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Immigration in Latin America

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Immigration is arguably the most distinguishing historical feature of Latin America, and of the Western Hemisphere in general. Although it can be said that every region of the planet outside of East Africa—the cradle of Homo sapiens—is a region of immigrants, that label applies to the Americas in a particular way. The American continent/s (it is perceived as a single continent in Latin America and as two in the United States) has functioned as a receptacle for the population of every other continent. Its aboriginal population could be described as the first (Asian) immigrants, since they arrived not from humanity’s cradle but from northeast Asia, and did so twenty thousand years after much of the rest of the planet had been settled. The Americas are a New World not only in the usage of the term associated with the Eurocentric notion of “discovery” but also in relation to the history of humanity. The other immigrants arrived even more recently. Sixty million Europeans, eleven million Africans, and five million Asians arrived in the Western Hemisphere after 1492, with close to one-third of the Europeans (or 18.5 million), half of the Africans, and one-sixth of the Asians going to Latin America. These transcontinental migrations shaped the ethnic geography of the Americas. The first migrants from Asia settled mainly on the highlands that run along the western side of the hemisphere, particularly what has been called “nuclear America,” or Mesoamerica and the central Andes. These regions contained the vast majority of the Amerindian population before the conquest and continue to do so today. Africans were taken mainly to the tropical and semitropical islands and coastal lowlands of the Americas. Europeans dispersed to a greater degree but nonetheless concentrated, particularly during the postcolonial period, in the temperate regions on the northern and southern ends of the hemisphere. Since other articles in this collection treat the Amerindian and African population, this article will center on immigration from Europe and Asia and on international migrations within Latin America.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Moya 2008 and Mörner and Sims 1985 are the only two overviews of migration to, from, and within Latin America from the colonial period to the present. Klein 1999 offers a briefer but broad take on immigration to Latin America that does not include intraregional international movements but does include a comparison to the United States. Moya 2006 also takes a hemispheric perspective and connects migration to shifts in socioeconomic development. This section also includes an Atlantic perspective that incorporates Argentina and Brazil (Nugent 1995), an overview of western Mediterranean migrations to South America (Carmagnani 1994), and a summary of the Asian presence in Latin America (Hu-deHart and López 2008).
  8.  
  9. Carmagnani, Marcello. Emigración mediterránea y América: Formas y transformaciones, 1860–1930. Colombres, Asturias: Fundación Archivo de Indianos, 1994.
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  11. An analysis of the exodus from Spain, Italy, and, to a lesser degree, Portugal during the period of mass migrations, with the emphasis on demographic, economic, and political transformations in the countries of origin rather than on the adaptation of the emigrants in their destinations.
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  13. Hu-deHart, Evelyn, and Kathleen López. “Asian Diasporas in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Historical Overview.” Afro-Hispanic Review 27.1 (2008): 9–21.
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  15. Brief overview of Asian presence in colonial Latin America; the mass migration of Chinese “coolies” in the 19th century to Cuba and Peru, and their continuing arrivals as free migrants to those two countries and Mexico; Japanese and South Asian immigration; Asian relations with descendants of Africans in the region; and immigrant culture.
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  17. Klein, Herb. “Migração internacional na historia das Americas.” In Fazer a América: A imigração em massa para America Latina. Edited by Boris Fausto, 13–32. Sao Paulo: Editorial de la Universidad de São Paulo, 1999.
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  19. Discusses push and pull factors; the colonial development of Latin America, the West Indies, and Anglo North America; postcolonial European emigration to the Western Hemisphere up to 1880, its peak between that date and 1914, its decline in the interwar years, and its resurgence after World War II. A coda addresses immigrant socioeconomic mobility and assimilation.
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  21. Mörner, Magnus, and Harold Sims. Adventurers and Proletarians: The Story of Migrants in Latin America. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985.
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  23. Overview of voluntary immigration to Spanish America and Brazil during the colonial period, and particularly during the great inflow between the mid-19th century and the Great Depression, with two final chapters on post-1930 movements into, within, and from Latin America. Emphasis is on policies, politics, demography, and economic structures.
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  25. Moya, José C. “A Continent of Immigrants: Postcolonial Shifts in the Western Hemisphere.” Hispanic American Historical Review 86.1 (2006): 1–28.
  26. DOI: 10.1215/00182168-86-1-1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  27. Discusses the connection between mass migration and modernization during the 19th century and the role of European immigration in the reversal of the regional socioeconomic rank of the Americas, as what had been the poorest and most marginal colonies before 1800 became the most economically developed and socially egalitarian countries or regions.
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  29. Moya, José C.. “Migration.” In Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. 2d ed. Edited by Jay Kinsbruner. New York: Charles Scribner’s Son, 2008.
