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Intersections Between Buddhism and Hinduism in Thailand

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Jun 22nd, 2018
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  1. Introduction
  2. The categories “Buddhism” and “Hinduism” are products of the modern discourse on “world religions,” and as such they possess both strengths and weaknesses when applied to contexts in which the word religion itself was not an emic term prior to the modern period. Thailand, in particular, provides an excellent example of the way in which the boundaries between “Buddhism” and “Hinduism”—which, according to the parameters of the discourse on “world religions,” informed as they are by Protestant assumptions about religion, should be wholly separate—are often strained in an actual Asian context. Although 94.6 percent of Thai people today identify as Buddhist (with the largest minority religion being Islam at 4.6 percent), scholars have long recognized the significant presence of “Hindu” elements in Thai religious culture. This includes, among other things, the adoption of the Rāmāyaṇa as the Thai national epic in the form of the Rāmakian; the employment of Brahmans by the king for the performance of royal rituals; the ubiquitous presence of Hindu gods and other motifs in Thai art, literature, geography, and popular worship; and popular festivals that bear a striking similarity to popular Hindu festivals in India. There is a vast literature that addresses either Thai religion in general or Thai Buddhism in particular; this article focuses specifically on sources that address in some way the place of Hindu elements in the broader Thai Buddhist culture. The study of the intersection between Hinduism and Buddhism in Thai religious culture is in many ways still in its infancy; therefore, sources have simply been arranged thematically. Nevertheless, one can say that the general trend in scholarship in addressing this topic has been away from models of “syncretism,” which assume that Buddhism and Hinduism once existed in “pure,” separate forms that were then mixed in contexts such as Thailand, and toward more nuanced models that recognize both the problematic distinction between “Buddhist” and “Hindu/Brahmanical” even in early Indian contexts and the way in which the modern Buddhist identity of Thailand and surrounding countries arose gradually over many centuries.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. Despite the dominance of Buddhist studies in the study of Thai religion, few books deal with Hinduism and Buddhism in Thailand as such; one of the few exceptions is Kumari 1990, which addresses the relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism in general, but focuses primarily on the Thai context. For introductions to Hinduism specifically in Thailand, one can refer to Desai 1980 and McGovern 2010. Generalized introductions to Thai Buddhism, such as Swearer 2010 and Wells 1960, are also useful insofar as they refer to important “Hindu” components of Thai Buddhism, such as Songkran, Loi Krathong, and the First Plowing ceremony. Another good, and particularly visually stimulating, introduction to popular practices in Thai religion, without regard to their purported sectarian origins, can be found in Guelden 1995. For readers of Thai, the สารานุกรมวัฒนธรรมไทย (Encyclopedia of Thai culture) 1999 is an indispensable first stop for all questions about Thai culture, religious or otherwise. Last but not least, Wyatt 2003 provides the standard introductory history of Thailand, with full reference to the role played by religion in Thailand’s historical development.
  6.  
  7. Desai, Santosh N. Hinduism in Thai Life. Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1980.
  8.  
  9. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. One of the only book-length studies that focuses exclusively on Hinduism in Thailand. Explores the history of contacts between India and Thailand, Hindu elements within Thai religion, Hindu elements of Thai political theory, and the relationship between the Rāmāyaṇa and Rāmakian.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Guelden, Marlane. Thailand: Into the Spirit World. Singapore: Times Editions, 1995.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. Although written for a popular audience, this book presents a remarkable overview of all aspects of Thai religious life, including ghosts, spirits, spirit houses, spirit doctors, Brahmans, popular Buddhism, magic, amulets, tattoos, and more. Color photographs bring the themes of the book to life in a way that can be rivaled only by going to Thailand in person.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Kumari, Asha. Hinduism and Buddhism. Varanasi, India: Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, 1990.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. Although nominally about the relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism writ large, most of this book concerns the relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism in Thailand specifically. Addresses the history of religions in Thailand; festivals and ceremonies; Pali and Sanskrit loan-words in Thai; and religious influences on Thai literature, art, and architecture.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. McGovern, Nathan. “Thailand.” In Sacred Texts, Ritual Traditions, Arts, Concepts. Vol. 2, of Brill’s Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Edited by Knut A. Jacobsen, 371–378. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. A brief overview of the major themes involved in the study of Hinduism in Thailand. Addresses the history of religion in Thailand, popular spirit beliefs and practices, festivals, the Rāmakian, the worship of Hindu gods, royal court Brahmans and their rituals, and contemporary Indian communities in Thailand.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia. 2d ed. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2010.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. Although this book nominally covers all of Southeast Asia, most of the content focuses specifically on Thailand. Provides a general overview of the themes involved in the study not only of Thai Buddhism, but also of religion in Thailand in general; see, in particular, Part 1, “The Popular Tradition: Inclusive Syncretism” (pp. 1–70).
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Wells, Kenneth E. Thai Buddhism: Its Rites and Activities. Bangkok: Christian Bookstore, 1960.
  53.  
  54. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  55.  
  56. Although somewhat outdated, Wells’s study still provides a useful overview of the major daily, annual, and incidental rites, rituals, ceremonies, and festivals involved in Thai religious life, including those that are normatively Buddhist and others of a more “Hindu” flavor.
  57.  
  58. Find this resource:
  59.  
  60.  
  61. Wyatt, David K. Thailand: A Short History. 2d ed. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2003.
  62.  
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  64.  
  65. The standard introduction in English to the study of Thai history. Although the focus is not specifically on religion, the role of various religious traditions and actors, including Buddhist and Hindu, are addressed.
  66.  
  67. Find this resource:
  68.  
  69.  
