interviews with the survivors of the Anfal campaign and turned these testimonies into an elegantly written, comprehensive narrative that identifies women’s strategies in dealing with mass atrocities. It sheds light on topics such as women’s silence when sexual violence is used as a weapon of war and on survival strategies after post-traumatic disorder.
  593. Find this resource:
  594.  
  595. Mlodoch, Karin. “‘We Want to Be Remembered as Strong Women, Not as Shepherds’: Women Anfal Survivors in Kurdistan–Iraq Struggling for Agency and Acknowledgement.” Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies 8.1 (2012): 63–91.
  596. DOI: 10.2979/jmiddeastwomstud.8.1.63Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  597. The article focuses on the experiences of women of the Anfal campaign in Iraq, which took many lives and left many injured and traumatized. The author examines the women’s perspectives on victimhood and how they cope with their situation in a patriarchal society.
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600. Rasool, Izaddin A., and Joanne L. Payton. “Tongues of Fire: Women’s Suicide and Self-Injury by Burns in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.” Sociological Review 62.2 (2014): 237–254.
  601. DOI: 10.1111/1467-954X.12153Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  602. The article is based on an ethnographic study. The authors conducted interviews with one hundred survivors of suicide attempts in Iraqi Kurdistan. They found that the first marriage experience is usually traumatic for young women and the conflicts that arise during this period compel young women to communicate their pain through self-immolation acts.
  603. Find this resource:
  604.  
  605. Religious and Ethnic Diversity in Kurdistan
  606.  
  607. Kurds do not constitute a homogenous group and different religious, linguistic, and cultural groups are found within the Kurdish nation, such as the Zazas or the Yezidis. Moreover, Kurdistan is not a territory inhabited solely by the Kurds as other ethnic groups reside in the region. Brauer 1993 is a valuable source in this regard, which focuses on the Jews of Kurdistan and provides information about the fate of the Jewish community after the Second World War. Van Bruinessen 1996a is an excellent article that reveals the intragroup rivalries and varying loyalties and divisions among the different Kurdish groups in Kurdistan. Van Bruinessen 1996b treats the Alevites in examining the Alevite revival in Turkey in the light of the rise of the Kurdish movement and sheds light on the interaction between the two. Houston 2003 analyzes Islamic movements in Turkey and attempts to determine whether Islam unites Turks and Kurds on common religious grounds. Acikyildiz 2010 is a well-written source on the Yezidis, whose importance has grown in recent years due to the genocidal campaigns waged against this population by the Islamic State. Casier and Jongerden 2011 is a comprehensive edited volume that includes chapters on political Islam and the interplay between religion and ideology in Turkey. Kaya 2011 is an enriching read for those who want to learn more about the Zaza Kurds in Turkey.
  608.  
  609. Acikyildiz, Birgul. The Yezidis: The History of a Community, Culture and Religion. London: I. B. Tauris, 2010.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. The book treats the Yezidis, the least-known religious communities of the Middle East. The author examines Yezidi religion, society, and material culture. The book focuses on Yezidis not only from a religious perspective, but also as a historical and social phenomenon. The book identified the Yezidi belief system with regard to religious practices, observances, and rituals.
  612. Find this resource:
  613.  
  614. Brauer, Erich. The Jews of Kurdistan. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1993.
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616. The book focuses on the historical evolution of the Jewish community after the Second World War. Members of the Jewish community in what had been Kurdistan, now part of Iraq, left their homeland and resettled in Palestine, where they quickly assimilated into the dominant Israeli-Jewish culture. The book is a unique historical document in that it presents a picture of Kurdish Jewish life and culture prior to the Second World War. The book provides a comprehensive look at their material culture, life cycles, religious practices, and occupations, as well as their relations with Muslims.
  617. Find this resource:
  618.  
  619. Casier, Marlies, and Joost Jongerden, eds. Nationalisms and Politics in Turkey: Political Islam, Kemalism and the Kurdish Issue. New York: Routledge, 2011.
  620. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  621. The book examines some of the most critical issues in Turkish politics, namely political Islam and Kurdish and Turkish nationalisms. The book makes an important contribution to growing investigations of Turkey’s secularist establishment, the ruling AKP government, the Kurdistan Workers’ Party, and the institutions of the European Union. It includes three chapters on political Islam and the Kurdish question.
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624. Houston, Christopher. Islam, Kurds, and the Turkish Nation State. Oxford: Berg, 2003.
