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American Colonial Wars (Military History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The colonial period of US history was rife with military conflict between European immigrants and Native Americans/Indians, among rival European imperial powers, among groups of European settlers, and among groups of Indians. Little has been written about conflict among Indians because sources of information concerning them are so few. The remaining three types of warfare often overlapped as settlers of European origins, Indians, and imperial governments all sought allies for support in their wars. In addition, tensions with Indians and differing views on Indian policy contributed to the outbreak of violence among colonists.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Textbooks on the colonial period of US history tend to be descriptive rather than analytical in their treatment of colonial war. Leach 1973 and Peckham 1964 survey these conflicts with emphasis on the wars between British and French colonists and their Indian allies. Davies 1974 provides context for the wars for maritime empire during the 17th century. Richter 2001 views the colonial era from the Indian point of view. The final three volumes of Parkman 1865–1892, a massive history of France and England in North America, focus on warfare between the imperial rivals. Indian relations receive attention though the various groups are usually treated in their roles as allies of England and France. Washburn 1988 covers the colonial era in a cursory fashion. Nester 2000 traces a century and a half of imperial rivalry that culminated in the French and Indian War. Grenier 2010 provides graduate students and nonspecialists with an excellent historiographical analysis of major works on the subject. Anderson and Cayton 2005 differs from the narrative nature of most surveys. The authors survey three hundred years of American military history in arguing that war has been as essential an ingredient in the formation of American culture and the development of the US political system as it has in the nation’s rise to world power.
  8.  
  9. Anderson, Fred, and Andrew Cayton. The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500–2000. New York: Viking, 2005.
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  11. The determination of settlers to expand led to warfare that became characteristic of American society. Views the colonial era through the relations between Samuel de Champlain and William Penn and the Indians each encountered.
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  13. Davies, K. G. The North Atlantic World in the Seventeenth Century. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1974.
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  15. Focuses on the Dutch, French, and English in the Caribbean and North America.
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  17. Grenier, John. “Warfare during the Colonial Era, 1607–1765.” In Companion to American Military History. Edited by James C. Bradford, 9–21. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.
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  19. Historiographical essay that identifies the most significant works and points out lacunae in coverage and interpretation.
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  21. Leach, Douglas Edward. Arms for Empire: A Military History of the British Colonies in North America, 1607–1763. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
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  23. A sophisticated account of both European and American military institutions and the major wars Europeans and Americans conducted.
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  25. Nester, William R. The Great Frontier War: Britain, France and the Imperial Struggle for North America, 1607–1755. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000.
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  27. Nester demonstrates that British dominance of North America was far from inevitable, that Indian allies played a crucial role in the outcome, and that each side had both inept and able commanders. Thematic chapters on “Trade and Conquest,” “Economies and Societies,” and “Armies and Navies” that trace developments prior to 1754 are followed by chapters on developments during 1754 and 1755.
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  29. Parkman, Francis. France and England in North America. 6 vols. Boston: Little, Brown, 1865–1892.
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  31. Often-reprinted classic history for which the author traveled to the places where events took place. The prose now seems stilted in places, but the volumes contain important information not found elsewhere.
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  33. Peckham, Howard H. The Colonial Wars, 1689–1762. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
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  35. Descriptive narrative with a focus on operations in the period after 1689; designed for undergraduate readers.
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  37. Richter, Daniel K. Facing East from Indian Country: A Native History of Early America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.
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  39. Uses the lives of Pocahontas, Blessed Kateri Tekakwitha, and Metacom/King Philip as a lens through which to view the European settlement of eastern North America. Describes Native-American culture east of the Mississippi River and the complexities of relations between the native groups and English, Spanish, and French settlers, concluding that the native societies were far safer during the 17th and 18th centuries than later, when the culture of the new United States virtually destroyed their way of life.
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  41. Washburn, Wilcomb E., ed. History of Indian-White Relations. Vol. 4 of Handbook of North American Indians. Edited by William C. Sturtevant. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1988.
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  43. Includes fifty-seven essays divided into six sections, the shortest of which, “Military Situations,” contains three essays; the first of which, on colonial wars, by Douglas Leach, focuses on the Atlantic seaboard.
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  45. Reference Works
  46.  
  47. Among reference works, Kennan 1997 and Kessel and Wooster 2005 include short but reliable entries on the most significant battles and leaders, Purcell and Purcell 2000 provides brief descriptions of major battles, and Shrader 1991 includes an interesting essay on “The Colonial Military Heritage.” The most substantial reference works are Gallay 1996 and Cooke 1993, which includes coverage of the Dutch and Swedish colonies and a particularly good essay on “War and Diplomacy.”
  48.  
  49. Cooke, Jacob, ed. Encyclopedia of the North American Colonies. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993.
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  51. Includes brief narratives of “Indian-Colonist Conflicts and Alliances” in the British, Dutch, Swedish, and French colonies and in the Spanish borderlands; “The European Contest for North America”; and “The Conquest of Acadia” by experts on each subject.
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  53. Gallay, Alan, ed. Colonial Wars of North America, 1512–1763: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland, 1996.
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  55. By far the most comprehensive and sophisticated reference work on the subject, it contains nearly seven hundred signed entries that include coverage of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, Russian Alaska, Canada, and the United States.
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  57. Kennan, Jerry. Encyclopedia of American Indian Wars, 1492–1890. New York: W. W. Norton, 1997.
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  59. Very brief entries describe major wars, engagements, and leaders.
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  61. Kessel, William B., and Robert Wooster. Encyclopedia of Native American Wars & Warfare. New York: Facts On File, 2005.
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  63. Entries vary in content, some being descriptive and others more analytical.
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  65. Purcell, L. Edward, and Sarah J. Purcell. Encyclopedia of Battles in North America, 1517 to 1916. New York: Facts On File, 2000.
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  67. Succinct descriptions of eighteen battles—defined as any “armed, violent conflict between two opposing forces of appreciable size”—that include context, commanders, opposing forces, casualties, and results.
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  69. Shrader, Charles Reginald, ed. Reference Guide to United States Military History, 1607–1815. New York: Facts On File, 1991.
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  71. Contains an essay on “The Colonial Military Heritage, 1607–1763” and encyclopedia-type entries on major battles and leaders.
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  73. Indian Wars
  74.  
  75. Modern historians have paid greater attention to warfare between groups of Indians, and they treat Indian-settler relations as a two-way street with impacts on both groups. Jennings 1975 debunks the idea that Europeans entered a virgin area and, in a study reflecting the influence of Michel Foucault’s exploration of linkages between ideology and power, depicts the European settlement of North America as an invasion. Axtell 1981 combines anthropology, archaeology, and history to plumb the cultural impact of contact, including warfare, on both races during the pre-independence era. Steele 1994 agrees that the Indians were not disorganized, primitive people doomed to defeat at the hands of more aggressive and better armed Europeans. Starkey 1998 places warfare in the context of all interracial encounters and points out that Indians and settlers were allies as often as they were enemies. Utley and Washburn 2002 provides a brief overview of colonial period wars in surveying all Anglo-American-Indian wars. Indian-settler relations, including warfare, play a central role in a survey of the southern colonial frontier for the period 1607–1763 in Robinson 1979, and in Leach 1966, a companion volume on the northern colonial frontier. Crane 2004 provides a more detailed study of relations in the southern region for the period 1670–1732. White 1991, a study of the interaction of Indians and Europeans in the Great Lakes region, established an interpretive framework for the study of interracial relations worldwide.
  76.  
  77. Axtell, James. The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.
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  79. Draws on a variety of sources to explain the impact of each race on the other, explaining, in particular, how Indians managed to retain their cultural identity even after adopting Christianity and abandoning many attributes of their ancestral living patterns.
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  81. Crane, Verner. The Southern Frontier, 1670–1732. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004.
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  83. A valuable survey of Anglo-Indian affairs that needs some updating by consulting more recent studies on individual groups of Indians. Originally published in 1928 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).
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  85. Jennings, Francis. The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest. New York: W. W. Norton, 1975.