  70. สารานุกรมวัฒนธรรมไทย. Bangkok: มูลนิธิวัฒนธรรมไทย ธนาคารไทยพาณิชย์, 1999.
  71.  
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  73.  
  74. For readers of Thai, the “Encyclopedia of Thai culture” is an indispensable first resource for questions about nearly any topic regarding Thai culture, including religion. Encyclopedia entries are organized according to region (Central, North, Isaan, or South) and thus address topics more specific than found in any Western encyclopedic source.
  75.  
  76. Find this resource:
  77.  
  78.  
  79. History
  80. Since the study of Thai history in general remains a relatively young field in the West, and even, in a sense, in Thailand itself, many primary sources remain barely touched by the secondary literature. For this reason, this section is divided into two subsections: one on those secondary sources that do exist for the study of Hinduism and Buddhism and Thailand, and the other listing key primary sources for the same.
  81.  
  82. Secondary Sources
  83. Little work has been done specifically on the history of Hinduism in Thailand, with a few notable exceptions, such as Singaravelu 1968. Much of the early work on the history of Thailand and Southeast Asia in general, however, was very much interested in the apparent “syncretism” of Buddhism and Hinduism found in those contexts. The dominant historical model for understanding how this “syncretism” came about was “Indianization,” which is expressed most fully in Coedès 1996 (but see also Keyes 1977 for a brief introduction). Many of these earlier approaches emphasized a rupture in the history of religion in Southeast Asia with a purported “conversion” to Theravāda Buddhism around the 13th century, but this view has been challenged in Assavavirulhakarn 2010. Another early influential work is Tambiah 1976, which seeks to understand the development of Thai polities within Buddhist and Brahmanical ideological contexts, as deduced primarily from normative texts. More recently scholarship has turned to more focused studies of particular moments or time periods in Thai history. The study of the rise of Ayutthayā found in Charnvit 1976 represents an early example of this trend, while Peleggi 2002, on the fashioning of the image of the modern Siamese monarchy, represents a more recent example. Finally, Wyatt 1994 provides an anthology of work from the late doyen of Thai historical studies, whose entire career was dedicated to this type of focused historical study.
  84.  
  85. Assavavirulhakarn, Prapod. The Ascendancy of Theravāda Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2010.
  86.  
  87. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. A new look at the rise of Theravāda Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Argues that there was no “conversion” to Theravāda Buddhism in the 12th century but rather that the Theravāda school was well established from the early 1st millennium, but dwelling in coexistence with other religious beliefs and practices, including Brahmanism.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93.  
  94. Charnvit, Kasetsiri. The Rise of Ayudhya: A History of Siam in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1976.
  95.  
  96. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97.  
  98. The foundational study, in English, of the rise of Ayutthayā, predecessor of Bangkok as the capital of Siam. Addresses the important role that Brahmanical ceremonies, inherited from earlier Southeast Asian kingdoms such as Angkor, played alongside Buddhism in the construction of the Ayutthayan state.
  99.  
  100. Find this resource:
  101.  
  102.  
  103. Coedès, George. The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1996.
  104.  
  105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  106.  
  107. Coedès’s classic study in which he presents his model of the “Indianization” (Fr. hindouisation) of Southeast Asia. Translated from the third edition of the French Les états hindouisés d’Indochine et d’Indonésie, published in 1964 (Paris: Éditions de Boccard).
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. Keyes, Charles F. The Golden Peninsula: Culture and Adaptation in Mainland Southeast Asia. New York: Macmillan, 1977.
  113.  
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  115.  
  116. Although this volume is primarily an anthropological study, chapter 2 provides a useful overview of the “Indianization” of Southeast Asia in the 1st millennium and the rise of Theravāda Buddhism in the region in the early 2nd millennium.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120.  
  121. Peleggi, Maurizio. Lords of Things: The Fashioning of the Siamese Monarchy’s Modern Image. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2002.
  122.  
  123. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  124.  
  125. Explores how the Siamese monarchy fashioned an image of itself as modern and modernizing, especially during the reign of King Chulalongkorn. See, in particular, chapter 5, “Refashioning the Theater of Power” (pp. 113–142), which discusses the role that royal ceremonies played in this process.
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129.  
  130. Singaravelu, S. “Some Aspects of South Indian Cultural Contacts with Thailand: Historical Background.” In Proceedings of the First International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, April 1966. Edited by International Association of Tamil Research, 21–38. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Rajiv Printers, 1968.
  131.  
  132. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133.  
  134. Explores the historical influence of South Indian culture on Thailand, with particular attention to the continued use, up to the present day, of Tamil hymns within rituals performed by the royal court Brahmans in Bangkok.
  135.  
  136. Find this resource:
  137.  
  138.  
  139. Tambiah, Stanley J. World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism and Polity in Thailand against a Historical Background. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
  140.  
  141. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511558184Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  142.  
  143. The second volume of Tambiah’s trilogy on Thai Buddhism, in which he presents his theory of the “galactic polity” and contextualizes it within the historical development of South and Southeast Asian theories of kingship under the influence of Buddhist and Brahmanical paradigms.
  144.  
  145. Find this resource:
  146.  
  147.  
  148. Wyatt, David K. Studies in Thai History: Collected Articles. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 1994.
  149.  
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151.  
  152. A collection of articles by the late doyen of Thai historical studies. Several articles refer to the role played by Buddhist, Brahmanical, and other religious traditions in Thai history.
  153.  
  154. Find this resource:
  155.  
  156.  