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  31. Overview of colonial immigration from Africa and Europe; the process of cultural Iberianization; the mass inflow circa 1850–1930, and its origins, causes, and consequences; the refugee movements into Latin America of the 1930s and 1940s; the revival of immigration in the 1950s and 1960s; and the surge of emigration from Latin America to the United States, Europe, and elsewhere from the 1960s on.
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  33. Nugent, Walter. Crossings: The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870–1914. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1995.
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  35. The book’s three parts cover the general demographic and economic trends of the Atlantic world during the period, the situation in the seven principal regions of emigration, and that of the major four American receivers: the United States, Argentina, Canada, and Brazil.
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  37. Bibliographies
  38.  
  39. There is no bibliography that covers emigration to and within Latin America in general. The subsections below describe bibliographies on European, Asian, and Intra-Latin American migration.
  40.  
  41. European Immigration
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  43. Bibliographies of European immigration in Latin America are all limited in different ways. The broadest (Marshall 1991) does not include works published before 1960 and after 1991, or those dealing with international movements within Latin America. Others deal with only one country (Caetano 1996) or region within Latin America (Asdrúbal Silva, et al. 1984), with the scholarly literature produced in a specific country (Rodriguez Yunta 1995), or with a single national group (Esperienza Italiana in Argentina, Nicoulin and Ziegler 1975, Caetano 1996). Together, however, they provide a valuable source of information, particularly for the vast literature on the topic that has been produced in Latin America and Europe.
  44.  
  45. Asdrúbal Silva, Hernán, et al. Bibliografía sobre el impacto del proceso inmigratorio masivo en el Cono Sur de América: Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Uruguay. Mexico City: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia, 1984.
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  47. Covers immigration and the role of the arrivals in their host countries. Entries are not annotated.
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  49. Caetano, Gerardo, ed. Bibliografia y fuentes éditas para el estudio de la inmigración italiana en el Uruguay, 1830–1990. Montevideo: Talleres Don Bosco, 1996.
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  51. This 268-page bibliography, compiled by a team of researchers, lists 1,248 publications written between 1830 and 1930 and dealing, directly or indirectly, with the Italian presence in Uruguay.
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  53. Esperienza Italiana in Argentina.
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  55. This online bibliography is poorly organized, the entries are not classified or annotated, and most are about Italians in the United States. But it does contains an extensive list of items on Italian emigration to Argentina and other Latin American destinations, including Italian-language material, as well as articles and book chapters published in Latin America that are not found on other sources, and it is text-searchable.
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  57. Marshall, Oliver. European Immigration and Ethnicity in Latin America: A Bibliography. London: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1991.
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  59. Lists 1,468 items on European immigration in postcolonial Latin America published since between 1960 and 1991 in any European language, ordered by region or country of origin and country of arrival.
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  61. Nicoulin, Martin, and Béatrice Ziegler. Emigration suisse en Amérique Latine, 1815–1939: Essai bibliographique. Berne: Bibliothèque Nationale Suisse, 1975.
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  63. Majority of works here deal with Swiss emigration to rural colonies in Argentina and Brazil during the 19th century, but the work provides an exhaustive list of publications and some manuscripts in various languages about the topic of the bibliography in general.
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  65. Rodríguez Yunta, Luís. Movimientos migratorios en América Latina, siglos XIX–XX. Madrid: CINDOC-SCIC, 1995.
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  67. This bibliography on migration in Latin America during the 19th and 20th includes mostly articles, papers, and dissertations published or written in Spain between 1975 and 1994. It contains an index by place of origin and destination. Available online.
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  69. Asian Immigration
  70.  
  71. The number of bibliographies on Asian immigration to Latin America is similar to the number on European immigration, despite the fact that Asian immigration to the region was twenty-two times smaller than the European inflow. This reflects the greater interest generated by Asian immigration in North American ethnic studies and in US academia in general. While all of the bibliographies on European immigration were compiled by either Europeans or Latin Americans, the ones on Asian immigration were compiled in the United States by US-based scholars—with one exception: Li Anshan 2006 is a translated work by a scholar from Pekin University. As whole, the bibliographical work on Asian immigration tends to be more thorough and more recent. Of the pan-Asian bibliographies, Lamgen 1990 is older but the most extensive, Cho 2000 is also large, more recent, and annotated, and Chu 2002 is a selective bibliography. Of the two on specific groups, Li Anshan 2006 covers an extensive scholarly literature on the Chinese presence in Latin America and the non-Hispanic Caribbean, including works published in China, while the bibliography on the Japanese in Latin America compiled at California State University (Latin American Studies Center 1975) is significantly limited in scope.
  72.  
  73. Cho, Jane J. Asians in Latin America: A Partially Annotated Bibliography of Selected Countries and People. Stanford, CA: Stanford University, Center for Latin American Studies, 2000.