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  87. Revisionist often tendentious indictment of the European settlement of North America as a territorial invasion; it is as anti-Anglo-American as Francis Parkman is anti-French and anti-Indian.
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  89. Leach, Douglas. The Northern Colonial Frontier, 1607–1763. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1966.
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  91. Basic overview of the topic, valuable for its clear delineation of major trends.
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  93. Robinson, W. Stitt. The Southern Colonial Frontier, 1607–1763. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1979.
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  95. Like other volumes in the Histories of the American Frontier series, this one surveys the topic for the undergraduate and general reader.
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  97. Starkey, Armstrong. European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
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  99. The author views warfare as a type of cultural exchange. He argues that successful Europeans learned much about tactics and the conduct of military operations from the Indians, which they employed in their defeat of the Indians in the period between King Philip’s War and the War of 1812.
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  101. Steele, Ian K. Warpaths: Invasions of North America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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  103. A balanced view of Indian and European settler civilizations that demonizes neither in arguing that both groups were aggressive and sometimes “savage” in their conduct of war, and that European victory was not inevitable prior to 1763. Part 1: 1565–1684, covering English, Spanish, French, and Dutch relations, is the freshest. Part 2: 1687–1748 includes coverage of intertribal warfare. Part 3: 1748–1759 focuses more narrowly on warfare among the colonial powers.
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  105. Utley, Robert M., and Wilcomb E. Washburn. Indian Wars. New York: American Heritage Press, 2002.
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  107. The 26-page first chapter of this survey views the conflicts from the perspective of both the English/Americans and the Indians, showing that “both the Indians and whites were products of their time and place, responding to the values, attitudes and beliefs of their time and place. “[War was the result of] the collision of two ways of life” (p. vi). Originally published in 1977 (New York: American Heritage Press).
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  109. White, Richard. The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
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  111. Rejecting the concept of a line along the frontier between Indian and European societies, White emphasizes a process of accommodation rather than conflict as both peoples met in a “middle ground” between their two cultures during the 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries.
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  113. 17th-Century Wars
  114.  
  115. Conflict began virtually on contact between emigrants from Europe and Native Americans. As Dutch, French, and English colonies expanded their trading networks and physically spread out, they came into contact and, when wars began in Europe between these nations, those wars soon spread to North America, where each imperial power called upon its Indian allies for support.
  116.  
  117. The South
  118.  
  119. The English settlement established at Roanoke Island in 1584 was found abandoned in 1590 and may have been wiped out by Indians, according to Kupperman 2007. Gleach 1997 demonstrates that Indian-settler relations were always difficult in Virginia, Percy 1922 describes the vicious character of the wars that resulted, Mancall 2007 assesses both contemporary and historical accounts of warfare at Jamestown, and Shea 1983 describes the Virginia militia as an institution. Roundtree 2005 details the 1622 and 1644 wars between the settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy. Washburn 1957 rejects the characterization of Nathaniel Bacon as leading a movement against English misrule, arguing that the roots of the rebellion lay in differences over Indian policy and the prosecution of military action against Indian raiders.
  120.  
  121. Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan’s World and Colonial Virginia: A Conflict of Cultures. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
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  123. Anthropologist Gleach demonstrates that conflicting worldviews and the failure of both groups to understand that of the other led inevitably to conflict.
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  125. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Roanoke: The Abandoned Colony. 2d ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
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  127. The standard study of the colony describes “the strained relationship of Indians and colonists” (p. v) and assesses numerous explanations for the disappearance of the colony, including assimilation of the settlers into Indian society and their murder by Indians. Originally published in 1984 (Totowa, NJ : Rowman and Allanheld).
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  129. Mancall, Peter C. “Savagery in Jamestown.” Huntington Library Quarterly 70 (2007): 661–670.
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  131. Assesses the validity and usefulness of 17th-century accounts of Jamestown-Indian conflict by George Percy and John Smith.
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  133. Percy, George. “’A Trewe Relacyon: Virginia from 1609 to 1612.” Tyler’s Quarterly Historical and Genealogical Magazine 3 (1922): 259–282.
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  135. An account of early interracial conflict in the 17th century.
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  137. Roundtree, Helen C. Pocahontas, Powhatan, Opechancanough: Three Indian Lives Changed by Jamestown. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005.
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  139. The author of two other books on Powhatan culture and diplomacy focuses in this one on settler-Indian relations.
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  141. Shea, William L. The Virginia Militia in the Seventeenth Century. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1983.
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  143. Institutional history of Virginia’s militia explains how its adaptation to local conditions led it to evolve away from its English counterpart. Meant primarily as a defensive force, though one that, in its early days, often stole Indian food supplies, the militia atrophied after the wars linked to Bacon’s Rebellion led to decline of tensions between the races.
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  145. Washburn, Wilcomb. The Governor and the Rebel: A History of Bacon’s Rebellion in Virginia. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1957.
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  147. A still valuable study of the violent uprising that shook Virginia in 1676–1677.
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  149. Early Wars in New England and the Middle Colonies
  150.  
  151. To the north of Virginia tensions between settlers and Indians did not occur immediately following the arrival of English and Dutch immigrants. Salisbury 1984 surveys Indian culture in the region prior to contact with Europeans. Though antiquarian in style, Hubbard 1845 contains snippets of information not found elsewhere. Salisbury 1984 provides a broad survey of Indian-settler relations prior to the Pequot War. Vaughan 1995 continues the story to the eve of King Philip’s War, describing a half century of grievances that finally resulted in a tragic war. The Pilgrims of Plymouth enjoyed peaceful relations with the local Indians; however, shortly after the establishment of Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, war pitted the Pequot Indians against Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, and Saybrook. Cave 1996 provides a balanced account of the Pequot War (1634–1638). Orr 1980 makes accessible contemporary accounts of the conflict. Vincentius 1637 provides a description of perhaps the seminal event in determining the outcome of the conflict. Hauptman, et al. 1990 includes valuable essays on the impact of the war on both Indian and settler civilizations. Merwick 2006 condemns the Dutch for their treatment of the Indians of the lower Hudson River valley in the Peach War (1635); Kieft’s War (1643–1644), and the Dutch wars with the Esopus Indians (1658–1660, 1663–1664). Otto 2006 provides a balanced account of those conflicts.
  152.  
  153. Cave, Alfred A. The Pequot War. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1996.
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  155. The standard scholarly work on the conflict, this includes a particularly good assessment of 17th-century accounts of events.
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  157. Hauptman, Lawrence H., James D. Wherry, and William T. Hagan, eds. The Pequots in Southern New England: The Fall and Rise of an Indian Nation. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
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  159. Useful essays include Laurence M. Hauptman, “The Pequot War and Its Legacies” (pp. 60–80), and Neal Salisbury, “Indians and Colonists in Southern New England after the Pequot War: An Uneasy Balance” (pp. 81–96).
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  161. Hubbard, William. The Indian Wars in New England. 2 vols. Boston: Samuel G. Drake, 1845.
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  163. A dated work that does contain information not found elsewhere.
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  165. Merwick, Donna. The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch-Amerindian Encounters in New Netherland. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006.
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  167. Argues that the Dutch planned to settle and trade peacefully with the Indians of the Hudson River Valley but soon abandoned their principles and destroyed the Munsee civilization.
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  169. Orr, Charles. History of the Pequot War: The Contemporary Accounts of Mason, Underhill, Vincent, and Gardener. New York: AMS Press, 1980.
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  171. Annotated transcripts of materials in the collections of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Originally published in 1897 (Cleveland, OH: Helman-Taylor).
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  173. Otto, Paul. The Dutch-Munsee Encounter in America: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Hudson Valley. New York: Berghahn, 2006.
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  175. A more balanced survey of relations between Dutch settlers and the Munsee Indians during the 17th century than that of Merwick 2006.
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  177. Salisbury, Neal. Manitou and Providence: Indians, Europeans, and the Making of New England, 1500–1643. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
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  179. A broad cultural survey of the period before open warfare occurred.