  157. Primary Sources
  158. Primary sources for the history of Thailand in general are fairly limited in comparison to, say, China during contemporaneous time periods. Chronicles, albeit suffering from certain limitations as historical sources, represent one of the few sources of narrative history going back to premodern times. Cushman 2006 is a translation of all of the chronicles of Ayutthaya, while Wyatt 1975 provides a translation of the two major chronicles of the southern city of Nakhon Si Thammarat, which is important to the history of the royal court Brahmans. Western accounts, such as Crawfurd 1987, from the early Rattanakosin period, and van Vliet 1975, from the mid-Ayutthaya period, provide a useful supplement to indigenous histories. An additional invaluable source for the history of Ayutthaya and the foundation of Bangkok is ประมวลกฎหมาย รัชกาลที่ 1 1986, which is the collection of laws compiled during the reign of Rama I, using, in large part, laws that were promulgated during the Ayutthaya period. Finally, นริศรานุวัดติวงศ์ 1961–1962 provides a wealth of information on Thai history, culture, and religion, collected and discussed by two princes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
  159.  
  160. Crawfurd, John. Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1987.
  161.  
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163.  
  164. A record of John Crawfurd’s findings during an 1821–1822 mission to Siam and Cochin China on behalf of the British governor-general of India. Contains valuable contemporary data about Siam during the early Rattanakosin period, including interviews with the royal court Brahmans. Originally published in 1831.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168.  
  169. Cushman, Richard D., trans. The Royal Chronicles of Ayutthaya. Edited by David K. Wyatt. Bangkok: Siam Society, 2006.
  170.  
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. A synoptic translation of all extant versions of the Chronicles of Ayutthaya, the capital of Siam prior to its sack by the Burmese in 1767. An indispensable research tool for the study of the history of Ayutthaya, in which Hindu motifs, rituals, and political theory were even more prominent than during the later Bangkok dynasty.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177.  
  178. van Vliet, Jeremias. The Short History of the Kings of Siam. Translated by Leonard Andaya. Edited by David K. Wyatt. Bangkok: Siam Society, 1975.
  179.  
  180. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181.  
  182. An edition of the original Dutch text and translation into English of van Vliet’s history of Siam, which was originally written in 1640 while the author resided in Ayutthaya as an employee of the Dutch East India Company. Contains a rare and valuable contemporary account of Ayutthayan history, including the history of the royal court Brahmans.
  183.  
  184. Find this resource:
  185.  
  186.  
  187. Wyatt, David K. The Crystal Sands: The Chronicles of Nagara Sri Dharrmaraja. Ithaca, NY: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1975.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. A translation and study of the Chronicles of Nakhòn Sī Thammarāt, one of the most important meuang of what is now southern Thailand in premodern times. These chronicles are important for the study of Thai religion because of the particularly strong confluence of Buddhist and Hindu traditions found in southern Thailand.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195.  
  196. นริศรานุวัดติวงศ์, สมเด็จฯ เจ้าฟ้า กรมพระยา. สาส์นสมเด็จ. 27 vols. พระนคร: องค์การค้าของคุรุสภา, 1961–1962.
  197.  
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199.  
  200. A collection of letters exchanged between Princes Damrong and Narit, in which they exchanged information and opinions concerning their research into the history, culture, and religion of Siam. An invaluable historical resource. Written in Thai.
  201.  
  202. Find this resource:
  203.  
  204.  
  205. ประมวลกฎหมาย รัชกาลที่ 1 จุลศักราช 1166 พิมพ์ตามฉะบับหลวงตรา 3 ดวง. กรุงเทพฯ: คณะนิติศาสตร์ มหาวิทยาลัยธรรมศาสตร์, 1986.
  206.  
  207. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  208.  
  209. The authoritative edition, by Robert Lingat, of the Three Seals Law of Rama I, which is a reworking of the corpus of Ayutthayan laws to serve as the legal foundation for the new kingdom at Bangkok. Contains important information on the history of Siam in general, but also specifically on the regulation of religious institutions, including the court Brahmans, the sangha, and various religious cults. Written in Thai.
  210.  
  211. Find this resource:
  212.  
  213.  
  214. Literature
  215. Discussions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the realm of Thai literature naturally gravitate to the Rāmakian, the Thai version of the Hindu epic Rāmāyaṇa. A complete translation of the standard version of Rāma I into English remains a desideratum; for now, one must rely on the synopsis Cadet 1970 and abridged translation Olsson 1968. Bofman 1984 provides a more scholarly translation of a small portion of the Rāmakian, while Richman 1991 contextualizes the Rāmakian within the broader Rāmāyaṇa tradition. However, the influence of Hinduism on Thai literature is by no means limited to the Rāmakian; the translation of an apocryphal Jātaka in Hudak 1993 shows how Hindu epic themes can influence even ostensibly Buddhist texts. Likewise, Wright 2000 and พระเยาวราช 2000 are two poetic texts dealing heavily with Brahmanical themes from the Ayutthaya period. Finally, Maneepin 1981 represents another approach to studying the influence of Hinduism on Thai literature—namely, by tracing the career of a single Hindu god across multiple texts and textual genres.
  216.  
  217. Bofman, Theodora. The Poetics of the Ramakian. De Kalb: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University, 1984.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. A translation and study of a small portion of the Rāmakian, in which Hanuman travels to Lanka, with special attention to the poetical features of the epic. Original Thai text of the translated portion is included.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225.  
  226. Cadet, J. M. The Ramakien: The Thai Epic. Tokyo: Kodansha, 1970.
  227.  
  228. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  229.  
  230. An introduction to, and synopsis of, the Rāmakian, illustrated with rubbings of bas-reliefs depicting scenes from much of the epic found at Wat Pho in Bangkok.
  231.  
  232. Find this resource:
  233.  
  234.  
  235. Hudak, Thomas John, trans. The Tale of Prince Samuttakote. Athens, OH: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 1993.