  625. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  626. The book analyzes the Islamist political movements in Turkey. The author states that as Turkey emerges from a repressive modernizing project, various political identities are emerging and competing for influence. Furthermore, the book sheds light on the question whether Muslim Turks and Kurds can find common ground in religion.
  627. Find this resource:
  628.  
  629. Kaya, Mehmet S. The Zaza Kurds of Turkey. London: I. B. Tauris, 2011.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. The book treats one of the main minority groups in Turkey, the Kurdish people who speak the Zaza dialect. The Zaza Kurds reside in the eastern Anatolian provinces. The author examines different aspects of Zaza life, including kinship, economy, culture, identity, gender relations, patriarchy, and religion. The book also focuses on the interface between traditional and modern forms of social and political organization.
  632. Find this resource:
  633.  
  634. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Diversity and Division among the Kurds.” War Report: Bulletin of the Institute for War and Peace Reporting 47 (1996a): 29–32.
  635. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  636. One of the best articles that identifies the linguistic, cultural, religious, and tribal diversity among the Kurdish ethnic groups. Van Bruinessen focuses on these differences and argues that the separation imposed by the borders of four different states is just one fact that helps to explain this diversity. He reveals different mechanisms of loyalties and intragroup rivalries in this compact report.
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Kurds, Turks and the Alevi Revival in Turkey.” Middle East Report 200 (1996b): 7–10.
  640. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  641. The article argues that the Kurdish movement has emerged in recent years as one of the most crucial political movements in Turkey; however, it is not the only one. The author examines the Alevite revival in Turkey in focusing on the formation of an Alevite identity and its politicization and treats the violent attacks against the Alevite minority in Turkey and the other challenges they have faced throughout the history of modern Turkey.
  642. Find this resource:
  643.  
  644. Kurdish Migrants, Refugees and Diaspora
  645.  
  646. The conflicts that have roiled the Middle East have led to the migration of many Kurds to countries in Europe and elsewhere, either voluntarily or via forced migration. It is estimated that several million Kurds reside in Europe today and thousands live in the United States. Reliable statistics are difficult to find because Kurds are registered not as Kurds but as Iranians, Turks, Syrians, or Iraqis given that host states usually register nationality rather than ethnicity. A strong and active Kurdish diaspora has emerged since the 1970s and 1980s, and Kurds residing outside the Middle East have become an important nonstate actor, a group that consists of Kurds from all areas, all political parties, and all strata of Kurdish society.
  647.  
  648. Voluntary and Forced Migration
  649.  
  650. Treatment of forced migration especially within the field of Turkey and the Kurdish question studies has gained significant attention from scholars. Ayata and Yükseker 2005 presents a historical overview and a critical assessment of the international responses to the internal displacement of the Kurds. Saracoglu 2011 adopts a fresh approach, which focuses on the situation of Kurds who voluntarily or by force migrated to western Turkey. Darici 2011 treats the expansion of the political identity of the Kurds outside the traditional borders of Kurdistan through internal displacement in Turkey. Çelik 2013 identifies the benefits of looking at internal displacement as a component of transitional justice.
  651.  
  652. Ayata, Bilgin, and Deniz Yükseker. “A Belated Awakening: National and International Responses to the Internal Displacement of Kurds in Turkey.” New Perspectives on Turkey 32 (2005): 5–42.
  653. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  654. A highly important article on the internal displacement of Kurds in Turkey. The authors adopt a critical approach to the international responses to the forced migration of Kurds in Turkey. They provide a historical account and analyze the record in the light of the international responses to internal displacement in general.
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657. Çelik, Ayşe Betül. “State, Non-governmental and International Organizations in the Possible Peace Process in Turkey’s Conflict-Induced Displacement.” Journal of Refugee Studies 26.1 (2013): 1–25.
  658. DOI: 10.1093/jrs/fer057Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. An informed discussion on the internal conflict-induced displacement of the Kurds in Turkey. The author presents the perspectives of the Turkish state and the Kurdish actors with respect to this topic and argues that these perceptions should be taken into account in discussing issues related to peace and development in the region.
  660. Find this resource:
  661.  
  662. Darici, Haydar. “Politics of Privacy: Forced Migration and the Spatial Struggle of the Kurdish Youth.” Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 13.4 (2011): 457–474.
  663. DOI: 10.1080/19448953.2011.623869Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  664. An interesting take on Kurdish youth in Turkey who left their homeland because of forced migration. It demonstrates the expansion of the Kurdish struggle to other parts of Turkey via Kurdish youth, whose political identity has been shaped by experiences of state violence.
  665. Find this resource:
  666.  