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  181. Vaughan, Alden T. New England Frontier: Puritans and Indians, 1620–1675. 3d ed. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995.
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  183. Updated version of Vaughan’s 1965 study argues that relations between settlers and the Indians were relatively peaceful for half a century before accumulated Indian grievances led the Indians to launch King Philip’s War.
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  185. Vincentius, P. [Philip Vincent]. A True Relation of the Late Battell fought in New England, between the English, and the Salvages: With the present state of things there. London: Printed by M.P. for Nathanael Butter and Iohn Bellamie, 1637.
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  187. Written about six months after the massacre, this account describes how English colonists surrounded and burned the Pequot village at Mystic, killing seven hundred inhabitants (26 May 1637).
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  189. King Philip’s War
  190.  
  191. With battles and massacres from Maine to Rhode Island, King Philip’s War (1675–1676) was the largest and bloodiest Indian war of the 17th century. Philip/Metacom led the Wampanoag Indians, who vied with the English for support of the Narragansett, Mohegan, Podunkof, and Nipmunk tribes. For the first time since their settlement, New England colonies had to mobilize their militia in a desperate struggle for survival. Zelner 2010 explains how officials in Essex County, Massachusetts, did so. Leach 2009 describes the coming, conduct, and results of the war while Bourne 1990 and Lepore 1998 provide more interpretive treatments. A key military leader, Benjamin Church (see Church 1975) describes the conflict from the points of view of the Puritan participants. Gould 1996 places Church’s account in context, plumbing how it reflects 17th-century settler society. Slotkin and Folsom 1999 consists of edited shorter contemporary accounts to which the authors supply valuable introductions. Bourne 1990 provides a survey of the conflict accessible to the general reader. Like Drake 1999, Bourne 1990 depicts a biracial society torn apart by civil war. Mandell 2010 demonstrates how the Indian’s loss of the war brought with it a loss of sovereignty for all time.
  192.  
  193. Bourne, Russell. The Red King’s Rebellion: Racial Politics in New England, 1675–1678. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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  195. Aimed at the general public, this well-written survey questions contemporary accounts of the war and argues that the biracial society that had developed in New England was destroyed by King Philip’s War.
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  197. Church, Benjamin. Diary of King Philip’s War. Chester, CT: Pequot, 1975.
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  199. The best modern edition of Church’s Entertaining Passages Relating to King Philip’s War, originally published in 1716.
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  201. Drake, James D. King Philip’s War: Civil War in New England, 1675–1676. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999.
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  203. The author overstates his case for its being a civil war by his depiction of a unified society prior to the war.
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  205. Gould, Philip. “Reinventing Benjamin Church: Virtue, Citizenship and the History of King Philip’s War in Early National America.” Journal of the Early Republic 16 (1996): 645–657.
  206. DOI: 10.2307/3124421Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  207. A sophisticated historiographical investigation of the war and its meaning in US history.
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  209. Leach, Douglas. Flintlock and Tomahawk: New England in King Philip’s War. Woodstock, VT: Countryman, 2009.
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  211. Classic study postulates that interracial conflict and this climactic war were “virtually inevitable” from the time Europeans settled New England. Originally published in 1958 (New York : Macmillan).
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  213. Lepore, Jill. The Name of War: King Philip’s War and the Origins of American Identity. New York: Vintage, 1998.
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  215. Employs contemporary documents and historical accounts to construct a narrative of the war and the impact that it had on the self-identities of both Indians and settlers. The war cemented the belief on both sides that they could not coexist.
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  217. Mandell, Daniel R. King Philip’s War: Colonial Expansion, Native Resistance, and the End of Indian Sovereignty. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010.
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  219. Concise treatment of the war stresses how the continual encroachment on Indian lands led to rebellion, how the success of the Indian raids forced New England colonies to unite, and how winter deprivation led to the collapse of Indian unity and the end of Indian sovereignty.
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  221. Slotkin, Richard, and James K. Folsom, eds. So Dreadful a Judgment: Puritan Responses to King Philip’s War, 1676–1677. Middleton, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1999.
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  223. Reproduces six contemporary accounts of the war with sophisticated commentaries placing each in cultural and historical context.
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  225. Zelner, Kyle F. A Rabble in Arms: Massachusetts Towns and Militiamen during King Philip’s War. New York: New York University Press, 2010.
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  227. In analyzing muster and pay lists and other local records, Zelner shows that town leaders imposed the burden of service in the field on men of lower socioeconomic status in Essex County—often to the detriment of the public interest—while protecting their friends and family members from dangerous duty.
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  229. Imperial Wars
  230.  
  231. During the 17th century, the Netherlands, France, and England grew in power at the expense of the Iberian nations, which had dominated exploration and colonization for more than a century. Wars that began in Europe virtually always spread to the colonies, and North America played a key role in the rivalry for empire that evolved from a competition to establish colonies into a series of wars contesting control of areas for future settlement and ownership of previously established outposts of empire. In North America, the Dutch, English, and French enlisted Indian allies in these contests. Scammell 1989 provides an overview of the competition during the century. Hainsworth and Churches 1998 describes the wars between the English and the Dutch that arose primarily from commercial rivalry. The Second Anglo-Dutch War (1665–1667) began when English warships seized New Amsterdam in 1664. Shomette and Haslach 1988 describes Dutch naval operations in American waters that resulted in the recapture of New York/New Amsterdam during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674). Fifteen years later, the War of the League of Augsburg in Europe spread to North America, where French forces from Quebec waged war against the Iroquois Indians in northern New York and encouraged Abenaki and Pennacook Indians to raid English settlements in New Hampshire and Maine. What Americans later called King William’s War has not been the subject of a narrative study. Drake 1897 focuses on operations in New England and what are now New Brunswick and Nova Scotia in Canada. Studies of key figures include Colby 1915 and Eccles 2003 on Count Frontenac and Baker and Reid 1998 on William Phips, opponents at the Battle of Quebec in 1690. Hamilton 1962 stresses the key role played by forts. Crane and Hahn 2004 provides coverage of the often neglected competition between the English and Spanish in the South. The 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, which ended the war, returned all territorial possessions to their prewar owners.
  232.  
  233. Baker, Emerson, and John Reid. The New England Knight: Sir William Phips, 1651–1695. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998.
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  235. Standard biography of the Boston sea captain who plundered Port Royal in Acadia in 1690 and led the ill-fated expedition by Massachusetts forces against Quebec later that year.
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  237. Colby, Charles William. The Fighting Governor: A Chronicle of Frontenac. New York: Glasgow, Brook, 1915.
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  239. A hagiographic biography of the French governor general of Canada, who launched raids against the Iroquois and turned back English attacks on Montreal and Quebec in 1690.
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  241. Crane, Verner W., and Steven C. Hahn. The Southern Frontier, 1670–1732. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004.
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  243. Hahn’s updated edition of Crane’s 1927 account of French, Spanish, and English rivalry and each nation’s relations with Indians (prior to the settlement of Georgia) that retains value for the information it conveys.
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  245. Drake, Samuel Adams. The Border Wars of New England: Commonly Called King William’s and Queen Anne’s Wars. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1897.
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  247. A somewhat sensational account, which views the two wars as phases of a single conflict, by a prolific and popular author of works on New England history.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Eccles, W. J. Frontenac: The Courtier Governor. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003.
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  251. Biography of this twice-governor general of Canada shows Louis de Buade, comte de Frontenac to have been a corrupt, economically driven individual who turned back the English attack on Canada in 1690—a view at odds with Francis Parkman’s romantic view of the man.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Hainsworth, Roger, and Christine Churches. The Anglo-Dutch Naval Wars, 1652–1674. Stroud, UK: Alan Sutton, 1998.
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  255. Surveys the causes and course of the three contests for colonies and commerce.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Hamilton, Edward P. The French and Indian Wars: The Story of Battles and Forts in the Wilderness. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962.