  236.  
  237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238.  
  239. Translation into English of an apocryphal Jātaka, originally written in Thai verse, in which Prince Samuttakote and his bride tour the heavens with a magic sword, are separated, and are then reunited. Although the poem is presented (in its current form) as a Jātaka, it is replete with Hindu motifs.
  240.  
  241. Find this resource:
  242.  
  243.  
  244. Maneepin, Phromsuthirak. “Hindu Brahmā in Thai Literature.” Journal of the Siam Society 69 (1981): 43–57.
  245.  
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247.  
  248. A brief but comprehensive study of the god Brahmā in Thai literature. Explores the intersection between Hindu and Buddhist representations of Brahmā in various Thai literary texts.
  249.  
  250. Find this resource:
  251.  
  252.  
  253. Olsson, Ray A., trans. The Ramakien: A Prose Translation of the Thai Ramayana. Bangkok: Praepittaya, 1968.
  254.  
  255. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256.  
  257. A translation into English of Christian Velder’s Der Kampf der Götter und Dämonen (Schweinfurt, Germany: Verlag Neues Forum, 1962), which is, in turn, an abridged translation into German of the Rāmakian.
  258.  
  259. Find this resource:
  260.  
  261.  
  262. Richman, Paula, ed. Many Rāmāyaṇas: The Diversity of a Narrative Tradition in South Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
  263.  
  264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. An edited volume with essays dealing with the full diversity of the Rāmāyaṇa tradition, in its many vernacular manifestations, as opposed to focusing exclusively on the classical Sanskrit text of Vālmīki. See, in particular, Frank Reynolds’s contribution in chapter 3, which explores the Thai Rāmakian in the context of Buddhist and Hindu Rāma traditions.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270.  
  271. Wright, Michael. โองการแช่งน้ำ. Krung Thep, Thailand: Matichon, 2000.
  272.  
  273. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  274.  
  275. A translation and study of the “Curse on the Water of Allegiance,” a text that was used since the Ayutthaya period in the Brahman-administered “water-oath” ritual, in which royal officials would swear their allegiance to the king and then drink water that had been cursed to bring calamity upon them if they broke their oath. Written in both English and Thai.
  276.  
  277. Find this resource:
  278.  
  279.  
  280. พระเยาวราช และคณะ. โคลงทวาทศมาส. กรุงเทพฯ: อักษรเจริญทัศน์, 2000.
  281.  
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283.  
  284. A poetic work written in the Ayutthaya period that praises the beauty of a female lover through comparison to the customs of the “twelve months,” from which the Sanskrit title of the work, Dvādaśamāsa, is taken. Contains important information about annual religious festivals in the Ayutthaya period, including what may be the oldest reference to the Brahmanical Trīyampawāi ritual. Written in Thai.
  285.  
  286. Find this resource:
  287.  
  288.  
  289. Art and Architecture
  290. Art represents a very natural entry point for the study of the intersection between Buddhism and Hinduism in Thailand, given that the art historical record preserves in very striking visual form the multiple religious (Hindu, Theravāda, Mahāyāna) and cultural (Mòn, Khmer, Indian, Tai) influences on Thai religion. Hindu art forms an important part of the art historical record, and even today Buddhist temples often incorporate Hindu motifs, including images of Hindu gods, depictions of scenes from the Rāmakian, and Śaiva tridents at the top of Khmer-style prāngs. Woodward 2003 and Gosling 2004 represent standard general treatments of Thai art and architecture, while Boisselier 1975 provides a comprehensive treatment specifically of sculpture. O’Connor 1972, Devi 1996, and Subhadradis 1990 are useful resources that focus specifically on the representation of Hindu gods in Thai art. Wannasarn 2013 provides a detailed study of the art historical and archaeological evidence for Hinduism in the southern city of Nakhon Si Thammarat. Finally, publications of the Thai Department of Fine Arts, many of which, such as Yupho 1967, have been translated into English, are a useful resource for specific motifs within Thai art (in this case Brahmā).
  291.  
  292. Boisselier, Jean. The Heritage of Thai Sculpture. Translated by James Emmons. New York: Weatherhill, 1975.
  293.  
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. A comprehensive introduction to Buddhist and Hindu sculpture in the geographical region of what is now Thailand, organized according to “schools.” Illustrated with color and black-and-white photographs by Hans Hinz. Translated from the French La sculpture en Thaïlande, originally published in 1974 (Paris: Bibliothèque des Arts).
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300.  
  301. Devi, Gauri. Hindu Deities in Thai Art. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, 1996.
  302.  
  303. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  304.  
  305. A useful resource for the study of Hindu motifs in Thai art. Consists primarily of sketches of Thai depictions of Hindu deities but also includes an introduction that discusses the history of Hinduism in Thailand, as well as black-and-white photographs of Hindu deva statues at the Brahman temple in Bangkok and Sanskrit/Tamil texts used by the Brahmans there.
  306.  
  307. Find this resource:
  308.  
  309.  
  310. Gosling, Betty. Origins of Thai Art. Bangkok: River, 2004.
  311.  
  312. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  313.  
  314. A comprehensive introduction to the pre-Tai influences on Thai art, including prehistoric art and art from the Dvāravatī and Angkorean cultural spheres. Text is amply supplemented by photographs of sculpture and architectural remains, mostly in color.
  315.  
  316. Find this resource:
  317.  
  318.  
  319. O’Connor, Stanley J., Jr. Hindu Gods of Peninsular Siam. Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae, 1972.
  320.  
  321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  322.  
  323. A detailed study of sculptural depictions of Hindu gods from peninsular Thailand, which served as a meeting point for multiple religious, cultural, and artistic influences due to its location along major maritime trade routes. Includes a supplement with black-and-white photographs.