  667. Saracoglu, Cenk. Kurds of Modern Turkey: Migration, Neoliberalism and Exclusion in Turkish Society. London: I. B. Tauris, 2011.
  668. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  669. Saracoglu discusses the changing image of Kurds in contemporary Turkey in looking at the exclusion of Kurds in Turkish cities. He argues that today’s growing Kurdish community in western Turkey is due to internal displacement, and he notes that they are perceived negatively by middle-class Turks living in these cities.
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672. Kurdish Diaspora
  673.  
  674. Van Bruinessen 1998 can be considered the seminal article that sheds light on the newly emerging phenomenon of the Kurdish diaspora. Wahlbeck 1999 also comparatively analyzes the situation of Kurds in the United Kingdom and Finland in focusing on their diasporic activities. Griffiths 2002 focuses on the Kurdish refugees in London and compares their situation with that of Somali refugees. It is considered as a classic in Kurdish diaspora studies. King 2005 makes an important contribution to the literature as it specifically focuses on Kurdish migration from Iraq to the West, unlike most other works that focus on Kurds from Turkey. Eccarius-Kelly 2010 is one of the best books written about Kurdish activism in Europe, with a specific focus on Germany. It not only includes a solid summary of the previous work, but also sheds light on contemporary discussions on the role of the Kurdish diaspora. The bulk of studies on the Kurdish diaspora focus on the Kurds from Turkey as they constitute the majority in the diaspora; consequently, additional studies are needed on Kurds who reside outside Kurdistan who come from Iran, Iraq, and Syria.
  675.  
  676. Eccarius-Kelly, Vera. Militant Kurds: A Dual Strategy for Freedom. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010.
  677. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  678. Eccarius-Kelly’s book on militant Kurds is one of the best contributions to the literature on the Kurdish diaspora. It not only gives an excellent account of the conflict between the Turkish state and the PKK, but also focuses on transnational Kurdish activism in Germany as well as in the European Union from a broader perspective.
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681. Griffiths, D. J. Somali and Kurdish refugees in London: New Identities in the Diaspora. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2002.
  682. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  683. Another seminal work on the Kurdish diaspora. Griffiths’ work is extremely important not because it focuses on the identity issues in the diaspora but because it offers a comparative look at the refugee status of both Kurds and Somalis.
  684. Find this resource:
  685.  
  686. King, E. Diane. “Asylum Seekers/Patron Seekers: Interpreting Iraqi Kurdish Migration.” Human Organization 64.4 (2005): 316–326.
  687. DOI: 10.17730/humo.64.4.3dm0ng5c5eg9mg94Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  688. A reference article that examines the Kurdish migration to the West between 1991 and 2003. It provides historical background to Kurdish migration and then delves into debates about patronage and clientage roles of Western governments and Kurdish asylum-seekers within the framework of Kurdish migration.
  689. Find this resource:
  690.  
  691. van Bruinessen, Martin. “Shifting National and Ethnic Identities: The Kurds in Turkey and the European Diaspora.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 18 (1998): 39–52.
  692. DOI: 10.1080/13602009808716392Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  693. An article that examines the reasons for the Kurdish dispersal to Europe, the regional dynamics that were conducive in pushing the Kurds outside their homeland, and the formation of a diasporic identity among the Kurds who left their homeland.
  694. Find this resource:
  695.  
  696. Wahlbeck, Osten. Kurdish Diasporas: A Comparative Study of Kurdish Refugee Communities. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.
  697. DOI: 10.1057/9780230288935Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  698. This book is one of the seminal works on the Kurdish diaspora. Wahlbeck compares Kurdish refugees in the United kingdom and Finland and from a comparative perspective he examines their diasporic activities, their ties with the homeland and the host country, and finally their relations with each other.
  699. Find this resource:
  700.  
  701. Identity and Belonging
  702.  
  703. Scholars from various disciplines in the social sciences have examined the mechanisms underlying identity formation and sense-of-belonging in the diaspora. A seminal work on this topic is Sirkeci 2006, which deals with conflict-induced Kurdish migration to Germany. It includes abundant demographic data related to this phenomenon combined with the author’s ethnographic work and interview accounts. Soguk 2008 takes a more theoretical approach in attempting to explain the newly emerging transnational identity of the Kurds in Europe by specifically focusing on the Kurds in the United Kingdom. Eccarius-Kelly 2010 provides a unique contribution to understanding the identity formation of Kurdish youth in focusing on music production. Pelling 2013 is a well-researched study of transnational ties that the Kurds maintain with their homeland and how they relate to the current developments in the Kurdish region in Iraq. The author uses Swedish Kurds as a case study and presents striking results. Toivanen 2014 focuses on young Kurds in Finland and looks at different dimensions of identity formation by focusing on how they relate to their home and host states.