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  259. Written by the director of restoration of Fort Ticonderoga, this survey of Anglo-French warfare focuses on the northern frontier.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Scammell, G. K. The First Imperial Age: European Expansion, 1500–1715. New York: HarperCollins, 1989.
  262. DOI: 10.4324/9780203421222Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Broad explanation of the motives behind worldwide colonization and the methods employed to establish the first overseas European colonies.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Shomette, Donald G., and Robert D. Haslach. Raid on America: The Dutch Naval Campaign of 1672–1674. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Draws on archaeological evidence as well as documents to describe Dutch naval operations in North American waters during the Third Anglo-Dutch War.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. 18th-Century Wars
  270.  
  271. Colonial wars during the first seventy-five years of the 18th century differed from those of the previous century in scope and area of operations. The Indian wars were fought on the frontier and none threatened the survival of English settlements as those fought in the 1600s had—at most they threatened to check westward expansion. The imperial wars were contested across a far wider area and climaxed with the virtual removal of the French and Spanish presence east of the Mississippi River.
  272.  
  273. Queen Anne’s War
  274.  
  275. The status quo antebellum Treaty of Ryswick brought a half decade of peace before dynastic rivalry led to the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession, known as Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713) in America. Urged on by Frontenac, the governor general of New France, Iroquois Indians had, the year before, raided frontier settlements in New England, which, in 1703, were attacked from the north by Abenaki Indians from Acadia. Haefeli and Sweeney 2003 and Haefeli and Sweeney 2006 describe the most famous Indian raid of the war, the 1704 attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. Demos 1994 traces the fate of the members of the John Williams family, who were among the captives. Brebner 1973 describes warfare in Acadia, including the failed attempt by Massachusetts militia to capture Port Royal in 1707. Waller 1960 describes the life of Samuel Vetch, commander of the forces from Massachusetts that three years later, joined by ships and men from England, captured the French port. The subsequent expedition against Quebec led by Admiral Hovenden Walker—a dismal failure—has not been the subject of a solid analysis, though Graham 1953 provides the documentary material upon which to base such a study. Reid, et al. 2004 describes the English conquest of Acadia and the process by which the English extended their control of its people after the peace. Much less has been written about the conflict between European colonies in the South, where Indian alliances played a key role. Arnade 1959 describes the failure of the 1702 English siege of Spanish St. Augustine. Over the next two years, men from South Carolina and their Indian allies destroyed a score of Spanish missions and Indian villages in western Florida, enslaving nearly 300 Indians (Gallay 2002). Higginbotham 1991 describes the rivalry between French settlers in Mobile and English settlers at Pensacola for friendship with local Indians. Under terms of the Treaty of Utrecht that ended the war, Britain retained control of Newfoundland, Hudson’s Bay, and Acadia, which it renamed Nova Scotia.
  276.  
  277. Arnade, Charles W. The Siege of St. Augustine in 1702. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1959.
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  279. Detailed account of the campaign by Governor James Moore and 800 South Carolinians against Spanish Florida. Though receiving reinforcements from Jamaica, the besiegers failed when four Spanish ships arrived at the city.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Brebner, John Bartlett. New England’s Outpost: Acadia before the Conquest of Canada. New York: B. Franklin, 1973.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Classic study by the dean of Canadian-American relations. Originally published in 1927.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Demos, John. The Unredeemed Captive: A Family Story from Early America. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1994.
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  287. Intriguing account of Deerfield minister John Williams and his family who were taken prisoner at Deerfield, Massachusetts. His wife and infant daughter were killed on the march to Canada. He and two sons were ultimately released, but his seven-year-old daughter converted to Catholicism, married an Indian, and lived the rest of her life in an Indian community.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South 1670–1717. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
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  291. Bancroft Prize–winning examination of the role of the Indian slave trade in English-Indian interactions as far west as the Mississippi River, which resulted in warfare and the enslavement of hundreds of Indians. Half the book focuses on the years of Queen Anne’s War.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Graham, Gerald S., ed. The Walker Expedition to Quebec, 1711. London: Navy Records Society, 1953.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Built around a transcription of the journal that Admiral Sir Hovenden Walker published in 1720 augmented by a wide variety of documents concerning the failed attack on Quebec during Queen Anne’s War.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Haefeli, Evan, and Kevin Sweeney. Captors and Captives: The 1704 French and Indian Raid on Deerfield. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003.
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  299. Definitive account of the raid from the perspective both of the French-Canadian forces and their allies, the Abenaki, Huron, Pennacook, and Iroquois Indian raiders of the townspeople, followed by the return to Canada with more than one hundred captives and the fate of those captives.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Haefeli, Evan, and Kevin Sweeney, eds. Captive Histories: English, French, and Native Narratives of the 1704 Deerfield Raid. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006.
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  303. Reproduces contemporary English, French, Mohawk Indian, and Abenaki Indian accounts of the Deerfield raid and its aftermath.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Higginbotham, Jay. Old Mobile: Fort Louis de la Louisiane, 1702–1711. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991.
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  307. A model study of a colonial outpost, relations between its settlers and local Indians, and the problems brought on by unreliable communications with the mother country. Originally published in 1977.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Reid, John, Maurice Basque, Elizabeth Mancke, Barry Moody, Geoffrey Plank, and William Wicken. The “Conquest” of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004.
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  311. A finely nuanced study of the capture of Acadia, the methods employed to incorporate the new possession into the British Empire, and the effects of the new order on the resident Indians.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Waller, G. M. Samuel Vetch, Colonial Enterpriser. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1960.
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  315. The standard biography of the commander of the expedition that captured Port Royal, capital of Acadia, in 1710 and who was convicted of trading with the French during wartime.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Mid-18th Century Wars
  318.  
  319. For a quarter century the Treaty of Utrecht achieved its goal of establishing a balance of power in the New World similar to that in Europe. By the late 1730s, peace was breaking down both in Europe and in transoceanic empires, with the result that, from the 1740s until the early 1760s, a series of interconnected wars swept the world. The first began in Europe and spread to America, but the last started in North America.
  320.  
  321. War of Jenkins’ Ear
  322.  
  323. By the 1730s, British merchants had been systematically exceeding the trade allowed them in Spanish America under the Treaty of Utrecht, which led to Spanish reprisals that enraged the public in Britain and were cited as the casus belli by Parliament. Wright 1971 provides context for the war by tracing Anglo-Spanish rivalry in both North America and the Caribbean over three centuries. Harding 1991 describes the 1739 sacking of Porto Bello on the Isthmus of Panama and, in greater detail, Admiral Edward Vernon’s disastrous attack on Cartagena two years later. Ivers 1974 explains the military motivation behind the settlement of Georgia in 1733 and describes both the expedition from there that captured Spanish St. Augustine in 1740 and the subsequent attacks from there against Spanish and Indian settlements in Florida.
  324.  
  325. Harding, Richard. Amphibious Warfare in the Eighteenth Century: The British Expedition to the West Indies, 1740–1742. London: Boydell Press, 1991.
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  327. An excellent account of a failed expedition that demonstrated the difficulty of projecting power overseas during the Age of Sail.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Ivers, Larry E. British Drums on the Southern Frontier: The Military Colonization of Georgia, 1733–1749. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974.
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  331. This study, the best of the War of Jenkins’ Ear, stresses the military rather than the humanitarian motives for settling the region between South Carolina and Florida.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Wright, J. Leitch, Jr. Anglo-Spanish Rivalry in North America. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1971.
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  335. A brief (less than 200-page) overview of three centuries of antagonism that focuses on Florida.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. King George’s War
  338.  
  339. In 1740, the War of Jenkins’ Ear was subsumed in the wider War of the Austrian Succession (1741–1748), which was referred to as King George’s War by Anglo-Americans. New France struck first, sending dozens of raiding parties against frontier settlements in New York and New England. Rawlyk 1967 provides a balanced account of the 1745 capture of Louisbourg by troops from Massachusetts. The principal leaders of the expedition have been the subject of biographies: Schutz 1961 on William Shirley, Parsons 1855 and Brayall 2008 on William Pepperell, and Gwyn 2004 on Admiral Peter Warren. Pritchard 1995 details the ill-fated relief expedition launched by France the following year. The 1746 attack on the Anglo-American garrison at Grand Pré, Nova Scotia, by Canadian militia and their Indian allies and other raids led to the British deportation of French residents from Nova Scotia (1754–1755) that is described in Plank 2001 and Faragher 2005.