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327.  
  328. Subhadradis, Diskul. Hindu Gods at Sukhodaya. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1990.
  329.  
  330. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331.  
  332. An art historical study of sculptures of Hindu gods from the kingdom of Sukhothai in the 13th and 14th centuries.
  333.  
  334. Find this resource:
  335.  
  336.  
  337. Wannasarn, Noonsuk. Tambralinga and Nakhon Si Thammarat: Early Kingdoms on the Isthmus of Southeast Asia. Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand: Nakhon Si Thammarat Rajabhat University, 2013.
  338.  
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340.  
  341. A comprehensive study of the important archaeological and art historical evidence from the vicinity of Nakhon Si Thammarat in southern Thailand. This area was the center of an important kingdom or kingdoms dating from the lst millennium CE, prior to integration with Ayutthaya and then Bangkok. It was also heavily influenced by Hinduism from very early times.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Woodward, Hiram. The Art and Architecture of Thailand: From Prehistoric Times through the Thirteenth Century. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
  347.  
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349.  
  350. A history of the geographical region of modern-day Thailand in pre-Tai times, as seen from the perspective of artistic and architectural remains, rather than texts. Includes a supplement with eighty-eight pages of black-and-white photographs.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
  353.  
  354.  
  355. Yupho, Dhanit. Brahma with Four Faces. Bangkok: Department of Fine Arts, 1967.
  356.  
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358.  
  359. A brief but instructive history of the depiction of Brahmā with four faces (instead of only one) in Thai art. Illustrated with photographs. Translated from the Thai พรหมสี่หน้า, originally published in 1966.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Brahmans and Royal Ritual
  365. One of the most striking ways in which Hinduism plays a role within Thai religious life is through royal ritual, which to this day is performed by a coterie of Brahmans in the employ of the king in Bangkok. These Brahmans were brought from communities in southern Thailand to serve in the royal court of Bangkok during the reign of Rama I, and, in turn, trace their lineages back to India. This section is divided into two subsections, one addressing the Brahmans serving in Bangkok specifically, and the other addressing the Brahman communities found (or once found) in the southern cities of Phatthalung, Phetburi, and, most importantly, Nakhon Si Thammarat.
  366.  
  367. Royal Court Brahmans of Bangkok
  368. The classic treatments of the full range of rituals that the royal court Brahmans of Bangkok perform are, in Thai, พระบาทสมเด็จพระจุฬจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว 2009, and, in English, Wales 1992. Kuanpoonpol 1990 provides a more specific treatment of the Trīyampawāi-Trīppawāi and Lévy-Ward 2006 of the consecration ritual. Meenakshisundaram 1968 provides a useful introduction to the interesting connections between the Trīyampawāi-Trīppawāi and Tamil bhakti, while McGovern 2017, Lochan 2001 and Kanjana 1996 provide more in-depth treatments of the history of the Thai Brahmans. Finally, Skilling 2007 situates the Thai Brahmans together with the Buddhist saṅgha within the broader context of the intersection of religion, ritual, ideology, and power throughout Thai history.
  369.  
  370. Kanjana, Suwanwong. “Ways of Life, Rituals and Cultural Identity of Court Brahmins in Thai Society: A Case Study of Bangkok Devasthan Botsbrahmana.” MA diss., Chulalongkorn University, 1996.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. An extremely detailed and comprehensive history and anthropological survey of Brahman lineages in Thailand. Contains a wealth of ethnographic and historical data for studying the history of these Brahman lineages. Written in Thai.
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378.  
  379. Kuanpoonpol, Priyawat. “Court Brahmans of Thailand and the Celebration of the Brahmanic New Year.” Indo-Iranian Journal 33 (1990): 21–51.
  380.  
  381. DOI: 10.1163/000000090790083266Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382.  
  383. Presents a brief history of Brahmans and Brahmanism in Thailand, as well as a discussion of the role played by Brahmanism in Thai religious life. Also offers a detailed account of the Trīyampawāi-Trīppawāi ceremony performed each year by the royal court Brahmans at their temple in Bangkok.
  384.  
  385. Find this resource:
  386.  
  387.  
  388. Lévy-Ward, Annick. “Rites hindous de consécration d’un roi bouddhiste en Thaïlande.” In Les apparences du monde: Royautés hindoues et bouddhiques de l’Asie du Sud et du Sud-Est. Edited by Bénédicte Brac de La Perrière and Marie-Louise Reiniche, 225–263. Paris: École Française d’Extrême Orient, 2006.
  389.  
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. An essay exploring the use of Hindu rituals to consecrate a Buddhist king in Thailand. Includes a brief discussion of the history of religions in Thailand, a synopsis of the various rituals performed by the royal court Brahmans, and a detailed description of the ritual of consecration for a new king.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396.  
  397. Lochan, Amarjiva. The Brahmana-s in Thai Society: A Sociocultural Study of the Indian Legacy. Delhi: University of Delhi, 2001.
  398.  
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400.  
  401. Presents a brief history of Brahman lineages in Thailand and the author’s own findings concerning Brahman communities still found in Thailand today.
  402.  
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405.  
  406. McGovern, Nathan. “Balancing the Foreign and the Familiar in the Articulation of Kingship: The Royal Court Brahmans of Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 48.2 (June 2017): 283–303.
  407.  
  408. DOI: 10.1017/S002246341700008XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409.  
  410. A study of the history of the court Brahmans of Thailand, situated within modern theories of “Indianization” and “localization” in Southeast Asia. Argues that throughout their history the Thai Brahmans have balanced a tension between a need to show royal exceptionalism through difference while also being comprehensible to the local population.