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  75. Contains one thousand titles, about a third of them annotated, on Chinese, Japanese, East Indians, and other Asian peoples in Latin America and the Caribbean. Organized alphabetically by country and/or region and then by ethnic group within each section.
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  77. Chu, Clara M. “Asians in Latin America: A Selected Bibliography, 1990–2002.” Amerasia Journal 28.2 (2002): 235–245.
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  79. Categories include: Asians (and works on more than one group); Chinese; East Indians; Japanese; Javanese (Indonesian); and Koreans. Entries are organized by the broader Asian category, then alphabetically by ethnic group, and within each group, alphabetically by country or region of settlement. Available online.
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  81. Lamgen, Leon. Asians in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Bibliography. Asian/American Center Working Paper Series. New York: Asian/American Center, Queens College, 1990.
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  83. A 149-page list of over thirteen hundred publications in seven languages. Not annotated. Works are arranged alphabetically according to country, and within each country alphabetically by national group.
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  85. Latin American Studies Center. Latin America and Japan: A Bibliography. Los Angeles: California State University, Latin American Studies Center, 1975.
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  87. A nineteen-page bibliography compiled by students. The selection is basically Anglophone (of the seventy-five books listed there are only one in Spanish, one in Portuguese, and none in Japanese); it includes titles on Japanese-Latin American relations that have nothing to do with migration; and entries are not annotated and poorly classified.
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  89. Li Anshan. “A Historiographical Survey of the Study of Chinese Immigrants in Latin America and the Caribbean.” In Essays on the Chinese Diaspora in the Caribbean. Edited by Walton Look Lai. St. Augustine, Trinidad: University of the West Indies, 2006.
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  91. Translation of a 2004 essay originally published in Chinese by Peking University Press. Surveys past and current works on the topic and is particularly thorough for the scholarly literature produced in China.
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  93. Intra-Latin American International Migrations
  94.  
  95. Bibliographies of recent (post-1960s) migrations are numerous but tend to center on moves to the United States. Staab 2004 and Reynosa 2001 are somewhat more balanced in that they also discuss works about international migration between Latin American countries. Inoa 1994 deals with the specific case of Haitian migration to the Dominican Republic.
  96.  
  97. Inoa, Orlando. Bibliografía haitiana en la República Dominicana. Rio Piedra: Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1994.
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  99. Extensive bibliography of relations between the two countries of Hispaniola that includes a large number of titles on Haitian immigration in the Dominican Republic.
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  101. Reynosa, Flora. Reseña bibliográfica: Herramienta para el estudio del fenómeno migratorio. Guatemala: Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales (FLACSO), 2001.
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  103. Emphasizes migration to the United States but also includes numerous studies of internal, refugee, and inter-Latin American movements.
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  105. Staab, Silke. In Search of Work: International Migration of Women in Latin America and the Caribbean: Selected Bibliography. Santiago, Chile: United Nations, 2004.
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  107. Densely annotated bibliography of ninety-eight items published between 1991 and 2006 on women’s international migration within and from Latin America since the 1960s, indexed by author, subject, and place. Available online.
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  109. Colonial Period
  110.  
  111. Iberian colonialism in Americas is unusual, if not exceptional, in the history of modern imperialism in terms of the depth and range of its impact. Nowhere else in the world, with the exception of the colonies of European settlement in North America and Australasia, did colonization lead to changes so dramatic and lasting. They ranged from the physical, including the transformation of the hemisphere’s biota (its flora, fauna, and disease environment), to the social and economic (the demographic decimation of the indigenous population; the introduction of extensive and commercial agriculture, mining, chattel slavery, wage labor, and ranching; and the organization of rural and urban space), to the realm of cultural practices and beliefs (language, naming patterns, cuisine, law, and religion). Such a deep impact would have been inconceivable if Iberian colonialism had been limited to explorations, military victories, and conquistadors. Historians have for decades been showing that the bulk of colonial transatlantic crossings took the form not of conquest but of migration based on kinship and local connections—much like international migration today. Quantitative and prosopographical studies demonstrate that most arrivals were farmers, artisans, and workers in search of opportunities, rather than conquistadors in search of El Dorado (Martínez Shaw 1994, Macías Domínguez 1999, Diaz-Trechuelo 1991, and Lockhart 1972, cited under Peru). Microhistorical approaches point in the same direction (Altman 1989, cited under Peru, and Altman 2000, under Mexico), as do works of synthesis (Altman and Horn 1991, Sánchez-Albornoz 2008), and literary studies such as Leonard 1992 and Lupher 2003, which trace the transference of Spanish literary culture to the Americas. Movement within the Indies in turn promoted the formation of a colonial culture, as many of the chapters in Robinson 1990 and Horton 2001 show.
  112.  