  340.  
  341. Brayall, Richard A. “To the uttermost of my power”: The Life and Times of Sir William Pepperell, 1696–1759. Westminster, MD: Heritage, 2008.
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  343. The only modern treatment of Pepperell leaves room for another study of the man.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Faragher, John Mack. A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from Their American Homeland. New York: W. W. Norton, 2005.
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  347. Sketches the history of Nova Scotia from its settlement through King George’s War, showing that the French settlers had intermarried and lived in peace with the local Mi’kmaq (Micmac) Indians. Victims of the Anglo-French wars, and especially of the dishonest and paranoid Charles Lawrence, the Acadians were evicted from their homes and forcibly scattered among English colonies to the South.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Gwyn, Julian. An Admiral for America: Sir Peter Warren, Vice Admiral of the Red, 1703–1752. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004.
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  351. Solid biography by the editor of Warren’s papers.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Parsons, Usher. The Life of Sir William Pepperell. Boston: Little, Brown, 1855.
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  355. Dated work, yet one that contains significant information about the military commander of the 1745 Louisbourg campaign.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Plank, Geoffrey. An Unsettled Conquest: The British Campaign against the Peoples of Acadia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001.
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  359. A balanced treatment of the sordid affair, which includes coverage of the fate of the native Mi’kmaq (Micmac) Indians who remained in Nova Scotia after the expulsion of the Acadians.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Pritchard, James. Anatomy of a Naval Disaster: The 1746 French Expedition to North America. Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1995.
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  363. Detailed account of the ills that befell the d’Enville expedition, which France launched in 1746 with orders to recapture Louisbourg and Nova Scotia from the British, by the expert on 18th-century French naval administration.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Rawlyk, G. A. Yankees at Louisbourg. Orono: University of Maine Press, 1967.
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  367. The definitive scholarly account of French resistance, the siege of forty-five days, and the capture of Louisbourg by New England forces in 1745 and by a combination of British army and naval power in 1758.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Schutz, John A. William Shirley, King’s Governor of Massachusetts. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961.
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  371. The standard biography of the Massachusetts governor.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Inter-War Era
  374.  
  375. The status quo ante bellum Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle that brought the war to an end in 1748 and returned Louisbourg to France proved to be little more than an armed truce. Chartrand 2005 explains the role played by French forts in the competition for control of the Indian trade and strategic positions in the no man’s land between French and British settlements. Stotz 2005 and Waddell and Bomberger 1997 do the same in greater detail for both English and French forts in western Pennsylvania. Ward 2003 focuses on the rivalry for control of western Pennsylvania during the decade following the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, a rivalry that soon led to open hostilities. Merritt 2007 describes the deterioration of Indian-white relations in the region as Anglo-French competition for control of the Ohio country increased. Hindman 1967 and Alberts 1965 describe the expedition led by George Washington to seize the forks of the Ohio River from the French and the ensuing clashes at Great Meadows and Fort Necessity. Participant accounts can be found in Major Robert Stobo’s memoir (Craig 1854) and George Washington’s diary (Jackson and Twohig 1976).
  376.  
  377. Alberts, Robert C. The Most Extraordinary Adventures of Major Robert Stobo. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965.
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  379. Biography of the Scots-born Virginia militia officer who was taken prisoner at the Battle of Great Meadows, escaped from Quebec, and rejoined the English in Nova Scotia.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Chartrand, René. French Fortresses in North America 1535–1763: Québec, Montréal, Louisbourg and New Orleans. Oxford: Osprey, 2005.
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  383. A volume in the Fortress series that contains numerous diagrams and illustrations.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Craig, Neville B., ed. Memoirs of Major Robert Stobo of the Virginia Regiment. Pittsburgh: John S. Davidson, 1854.
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  387. Lightly annotated edition of Stobo’s memoir that focuses as much on his escape from Quebec and information provided General James Wolfe as on western Pennsylvania.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Hindman, William B. The Great Meadows Campaign and the Climactic Battle of Fort Necessity. Leesburg, VA: Potomac Press, 1967.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. A very brief, 40-page account of young George Washington’s baptism of fire.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Jackson, Donald, and Dorothy Twohig, eds. The Diaries of George Washington. Vol. 1. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1976.
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  395. Includes both the expedition he led, which ended at Great Meadows, and his participation in the subsequent campaign led by General Edward Braddock.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Merritt, Jane T. At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-Atlantic Frontier, 1700–1763. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Explores the cultural interaction of Pennsylvania settlers and local Indians, demonstrating that once friendly relations soured by mid-century and became irreparable during the French and Indian War.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Stotz, Charles Morse. Outposts of the War for Empire: The French and English in Western Pennsylvania: Their Armies, Their Forts, Their People 1749–1764. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005.
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  403. An architect, Stotz reconstructs perspective drawings for the twenty-two forts built by the French, British, and their colonials in western Pennsylvania and sketches the history of each. Originally published in 1985.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Waddell, Louis M., and Bruce D. Bomberger. The French and Indian War in Pennsylvania, 1753–1763: Fortification and Struggle. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania History and Museum Commission, 1997.
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  407. An excellent guide to forts and camps constructed in western Pennsylvania illustrated by engravings, photographs, line drawings, and charts and accompanied by site inventories that provide the location, description, and dates each site was in use.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Ward, Matthew. Breaking the Backcountry: The Seven Years’ War in Virginia and Pennsylvania, 1754–1765. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2003.
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  411. Solid treatment of warfare in a key region and its effects on the inhabitants.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Frontier Skirmishes
  414.  
  415. Jockeying for control of key positions and securing alliances with Indians soon led to open warfare throughout the length of the eastern North American continent. Chartrand 2005 (cited under Inter-War Era) covers both Washington’s expedition and the subsequent failure of Edward Braddock’s attempt to dislodge the French from the western Pennsylvania area in 1755. Crocker 2009 provides a narrative of the campaign far more sympathetic to Braddock than Kopperman 1973, which provides the definitive analysis of Braddock’s defeat at the Monongahela River. Fiedmont 1936 describes the Anglo-American capture of Fort Beauséjour on Cape Breton Island in June of the same year. Reid 1910 narrates the clash that occurred at Bloody Pond when a British column intent on seizing Fort Frédéric (Crown Pointe) on Lake Champlain encountered an army of French regulars, Canadian militia, and their Indian allies who were en route to attack British positions on Lake George. The life of Sir William Johnson, commander of the defeated British force, is ably told in Flexner 1990 and O’Toole 2005.
  416.  
  417. Crocker, Thomas E. Braddock’s March: How the Man Sent to Seize a Continent Changed American History. Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2009.
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  419. Attorney Crocker provides new information in this thoroughly researched work in which he depicts the campaign as bringing together leaders who would achieve fame in the American Revolution. He is overly sympathetic to Braddock, though correct in his assertion that his defeat helped lay a basis for American rebellion by shattering the myth of British invincibility.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Fiedmont, Louis-Thomas Jacau de. The Siege of Beauséjour in 1755: A Journal of the Attack on Beauséjour. St. John’s, Canada: n.p., 1936.
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  423. Useful primary source on the little-known operation.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Flexner, James Thomas. Mohawk Baronet: A Biography of Sir William Johnson. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990.
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  427. A highly literate biography written before the new Indian history that provided important insights on the Iroquois Indians with whom Johnson worked. Originally published in 1959.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Kopperman, Paul E. Braddock at the Monongahela. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973.