  411.  
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414.  
  415. Meenakshisundaram, T. P. “Tiru-p-pavai, Tiruvempāvai in South-East Asia.” In Proceedings of the First International Conference-Seminar of Tamil Studies, Kuala Lumpur, April 1966. Edited by International Association of Tamil Research, 13–20. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Rajiv Printers, 1968.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Traces the connections between the rituals of the Thai Brahmans in Bangkok and Tamil Hinduism, with particular attention to the derivation of the name of the Thai Brahmanical ceremony Trīyampawāi-Trīppawāi from the collections of Tamil bhakti poetry Tiruppāvai and Tiruvempāvai of Āṇṭāḷ and Māṇikkavācakar, respectively.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423.  
  424. Skilling, Peter. “King, Sangha, and Brahmans: Ideology, Ritual and Power in Pre-modern Siam.” In Buddhism, Power, and Political Order. Edited by Ian Harris, 182–215. London: Routledge, 2007.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. An essay on the role played by Brahmans and the Buddhist saṅgha in the articulation and development of the ideology of kingship in Ayutthayā and the early Ratanakosin period. Makes use of inscriptions, the Three Seals Law Code, chronicles, and royal eulogies, and contains a useful bibliographical appendix on these sources.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. Wales, H. G. Quaritch. Siamese State Ceremonies: Their History and Function. Richmond, UK: Curzon, 1992.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. The most comprehensive survey in English of the royal ceremonies performed by the royal court Brahmans in Bangkok. Based, in large part, on the Royal Ceremonies of the Twelve Months, as well as the author’s personal experience from 1924 to 1928 as an advisor to the courts of Kings Rāma VI and Rāma VII. First published in 1931.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. พระบาทสมเด็จพระจุฬจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว. พระราชพิธีสิบสองเดือน. 21st ed. Bangkok: สำนักพิมพ์ระฆังทอง, 2009.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. The Royal Ceremonies of the Twelve Months is the classic work in Thai, written by King Chulalongkorn (Rāma V), on the annual ceremonies performed by the royal court Brahmans in Bangkok, organized according to month. First published, posthumously, in 1920.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Southern Brahmans
  452. Unfortunately, no work on the southern Thai Brahmans has been done in a Western language, except for brief references in some of the works cited in the previous section. Thus recourse must be made to Thai sources, which themselves are somewhat lacking. Most work has been done on the Brahmans of Nakhon Si Thammarat, which appears to have been the most important center of Brahmanism in Siam other than Ayutthaya/Bangkok itself. This includes the monumental MA thesis Preecha 1984 and, more recently, Mana 2005. The most important source for the history of Brahmans in Nakhon Si Thammarat, however, is ตำนานพราหมณ์เมืองนครศรีธรรมราช 1930, a document written by the Brahmans of that city themselves in the late Ayutthaya period. Far less work has been done on the Brahmans of Phetburi and Phatthalung; for the former we are lucky to have the recent history ทวีโรจน์ 2013, but for the latter we have only ชัยวุฒิ 2000, a collection of ritual manuals from that city.
  453.  
  454. Mana, Chuaichoo. “Self and Maintenance of Nakhon Si Thammarat Brahmins.” MA diss., Walailak University, 2005.
  455.  
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457.  
  458. A study of the Brahmans of Nakhon Si Thammarat in southern Thailand. Includes important genealogical data on several prominent lineages. Written in Thai.
  459.  
  460. Find this resource:
  461.  
  462.  
  463. Preecha, Noonsuk. “Traces of Ancient Brāhmaṇa Communities in Nakhon Si Thammarat.” MA diss., Silpakorn University, 1984.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. This expansive work by the most prolific local scholar of Brahmanism in Nakhon Si Thammarat actually transcends the categories of this bibliography insofar as it touches on the archaeology and history of Hinduism in this southern town, as well as specifically the community of Brahmans that has survived into modern times. Written in Thai.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471.  
  472. ชัยวุฒิ พิยะกูล, ตำราพราหมณ์เมืองพัทลุง. สถาบันทักษิณคดีศึกษา มหาวิทยาลัยทักษิณ, 2000.
  473.  
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475.  
  476. A collection of ritual “manuals” (tamrā) used by the Brahmans of Patthalung in southern Thailand. Written in Thai.
  477.  
  478. Find this resource:
  479.  
  480.  
  481. ตำนานพราหมณ์เมืองนครศรีธรรมราช. กรุงเทพ: โรงพิมพ์โสภณพิพรรฒธนากร, 1930.
  482.  
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484.  
  485. A text discovered by Prince Damrong in the southern city of Nakhon Si Thammarat. This text was apparently written by the Brahman community to the king of Ayutthaya in the early 18th century as a plea for recognition of privileges they felt they were due. It begins with an account of the origins of the Brahman community in Nakhon Si Thammarat, followed by a long list of laws and regulations for their community. Written in Thai.
  486.  
  487. Find this resource:
  488.  
  489.  
  490. ทวีโรจน์ กล่ำกล่อมจิตต์. พราหมณ์สมอพลือ. เพชบุรี: เพชรภูมิการพิมพ์, 2013.
  491.  
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493.  
  494. A study of the history and genealogy of the Brahmans of Phetburi in southern Thailand and their living descendants clustered around the community of Samor Phleu. Written in Thai.
  495.  
  496. Find this resource:
  497.  
  498.  