  704.  
  705. Eccarius-Kelly, Vera. “Nationalism, Ethnic Rap and the Kurdish Diaspora.” Peace Review: A Journal of Social Justice 22.4 (2010): 423–431.
  706. DOI: 10.1080/10402659.2010.524569Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. The author aims to understand the evolution of Kurdish nationalism within the diaspora community and how identity formation reflects on the production of ethnic rap songs by Kurdish singers who are living outside the homeland. She also explains how this effort at identity formation helps to mobilize Kurdish youth on behalf of the Kurdish struggle.
  708. Find this resource:
  709.  
  710. Pelling, Lisa. “Post-remittances? On Transnational Ties and Migration between the Kurdistan Region in Iraq and Sweden.” PhD diss., University of Vienna, 2013.
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  712. Pelling’s PhD thesis focuses on the transnational ties of Kurds living in Sweden toward their homeland, Iraqi Kurdistan. She evaluates the migration experience of the Kurds in the light of current developments in the Kurdistan region by examining remittance sending practices.
  713. Find this resource:
  714.  
  715. Sirkeci, Ibrahim. The Environment of Insecurity in Turkey and the Emigration of Turkish Kurds to Germany. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2006.
  716. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  717. This is one of the main books that covers Kurdish migration to Germany from a conflict-driven migration perspective. The findings are based on the author’s ethnographic fieldwork in Germany and they are combined with rich statistical data about Kurdish migration from Turkey.
  718. Find this resource:
  719.  
  720. Soguk, Nevzat. “Transversal Communication, Diaspora, and the Euro-Kurds.” Review of International Studies 34.S1 (2008): 173–192.
  721. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  722. One of the best articles written on the diasporic identities of Kurds in the United Kingdom, based on a theoretical approach. Soguk delves into the transnational identity formation of Kurds, who are living in exile in the United Kingdom while keeping their attachments to their homeland.
  723. Find this resource:
  724.  
  725. Toivanen, Mari. “Negotiating Home and Belonging: Young Kurds in Finland.” PhD diss., University of Turku, 2014.
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Toivanen focuses on the identity and sense-of-belonging of young Kurds in Finland. Based on a carefully engineered ethnographic study, she tries to understand the transnational activism of second-generation Kurds and how it affects their integration into the host society in Finland.
  728. Find this resource:
  729.  
  730. Diaspora Politics and Practices
  731.  
  732. The Kurdish diaspora is one of the most active stateless diasporas in the world. Kurds outside their homelands strive to influence policy-making mechanisms both in their home and in their host states. Studies concerning their political activism date to the late 1980s. A representative list of works are presented here, which can serve to guide the reader to further readings. Leggewie 1996 is one of the first articles that is considered a classic in Kurdish diaspora studies. It focuses on the emergence of Kurdish politics in Germany as one of the first transnational manifestations of the Kurdish diaspora outside Turkish borders. Lyon and Uçarer 2001 examines the importation of homeland conflicts outside the borders of the nation-state. Østergaard-Nielsen 2003 is a classic work that makes a crucial contribution to both Kurdish studies and theories on diaspora politics and mobilization. Candan and Hunger 2008 adds another dimension in emphasizing the online practices of Kurdish efforts at nation-building. Mügge 2010 contributes to the literature in focusing on the Kurdish mobilization in the Netherlands and by using a comparative approach that reveals generalizable results related to diaspora groups in general. Baser 2015 provides an important contribution to the literature in bringing a second-generation viewpoint as well as creating a framework to understand imported conflicts from the perspective of host country integration policies.
  733.  
  734. Baser, Bihar. Diasporas and Homeland Conflicts. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2015.
  735. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  736. Comparative in nature, Baser’s work focuses on Kurdish and Turkish diaspora politics in Sweden and Germany. Her main focus is on the interactions between the second-generation Turks and Kurds and how the homeland conflict dynamics are imported to the host country by the first generation and are transferred to younger generations through various mechanisms.
  737. Find this resource:
  738.  
  739. Candan, Menderes, and Uwe Hunger. “Nation Building Online: A Case Study of Kurdish Migrants in Germany.” German Policy Studies 4.4 (2008): 125–153.
  740. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  741. The article focuses on the online activism of Kurdish youth in Germany. The argument is that Kurds are using contemporary technology, social media outlets, and other means as a part of their nation-building process.