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  431. A sympathetic biography of Edward Braddock, which contains a vivid reconstruction of the western Pennsylvania campaign that is unparalleled.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. O’Toole, Fintan. White Savage: William Johnson and the Invention of America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
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  435. The Irish drama critic and newspaper columnist depicts Johnson, an Irish immigrant, as a man who bridged Mohawk and Anglo-American societies and personified the contradictions in relations between the two groups.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Reid, W. Max. Lake George and Lake Champlain: The War Trail of the Mohawk and the Battle-Ground of France and England in Their Contest for the Control of North America. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1910.
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  439. Covers the span from Champlain’s exploration of Lake Champlain in the early 17th century through the British occupation of Canada and contains local detail not found in other works.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. The French and Indian War
  442.  
  443. Like the War of Jenkins’ Ear a little more than a decade before, the frontier skirmishes of 1754–1755 proved a precursor to a wider war, the Seven Years’ War in Europe, called the French and Indian War in America. Gipson’s magisterial volumes contain a wealth of information not found elsewhere (see Gipson 1948). For over half a century Parkman 1884 and Parkman 1892 provided a foil for authors who mined it for inaccuracies. Yet Parkman’s descriptions of locations important during the conflict—most of which he visited—remain useful. Anderson 2000 provides a magisterial account of the North American phase of the conflict; Borneman 2007 is an account for the general reader. Fowler 2005 emphasizes operations in North America while placing them in the context of the European war. Nester 2000 provides similar context for a description of operations, and the author then traces the links between the war, Pontiac’s rebellion, and the American Revolution. Dull 2005 provides a long needed study of the French navy during the war and its naval operations in North American waters. Gwyn 2003 is a far briefer overview of British operations on the Halifax station.
  444.  
  445. Anderson, Fred. Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: A. A. Knopf, 2000.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. This superb account of the war in North America covers social, economic, diplomatic, and political aspects of the conflict as well as military operations. It is likely to stand for generations as the definitive scholarly work on the conflict and its consequences for American and world history.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Borneman, Walter R. The French and Indian War: Deciding the Fate of North America. New York: Harper Perennial, 2007.
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  451. Writing for a general audience and focusing on strategy and operations, Borneman explains how rivalries in the Ohio Valley morphed into a worldwide conflict that laid the basis for both the British Empire and the American Revolution.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Dull, Jonathan. The French Navy in the Seven Years’ War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005.
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  455. A detailed and valuable study that will repay the attention needed to work through it.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Fowler, William M. Empires at War: The French and Indian War and the Struggle for North America. New York: Walker, 2005.
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  459. A well-written, engaging overview of the war for general readers based on the latest scholarship.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Gipson, Lawrence Henry. The British Empire before the American Revolution. Vol. 6, The Great War for the Empire: The Years of Defeat, 1754–1757. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1948.
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  463. See also Vol. 7: The Great War for the Empire: The Victorious Years, 1758–1760 (1950). Though dated in interpretation and weak in their assessment of the role of Indians, these volumes, part of Gipson’s fifteen-volume study, contain much detail not found elsewhere.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Gwyn, Julian. Frigates and Foremasts: The North American Squadron in Nova Scotia Waters, 1745–1815. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2003.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Though broad in temporal coverage, it complements Dull 2005, a more focused and detailed study of the Royal Navy’s French opponents.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Nester, Willliam R. The First Global War: Britain, France and the Fate of North America, 1756–1775. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000.
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  471. The author places the North American campaigns of 1756–1760 in a global context showing how they were viewed by policymakers in London and Paris, describes the challenge to imperial planners posed by Indians in the Old Northwest, and explains how the removal of the French threat on the borders of the British colonies combined with British postwar policies to bring on the American Revolution.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Parkman, Francis. Montcalm and Wolfe. 2 vols. Boston: Little, Brown, 1884.
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  475. Though often stilted in terms of modern usage, the prose and characterization of individuals remain powerful.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Parkman, Francis. A Half Century of Conflict. Boston: Little, Brown, 1892.
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  479. Traces the background to the Seven Years’ War in depicting virtuous England and its colonies in a competition with evil France and its savage Indian allies. Parkman visited most of the places that he wrote about.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Shifting Fortunes, 1757–1759
  482.  
  483. The first years of the war went well for France, its colonists, and their Indian allies, who captured Fort Oswego in 1756. The 1757 French advance southward and capture of Fort William Henry is described in Steele 1990. The British campaigns of 1758 have received more extensive scholarly coverage, including Hamilton 1964 on the English capture of Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain; Godfrey 1982 on the capture of Fort Frontenac, situated where the St. Lawrence River leaves Lake Ontario; and Cubbison 2010 on the capture of Fort Duquesne at the forks of the Ohio. The ensuing campaigns of 1759 are equally well covered: Rawlyk 1967, Hitsman and Bond 1954, and Downey 1965 describe the capture of Fort Louisbourg, the fortress on the tip of Cape Breton Island. Dunnigan 1960 covers the British siege and capture of Fort Niagara at the mouth of the Niagara River, and Brumwell 2004 graphically portrays the savagery of both the massacre of the British garrison at Fort William Henry and the retaliatory destruction of the Abenaki village at St. Francis by Rogers’ Rangers.
  484.  
  485. Brumwell, Stephen. White Devil: A True Story of War, Savagery and Vengeance in Colonial America. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2004.
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  487. The French and Indian massacre of the British garrison at Fort William Henry is well documented, but the retaliatory raid into Quebec and slaughter of the sleeping inhabitants of St. Francis is largely ignored by Anglo-Americans, who pay tribute to its leader, Major Robert Rogers, a man remembered by the Abenaki victims as the “White Devil.”
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Cubbison, Douglas R. The British Defeat of the French in Pennsylvania, 1758: A Military History of the Forbes Campaign against Fort Duquesne. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010.
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  491. A thorough account of the campaign that covers the planning, logistics, and training that led to victory.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Downey, Fairfax. Louisbourg: Key to a Continent. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1965.
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  495. A popular history of the 1745 and 1758 sieges of the fortified town and harbor on Cape Breton Island.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Dunnigan, Brian Leigh. Siege—1759: The Campaign against Niagara. Youngstown, NY: Old Fort Niagara Association, 1960.
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  499. Popular account of the July campaign meant largely for visitors to the fort.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Godfrey, William G. Pursuit of Profit and Preferment in Colonial North America: John Bradstreet’s Quest. Waterloo, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University, 1982.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Traces the career of the Nova Scotia-born officer who served in King George’s War, the French and Indian War, and Pontiac’s Rebellion, showing that he was not above trading with the French to turn a profit and explaining how he used his considerable military talents to rise to the rank of major general.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Hamilton, Edward P. Fort Ticonderoga: Key to a Continent. Boston: Little Brown, 1964.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Describes military operations, 1755–1783, for general readers.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Hitsman, J. Mackay, and C. C. J. Bond. “The Assault Landing at Louisbourg, 1758.” Canadian Historical Review 35 (1954): 314–330.
  510. DOI: 10.3138/CHR-035-04-02Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Excellent analysis of the equipment and doctrine needed for a successful amphibious assault.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Rawlyk, G. A. Yankees at Louisbourg. Orono: University of Maine Press, 1967.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. The definitive scholarly account of French resistance, the siege of forty-five days, and the capture of Louisbourg by New England forces in 1745 and by a combination of British army and naval power in 1758.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Steele, Ian K. Betrayals: Fort William Henry and the “Massacre”. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Shows that early reports of the capture of the fort that failed to account for 500 English and colonial troops gave rise to widespread stories of a post-surrender massacre that have persisted in some accounts.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. British Triumph (Quebec 1759–1760)
  522.  
  523. Ward 2005, Stacey 2007, and Donaldson 1973 all describe the campaign that sealed the fate of the continent. Pargellis 1933 provides a sound biography of British commander in chief Lord Loudoun and Brumwell 2006 a modern biography on James Wolfe. Manning 2011 provides a narrative account of fighting for control of Quebec, the key to dominating Canada.
  524.  