  499. Festivals
  500. Popular festivals provide an important avenue for studying the intersection of Hinduism and Buddhism in Thailand insofar as the two most important festivals in Thailand, Songkran and Loi Krathong, are not of specifically Buddhist origin and, in fact, appear to be related to important Hindu festivals in India (Holi and Dīwālī, respectively). Unfortunately, little work has been done on the history of popular festivals in Thailand, but Gerson 1996, Kislenko 2004, and Anuman Rajadhon 1986 serve as useful general treatments. More in-depth historical work has been done on the Loi Krathong festival, primarily to the end of debunking the myth that it was inaugurated by Nang Nophamat in the Sukhothai period; on this point, Eoseewong 2005 (in English) and สุจิตต์ 1987 (in Thai) are useful sources.
  501.  
  502. Anuman Rajadhon, Phya. Popular Buddhism in Siam and Other Essays on Thai Studies. Bangkok: Thai Inter-Religious Commission for Development and Sathirakoses Nagapradipa Foundation, 1986.
  503.  
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505.  
  506. A basic but insightful introduction to the popular religious culture of Thailand. Addresses not only Buddhist customs, but also customs associated with local spirits and the popular Songkran (Thai New Year) festival.
  507.  
  508. Find this resource:
  509.  
  510.  
  511. Eoseewong, Nidhi. Pen and Sail: Literature and History in Early Bangkok. Edited by Chris Baker and Ben Anderson. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Silkworm, 2005.
  512.  
  513. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. A collection of essays by one of Thailand’s leading historians and intellectuals. See, in particular, chapter 3, which is a study of the history of the text that asserts that the Loi Krathong festival was created by a certain “Nang Nophamat” in the Sukhothai period. Translated from the Thai ปากไก่และใบเรือ, which was originally published in 1982.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519.  
  520. Gerson, Ruth. Traditional Festivals in Thailand. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  521.  
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. A short introduction to Buddhist, royal Brahmanical, and popular festivals in Thailand, illustrated with color and black-and-white photographs. Suitable for a popular or undergraduate audience.
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528.  
  529. Kislenko, Arne. Culture and Customs of Thailand. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2004.
  530.  
  531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  532.  
  533. A general introduction to culture, literature, the arts, religion, cuisine, and popular festivals in Thailand. Illustrated with black-and-white photographs. Suitable for use with undergraduates.
  534.  
  535. Find this resource:
  536.  
  537.  
  538. สุจิตต์ วงษ์เทศ, ed. ไม่มีนางนพมาศ ไม่มีลอยกระทง สมัยสุโขทัย. Bangkok: ศิลปวัฒนธรรม, 1987.
  539.  
  540. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. This Thai monograph, whose title translates as “There was no Nang Nophamat, there was no Loi Krathong in the Sukhothai period,” is a collection of essays exposing the late historical origins of the legend of Nang Nophamat, together with the original text that claims to record her establishment of the Loi Krathong festival during the Sukhothai period.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546.  
  547. Popular Religion
  548. An important avenue for studying the intersection between Buddhism and Hinduism in Thai religion is through popular religion, which tends to incorporate elements of belief and practice without much regard for their normative sectarian identity or origin. Scholars have approached the complexities of popular religion in Thailand in various ways, at times militating against the category itself. While some (especially older) scholarship has been more interested in studying popular religion in traditional village contexts, to the extent of possibly even identifying the categories “popular,” “village,” and “traditional” with one another, interest has grown in recent years in studying more recent manifestations of popular religiosity in Thailand in modern, urban, and even postmodern contexts.
  549.  
  550. Village Studies
  551. Earlier work on popular religion in Thailand, including Tambiah 1970, Terwiel 1994, and Kirsch 1977, not only focused on village contexts, but also grappled with the perceived problem of syncretism in Thai religion by taking recourse to various structuralist approaches. Hayashi 2003 represents a more recent alternative to this structuralist approach, opting to understand village religion by situating it within its local context(s) (both historical and geographical) instead of within a universalizing “structure.” This turn to the local, and to studying the local within the context of the local, is greatly assisted by close studies of particular local practices, such as are found in van Esterik and van Esterik 1980, and especially in Thai works such as Thongsrikate 1981, which focuses on practices in Nakhòn Sī Thammarāt, and ปรีชา 1988, which focuses on practices in southern Thailand.
  552.  
  553. Hayashi, Yukio. Practical Buddhism among the Thai-Lao: Religion in the Making of a Region. Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 2003.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. Though it does not address “folk Brahmanism” to the same extent as Tambiah, this work serves as a useful methodological counterpoint to the latter and other older works on popular religion in traditional village contexts. Hayashi seeks to understand “practical religion” by situating it within a particular place and set of events.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Kirsch, A. Thomas. “Complexity in the Thai Religious System: An Interpretation.” Journal of Asian Studies 36.2 (February 1977): 241–266.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. An essay on the “complexity” of Thai religion—i.e., its irreducibility to a single religious system. Kirsch takes a structural-functional approach, dividing Thai religion into three components: Buddhism, Brahmanism, and animism.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Tambiah, Stanley J. Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-East Thailand. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. The first volume of Tambiah’s trilogy on Thai Buddhism, based on his fieldwork in a village in Isaan during the early 1960s. Analyzes village religion into two components: Buddhism and “folk Brahmanism,” on the one hand, and spirit cults, on the other.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579.  
  580. Terwiel, B. J. Monks and Magic: An Analysis of Religious Ceremonies in Central Thailand. 3d ed. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1994.
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. Terwiel’s classic study on the monastic practice of Buddhism within central Thailand, based on his own experience as a monk in 1968. Analyzes Thai Buddhism into two “approaches”: that of the “highly educated,” which is compartmentalized, and that of the “untutored,” which is syncretistic. First edition originally published in 1975.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Thongsrikate, Suwit. “A Critical Study of Some Influences of Brahmanism on the Religious Behavior of the Buddhists in Nakhon Si Thammarat.” MA diss., Mahidol University, 1981.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. A study of Brahmanical rituals practiced by Thai Buddhists in the southern province of Nakhòn Sī Thammarāt. Written in Thai.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597.  