  742. Find this resource:
  743.  
  744. Leggewie, Claus. “How Turks Became Kurds, Not Germans.” Dissent 43.3 (1996): 79–83.
  745. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  746. One of the best articles that examines Kurdish diaspora identity-making in Germany. Leggewie explains how Kurds became aware of their ethnic identity and then started mobilizing around it in Germany despite the fact that they were referred to as “Turks” in the host country.
  747. Find this resource:
  748.  
  749. Lyon, Alynna J., and Emek M. Uçarer. “Mobilizing Ethnic Conflict: Kurdish Separatism in Germany and the PKK.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 24.6 (2001): 925–948.
  750. DOI: 10.1080/713766482Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. This article examines how the Kurdish conflict in Turkey transcended Turkish borders and diffused transnationally. By looking at the mobilization strategies of the PKK in Germany, the authors investigate the importation of homeland conflicts to another country. The article is well written and provides much empirical data and many theoretical discussions.
  752. Find this resource:
  753.  
  754. Mügge, L. Beyond Dutch Borders: Transnational Politics among Colonial Migrants, Guest Workers and the Second Generation. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010.
  755. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  756. The author gives a comparative narrative of diaspora politics in the Netherlands and the Kurds constitute one of her case studies. She looks at the evolution of the Kurdish diaspora, the activism of Kurds in the Netherlands, and the impact of their efforts on Dutch politics as well as Kurdish relations with other diaspora groups in the host land.
  757. Find this resource:
  758.  
  759. Østergaard-Nielsen, Eva. Transnational Politics: The Case of Turks and Kurds in Germany. London: Routledge, 2003.
  760. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  761. An elegantly written academic work based on the author’s comprehensive ethnographic study within the Turkish and Kurdish communities in Germany. The author covers intra- and intergroup dynamics of the Turkish and Kurdish diasporas and also examines their interactions with the local political actors.
  762. Find this resource:
  763.  
  764. Return Migration
  765.  
  766. The works cited here provide a general overview of return migration dynamics back to Kurdistan. Improving conditions in the Kurdish region in Iraq has led many exiles and asylum seekers to return to their homeland. King 2008 focuses on return migration after 1991, while Emanuelsson 2008 gives a detailed account of return migration dynamics after 2003. Both works are important as they rely on ethnographic case studies and identify the benefits and challenges of return both for returnees themselves and for the homeland. Strand, et al. 2011 is a more technical report that deals with the return of Iraqis from Norway but it contains much information about the Kurds as well. Hautaniemi, et al. 2013 provides a comparative account of return migration in focusing on Somali and Kurdish return migration. Additional academic studies are in preparation as this is a highly topical issue.
  767.  
  768. Emanuelsson, Ann-Cathrin. Transnational Dynamics of Return and the Potential Role of the Kürdish Diaspora in Developing the Kurdistan Region. Shrivenham: Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, 2008.
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  770. The report is based on the author’s extensive ethnographic fieldwork, which includes semi-structured interviews with returnees in Iraqi Kurdistan. It describes the return process and the feelings, expectations, and aspirations of the returnees as well as giving a number of policy recommendations.
  771. Find this resource:
  772.  
  773. Hautaniemi, P., M. Juntunen, and M. Sato. Return Migration and Vulnerability: Case Studies from Somaliland and Iraqi Kurdistan. Helsinki: University of Helsinki, 2013.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. An extensive report that examines return migration to Somaliland and Iraqi Kurdistan. It looks at the issues of return migration, motivations behind the decision to return, and reintegration in the homeland as well as the benefits and challenges of return migration for both the migrant and the homeland.
  776. Find this resource:
  777.  
  778. King, E. Diane. “Back from the ‘Outside’: Returnees and Diasporic Imagining in Iraqi Kurdistan.” International Journal on Multicultural Societies 10.2 (2008): 208–222.
  779. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  780. Interesting accounts of the return migration of Kurds after 1991. King examines the narratives of Kurds who left during turbulent times and later returned to their homeland in terms of imaginations of “outside” and “inside” in referring to the West and Kurdistan.
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783. Strand, Arne, Synnøve Bendixsen, Erlend Paasche, and Jessica Schultz. “Between Two Societies: Review of the Information, Return and Reintegration of Iraqi Nationals to Iraq (IRRINI) Programme.” CMI Report 4. Bergen, Norway: Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2011.
  784. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  785. A comprehensive report about return migration to Iraq from Norway, which includes important sections dealing with the return migration of, specifically, the Kurds.
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