  525. Brumwell, Steven. Paths of Glory: The Life and Death of General James Wolfe. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2006.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. The first modern study of Wolfe and a welcome correction to the hagiography that mars earlier biographies.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Donaldson, Gordon. Battle for a Continent: Quebec, 1759. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1973.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. A popular treatment of the subject.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Manning, Stephen. Quebec: The Story of Three Sieges. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Focuses on the British siege and victory on the Plains of Abraham in 1759, the French siege of 1760 that failed when the Royal Navy arrived with reinforcements, and the American siege of the fortress in 1775.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Pargellis, Stanley. Lord Loudoun in America. New London, CT: Yale University Press, 1933.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Not a traditional biography or operational narrative, but a study of relations between John Campbell, fourth Earl of Loudoun, and the colonial officials he had to virtually coerce into cooperating with each other and with his army in order to prosecute the war against the French.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Stacey, C. P. Quebec, 1759: The Siege and the Battle. Toronto: Robin Bass Studios, 2007.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Reprinting of Stacey’s 1959 detailed highly readable account of the campaign that focuses on the battle on the Plains of Abraham.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Ward, Matthew. The Battle for Quebec, 1759: Britain’s Conquest of Canada. Stroud, UK: Tempus, 2005.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. The most comprehensive account of the campaign begins with its planning in London and ends with the capture of Montreal in 1760 and contains fresh information on the lives of military men and civilians caught up in operations that often turned to brutality.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Contending Militaries
  550.  
  551. In recent years practitioners of the “New Military History” have focused attention on the individuals who served in the wars and the societies that supported them. Anderson 1984 provides a pathbreaking analysis of the Massachusetts militia system and the men who did field service; Titus 1991 does the same for Virginia and explores the societal tensions caused by the war. Selesky 1990 analyzes changes in the way Connecticut formulated military policy and raised troops, c. 1630–1760. Brumwell 2002 finds that, rather than being lower class neer-do-wells, British soldiers were similar to those from Massachusetts described in Anderson 1984. McConnell 2004 describes the everyday life of the common British soldier serving on the frontier. Mayer 2006 examines the lives of women and family members who followed colonial troops into war in western Pennsylvania. Silver 2008 focuses on the impact of the war in the same mid-Atlantic region, arguing that it was fear of Indian attacks that galvanized the immigrant settlers of the region into unity.
  552.  
  553. Anderson, Fred. A People’s Army: Massachusetts Soldiers and Society in the Seven Years’ War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Drawing heavily on local records as well as participant diaries, Anderson shows that the typical Massachusetts soldier was a younger son of a middle-class family who entered the service seeking social advancement. These men considered enlistment agreements to be contracts, which, if broken by superiors, released them from further service.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Brumwell, Steven. Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755–1763. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Drawing on a wide variety of primary source materials, Brumwell depicts the day-to-day life of the British enlisted man and reassesses the traditionally negative view of his effectiveness as a soldier.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Mayer, Holly A. “From Forts to Families: Following the Army into Western Pennsylvania, 1758–1766.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 130 (2006): 5–43.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. Adds a new perspective to campaign histories, which usually focus on operations and provide less information on planning, logistics, and manpower.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. McConnell, Michael. Army and Empire: British Soldiers on the American Frontier, 1758–1775. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. British soldiers were similar in background to their North American counterparts, and difficult living conditions and long periods of military inactivity led many assigned to the frontier to take on the attributes of settlers in the region.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Selesky, Harold. War and Society in Colonial Connecticut. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Institutional analysis of how Connecticut leaders formulated military policy and how the characteristics of the men who served in the military evolved from the Pequot War to the outbreak of the American Revolution. Half the book focuses on the French and Indian War, by which time the colony had shifted from requiring militia service to the use of bounties and other economic inducements to enlist volunteers.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Silver, Peter. Our Savage Neighbors: How Indian War Transformed Early America. Boston: W. W. Norton, 2008.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Before the threat of Indian attack unified them, the various immigrant groups had lived side-by-side but separate lives. Opposition to the Indians and a sense of differentness from their enemies gave settlers a sense of common identity, except for Quakers, whose opposition to war set them apart. Silver explores ideas of civilization and savagery during both the French and Indian War and the American Revolution.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Titus, James. The Old Dominion at War: Society, Politics, and Warfare in Late Colonial Virginia. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1991.
  578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Shows that mobilization for war caused social and political tensions in Virginia as most of the colonial soldiers were drawn from the lower classes, often drafted, and resented a war that they believed served the interests of the elite. Those elites questioned the defensive strategy pursued by Crown officials, and civilians often harbored deserters. In 1758, the House of Burgesses offered bounties to volunteers and, within weeks, two regiments were raised, whose members became far more effective soldiers than their predecessors.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Indian Wars of the Early 18th Century
  582.  
  583. The relatively little attention paid to wars fought among groups of Indians is due to the lack of documentary sources to form the foundation for such studies, not to a lack of conflict. Warfare between colonial governments did not cease with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Oatis 2004 surveys Indian-colonial relations in the South both during and after the imperial wars. Merrell 1989 views relations in the area from the perspective of the Catawba Indians, who were allied with the English colonials in both the Tuscorara War (1714–1715) and the Yamasee War (1717–1719). There was a brief truce in New England, before the outbreak of the Maliseet-Mi’kmaw War (Dummer’s War, 1722–1726), a conflict covered in Grenier 2008. Penhallow 1973 provides a contemporary account of the later war. Richter 1992 shows that, in the mid-Atlantic colonies, the Iroquois Indians, after fighting a series of “beaver” wars in the 17th century in an effort to dominate the fur trade, sought peace in the early 18th century with both the French and the English. All the member tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy but the Mohawks remained neutral during King George’s War, but the confederacy was drawn into the French and Indian War with negative consequences for virtually all Indians who became involved.
  584.  
  585. Grenier, John. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.
  586. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Shows how Anglo-Americans destroyed French Acadian and Indian resistance to their domination of not just Nova Scotia, but New Brunswick and Maine as well.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Merrell, James. The Indians’ New World: Catawbas and Their Neighbors from European Contact through the Era of Removal. New York: W. W. Norton, 1989.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. The first substantial study from the viewpoint of a group of southern Indians.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Oatis, Steven J. A Colonial Complex: South Carolina’s Frontiers in the Era of the Yamasee War, 1680–1730. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
  594. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Shows that violence was virtually continuous until the Yamasees were either killed or forced to take refuge in Spanish Florida
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Penhallow, Samuel. The History of the Wars of New-England with the Eastern Indians. Williamstown, MA: Corner House Publishers, 1973.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Contains tales of Indian savagery. Originally published in 1726.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
  602. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603. Depicts groups within the Iroquois League as seriously divided and affirms that the Grand Settlement of 1701 was less a brilliant device for remaining neutral between the French and English than it was a defensive move to prevent internal dispute.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Pontiac’s War
  606.  
  607. In the last great Indian war of the colonial era Ottawa chieftain Pontiac led a loose coalition of Indian tribes in a rebellion aimed at halting the loss of Indian lands and rebalancing the fur trade to make it more equitable for the Indians. Dowd 1992 and Barr 2006 provide the context for the rebellions led by Pontiac and Tecumseh. Dowd 2002 is especially good at explaining how British policy drove the Indians to rebellion and the role of Indian spiritual leaders in those rebellions. Dixon 2005 provides a necessary corrective to Parkman 1851 and its interpretive counterpoint, Nester 2000. Peckham 1948 describes the conflict for the general reader. Lord Dunmore’s War marked the final Indian war of the colonial era in pitting the colony of Virginia against Shawnee and Mingo Indians who sought to staunch the invasion of their lands in what is now West Virginia and Kentucky. The story is told in Sugden 2000, a biography of Blue Jacket, and in Skidmore and Kaminsky 2002, which includes contemporary documents concerning the war. Fenn 2000 explores the depths, namely, germ warfare, to which British leaders sank in their desperation to counter the rebellion.
  608.  
  609. Barr, Daniel, ed. The Boundaries between Us: Natives and Newcomers along the Frontiers of the Old Northwest Territory, 1750–1850. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2006.