  598. van Esterik, Penny, and John van Esterik. “Royal Style in Village Context: Translation and Interpretation of a Thai Tonsure Text.” Asian Folklore Studies 39.1 (1980): 63–78.
  599.  
  600. DOI: 10.2307/1177517Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. A translation of a text used in the ceremony for cutting off a child’s topknot, once a common Thai rite of passage, in a village in Suphanburī. This text provides an instructive example of how a royal Brahmanical ritual can be instantiated in a local, nonroyal, Buddhist context.
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606.  
  607. ปรีชา นุ่นสุข. “ศาสนาพราหมณ์กับภูมิปัญญาชาวบ้านภาคใต้.” In ทิศทางหมู่บ้านไทย. Edited by เสน่ห์ จามริก, 94–121. Bangkok: กรุงเทพฯ หมู่บ้าน, 1988.
  608.  
  609. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  610.  
  611. An essay on the history of Brahmanism in southern Thailand, the influence of Brahmanism on the religious beliefs and practices of southern Thai Buddhists, and Brahman lineages in southern Thailand. Written in Thai.
  612.  
  613. Find this resource:
  614.  
  615.  
  616. Urban Studies
  617. More recent scholarship, such as Kitiarsa 2005, Kitiarsa 2012, McDaniel 2011, McDaniel 2013, and Taylor 2008, has turned toward the study of popular religion in modern, urban, and even postmodern contexts, and in so doing has eschewed the concept of syncretism and structuralist approaches in favor of close examinations of particular practices within their immediate contexts. One of the most visible examples of the intersection between Buddhism and Hinduism in particular in a modern, urban Thai context is the worship of Brahmā, which began with the erection of a shrine to the god outside the Ērāwan Hotel in Bangkok in 1956. For this particular shrine several sources are available, including Majapura 1993, McGovern 2016, and สุชาดา 1997.
  618.  
  619. Kitiarsa, Pattana. “Beyond Syncretism: Hybridization of Popular Religion in Contemporary Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 36.3 (2005): 461–487.
  620.  
  621. DOI: 10.1017/S0022463405000251Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. Challenges the dominant paradigm of “syncretism” in the study of Thai religion by introducing the concept of “hybridization” from postcolonial studies. Explores various examples of hybridity in contemporary Thai religion, including the worship of Brahmā and other Hindu gods.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. Kitiarsa, Pattana. Mediums, Monks, and Amulets: Popular Buddhism in Thailand Today. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2012.
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. Expands on Pattana’s earlier work on “hybridization” with several detailed case studies, including the cult of the deceased country star Phumphuang Duangchan, the popular monk Luang Pho Khun, and the craze over amulets of the pseudo-Hindu deity Chatukham-Rammathep.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Majapura, Trilok Chandra. Erawan Shrine & Brahma Worship in Thailand. Bangkok: Tecpress Service, 1993.
  638.  
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640.  
  641. Although this small book takes a confessional, rather than an academic, approach, it is one of the few sources in English to treat the Ērāwan shrine and worship of Brahmā in Thailand at any length.
  642.  
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645.  
  646. McDaniel, Justin. The Lovelorn Ghost and the Magical Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand. New York: Columbia University Press, 2011.
  647.  
  648. DOI: 10.7312/mcda15376Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. An ambitious and wide-ranging attempt to describe modern Thai Buddhism without recourse to syncretism, hybridity, vernacularization, and the like. Although focusing on the figure of Somdet To and the ghost Mae Nak, McDaniel addresses a multitude of practices within modern Thai Buddhism, including the worship of Hindu gods.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654.  
  655. McDaniel, Justin. “This Hindu Holy Man Is a Thai Buddhist.” South East Asia Research 21.2 (2013): 303–319.
  656.  
  657. DOI: 10.5367/sear.2013.0151Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. Continues McDaniel’s argument that supposedly “Hindu” elements of Thai religion should be seen as part of Buddhism, rather than as a product of “syncretism.” Discusses a variety of “Hindu” elements of Thai religion, but focuses in particular on ruesi (ṛṣi), which are often described as “Hindu” ascetics.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
  662.  
  663.  
  664. McGovern, Nathan. “A Buddhist Cult of Brahmā: Thick Description and Micro-histories in the Study of Religion.” History of Religions 55.3 (February 2016): 329–360.
  665.  
  666. DOI: 10.1086/684274Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667.  
  668. A study of the worship of Brahmā in Thailand and the first and most famous shrine to Brahmā in Thailand, at the Ērāwan Hotel in Bangkok. Situates the worship of Brahmā within the broader context of requesting boons from “holy things” in Thailand.
  669.  
  670. Find this resource:
  671.  
  672.  
  673. Taylor, James. Buddhism and Postmodern Imaginings in Thailand: The Religiosity of Urban Space. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. A study of Thai Buddhism in its increasingly postmodern and urban context, especially in the wake of the 1997 financial crisis. Focuses particularly on self-consciously “Buddhist” manifestations of Thai religiosity, but also takes account of other important elements of contemporary Thai religion, including the worship of Hindu gods.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681.  
  682. สุชาดา กิตติตระกูลกาล. “ศาลท่านท้าวมหาพรหมโรงแรมเอราวัณ: การแสดงเชิงพิธีกรรมยุคโลกาภิวัฒน์.” MA diss., Thammasat University, 1997.
  683.  
  684. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  685.  
  686. A useful source for data on the history of and manner of worship at the Ērāwan shrine in Bangkok, situated within its Thai context.
  687.  
  688. Find this resource:
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