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. Useful not only for 1763–1765 but for relations on this frontier through the American Revolution and early national period.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Dixon, David. Never Come to Peace Again: Pontiac’s Uprising and the Fate of the British Empire in North America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2005.
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  615. The most complete modern treatment of the uprising sees it as a precursor to the colonists’ rebellion against the mother country a decade later.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Traces the role of Indian prophets and their messages in the attempts to form pan-Indian movements.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Dowd, Gregory Evans. War under Heaven: Pontiac, the Indian Nations, and the British Empire. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
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  623. Explains the causes of the rebellion and the strategies and tactics employed by both sides. Contains interesting speculation, based on fragmentary evidence, concerning the role played by religion in uniting and motivating the Indians.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Fenn, Elizabeth A. “Biological Warfare in Eighteenth-Century North America: Beyond Jeffrey Amherst.” Journal of American History 86 (2000): 1552–1580.
  626. DOI: 10.2307/2567577Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. Discusses the controversial accusation that British officials gave small pox–infected blankets to the Indians and shows that such an action was not unique in colonial America. The documents and a brief discussion are available online.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Nester, William R. “Haughty Conquerors”: Amherst and the Great Indian Uprising of 1763. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2000.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. A rather pedestrian account of the conflict notable for its argument that Jeffery Amherst provoked the war almost single-handedly by ignoring the advice of William Johnson, Henry Bouquet, and others. Nestor ignores recent scholarship on Indian-white relations.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Parkman, Francis. The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Boston: C. C. Little and J. B. Brown, 1851.
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635. Classic account that blames the entire uprising on Pontiac.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Peckham, Howard. Pontiac and the Indian Uprising. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. A traditional, rather pedestrian account of the affair.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Skidmore, Warren, and Donna Kaminsky. Lord Dunmore’s Little War of 1774: His Captains and Their Men Who Opened Up Kentucky & The West to American Settlement. Westminister, MD: Heritage, 2002.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. Describes operations during the war and reprints ledgers that list the men who served and the individuals who filed claims for losses suffered during the conflict.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Sugden, John. Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Depicts Blue Jacket/Weyapiersenwah as a deft diplomat and an effective leader prior to his defeat at Fallen Timbers in 1794.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. American Ways of War
  650.  
  651. European settlers brought with them different methods of conducting warfare. Indians had their own ways of war and when the races came into conflict, each was influenced by the practices of its opponent: Europeans adapted to the radically different environment and Indians adopted European technology.
  652.  
  653. An Anglo-American Way of War
  654.  
  655. Discussion of “American exceptionalism” has a colonial military component. The thesis espoused in Weigley 1973 that a unique “American way of war” began during the late 19th century remains the starting point for most discussions, though Weigley devoted little space to the colonial era. Ferling 1980 rejects the view that Americans did not practice “total war” aimed at achieving “total victory” until the 19th century, arguing instead that they adopted practices that led to total war shortly after their arrival in the New World. Chet 2003 agrees with Weigley that colonials retained European methods in the North American wilderness, but Grenier 2005 challenges this view, showing that Americans adopted Indian strategy and tactics in employing raids and destroying Indian crops, especially when the Indians refused to give battle. This view is supported by Karr 1998, who argues that conduct of the Pequot War, the first major conflict between settlers and Indians, produced a “hybrid” form of warfare. Higginbotham 1987 provides a useful assessment of the debate as it developed prior to this volume’s publication.
  656.  
  657. Chet, Guy. Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northeast. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2003.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. Rejects the view that the wilderness environment and tactics employed by their Indian adversaries led colonials to develop an “American way of war.” Instead, American leaders sought arms and financial assistance plus troops from Britain.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Ferling, John. A Wilderness of Miseries. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980.
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  663. Argues that English settlers expected war with the Indians from the moment they stepped ashore. Fearing for their survival, they accepted cruelty and carnage as necessary parts of total war, an acceptance rendered easier by the fact that they viewed their opponents as either heathen savages or adversaries converted to Catholicism by French opponents.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Sophisticated plumbing of attitudes of Americans toward violence and the methods employed in the prosecution of war.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Higginbotham, Don. “The Early American Way of War: Reconnaissance and Appraisal.” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 44 (1987): 230–273.
  670. DOI: 10.2307/1939664Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Useful assessment of the state of historical literature at the time of publication.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Karr, Ronald Dale. “‘Why Should You Be So Furious?’: The Violence of the Pequot War.” Journal of American History 85 (1998): 876–909.
  674. DOI: 10.2307/2567215Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  675. Expands on Hirsch 1988 (cited under Indian Adaptation and Change) to postulate the emergence from the Pequot War of a hybrid Indian-European way of war. Available online by subscription.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Weigley, Russell. The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973.
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. This seminal work defines the mid-19th century as the formative era in the formation of American military culture and its preference for a “strategy of annihilation” to such a degree as to render the colonial era virtually irrelevant. Weigley did postulate that American warfare diverged “from the European pattern of limited war almost from the beginning of the American settlements” (pp. 19–20), but he did not explore this idea in any depth.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Indian Adaptation and Change
  682.  
  683. Hirsch 1988 shows that Indians were no less changed by their contacts with both European enemies and allies, depicting changes among both groups as an inevitable result of acculturation on both sides. Axtell and Sturtevant 1980 challenges the notion that Indians adopted the practice of scalping from Europeans, while Lipman 2008 explores how the practice was used to span the cultural divide between the races. Malone 1991 asserts that Indians practiced a unique “skulking way of war,” even though they adopted European technology (Malone 1973). Lee 2005 rejects the idea that the Indians retained a unique form of warfare in showing that some Indians adopted the European practice of erecting field fortifications. Similarly, Malone 1973, focusing on technology transfer rather than strategy or tactics, shows that Indians were quick to adopt European firearms and European tools, which allowed them to construct log palisades much more quickly.
  684.  
  685. Axtell, James, and William C. Sturtevant. “The Unkindest Cut, or, Who Invented Scalping?” William and Mary Quarterly 37 (1980): 451–472.
  686. DOI: 10.2307/1923812Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  687. Bibliographic essay that destroys the “myth”—“a product of Indian activism and white guilt feelings” (p. 455)—that Europeans taught Indians the practice of scalping, showing that it dated from pre-Columbian days.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Hirsch, Adam J. “The Collision of Military Cultures in Seventeenth-Century New England.” Journal of American History 74 (1988): 1187–1212.
  690. DOI: 10.2307/1894407Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. Argues that “warfare [was] a part, rather than a product, of the acculturation process [and that] the ways of war constituted distinct elements of the cultures colliding in the New World” (p. 1187) concluding that “the interaction of military cultures in New England . . . produced a compound more toxic than either of its elements” (p. 1204).
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Lee, Wayne. “Fortify, Fight, or Flee: Tuscarora and Cherokee Defensive Warfare and Military Cultural Adaptation.” Journal of Military History 68 (2005): 713–770.
  694. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  695. Demonstrates that the Tuscarora Indians did not practice the “skulking way of war” described in Malone 1991, but rather adopted the European use of fortifications. Available online by subscription.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Lipman, Andrew. “‘A meanes to knitt them together’: The Exchange of Body Parts in the Pequot War.” William and Mary Quarterly, 3d. ser., 65 (2008): 1–28.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Shows that while scalping predated the arrival of Europeans in America, Englishmen soon adopted it as a way to deal with Indian allies.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. Malone, Patrick M. “Changing Military Technology among the Indians of Southern New England, 1600–1677.” American Quarterly 25 (1973): 48–63.
  702. DOI: 10.2307/2711556Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  703. Indians were quick to adopt European firearms and, by the 1640s, they cast their own bullets and parts to repair firearms. The Indians adoption of European technology “permanently altered the aboriginal military system and helped to make warfare in the New England forests more deadly than ever before” (p. 63).
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Malone, Patrick M. The Skulking Way of War: Technology and Tactics among the New England Indians. Lanham, MD: Madison, 1991.
  706. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  707. Counterpart to Grenier 2005 (cited under An Anglo-American Way of War) of Anglo-American ways of conducting warfare.
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