  113. Altman, Ida, and James Horn, eds. “To Make America”: European Emigration in the Early Modern Period. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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  115. The introduction by the editors provides a general overview of the size, origins, social makeup, motivation, and destinations of the European colonial crossings to the New World. Chapters deal with Spaniards in the Indies; legal and illegal emigration from Seville; migration to the Chesapeake, French Canada, and the French Antilles; and German migration to British North America.
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  117. Diaz-Trechuelo, Maria Lourdes, ed. La emigración andaluza a America, siglos XVII y XVIII. Seville: Junta de Andalucia, 1991.
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  119. Confirms the Andalusian predominance during the first century of colonization in the Indies, when the region accounted for 17 percent of the Spanish population but for 42 percent of those crossing the Atlantic, the high female proportion (as high as 47 percent of the outflow during the 17th century), the social diversity of the exodus, and the decline in the 18th century of the Andalusian contingent in both absolute and relative terms.
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  121. Horton, M. Anore, ed. New Perspectives on Women and Migration in Colonial Latin America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University, Program in Latin American Studies, 2001.
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  123. The three chapters in this booklet provide an overview of the migration of indigenous and mestizo women in colonial Spanish America; of the crossings of Spanish women to the Indies, with a long section on Mexico; and a shorter discussion of female migration during the colonial period in general.
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  125. Leonard, Irving Albert. Books of the Brave: Being an Account of Books and of Men in the Spanish Conquest and Settlement of the Sixteenth-Century New World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
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  127. Reprint with extra original documents of a classic 1943 study of the circulation of books between Spain and the Indies, the transfer of literary culture from the former to the latter, and the importance of chivalric romances in shaping the worldview and the concept of history of early conquerors and settlers. An introduction by Rolena Adorno supplies the historiographical context.
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  129. Lupher, David A. Romans in a New World: Classical Models in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
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  131. Using the writing of famous authors (Las Casas, Bernal Díaz, Alonso de Ercilla, Garcilaso de la Vega, etc.) and more obscure ones that wrote mostly in Latin, Lupher shows how Spaniards ranging from conquerors to theologians used classical Rome as a model against which to measure their deeds, while others dismissed such comparisons by portraying Rome as a flawed paradigm.
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  133. Macías Domínguez, Isabelo. La llamada del Nuevo Mundo: La emigración española a América, 1701–1750. Seville: Universidad de Sevilla, 1999.
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  135. Based on some eighty-two hundred exit permits found in Spanish archives, this work describes the different types of emigrants (bureaucrats, clerics, merchants, artisans, servants, etc.), including their ages, sex, marital status, occupations, regional origins, destinations, and motives, as well as the transatlantic passage itself.
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  137. Martínez Shaw, Carlos. La emigración española a América, 1492–1824. Colombres, Asturias: Archivo de Indianos, 1994.
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  139. A synthesis of Spanish emigration to Spain’s American possessions during the entire colonial period, with an emphasis on quantitative aspects and on the social makeup—in terms of age, occupations, education, and regional origins—of the emigrants.
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  141. Robinson, David J., ed. Migration in Colonial Spanish America. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
  142. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511522239Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  143. Emphasizes indigenous mobility, but there are also chapters on colonial mobility in general and on the migration of specific groups (e. g., students, miners, religious novices, rural inhabitants moving to cities), and marriage and migration. Includes chapters on Mexico, Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Costa Rica.
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  145. Sánchez-Albornoz, Nicolás. Rumbo a América: Gente, ideas y lengua. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 2008.
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  147. This concise volume offers a sweeping description of early European overseas expansion and its demographic impact on Africa and the Americas; the arrival, settlement, interactions, and cultural interactions of Spaniards and Africans in the Indies; and the role of Spanish colonialism in the spread of wage labor, scholasticism, and the Castilian language in the Americas.
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  149. Peru
  150.  
  151. Due to the discovery of silver mines, which led to sayings such as “rich as Peru” and “worth a Potosi” in most European nations, the Viceroyalty of Peru was the principal destination during the first century and a half of Spanish colonization in the Americas. The scholarly literature on these movements include one of the earliest prosopographical methodologies in Latin American historiography (Lockhart 1972), transatlantic social histories (Altman 1989, Varón Gabai 1997), and a study of trade and illegal immigration (Cross 1978).
  152.  
  153. Altman, Ida. Emigrants and Society: Extremadura and America in the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
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  155. Offers a detailed analysis of local society in the towns of Cáceres and Trujillo; the emigration of its inhabitants to the Indies, particularly Peru; their activities there; and return migration and its impact. Shows that even in a region often known as the cradle of conquistadors, most emigrants were actually farmers and artisans in search of opportunities, often through family and friendship networks.
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  157. Cross, Harry E. “Commerce and Orthodoxy: A Spanish Response to Portuguese Commercial Penetration in the Viceroyalty of Peru, 1580–1640.” The Americas 35.2 (1978): 151–167.
  158. DOI: 10.2307/980901Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  159. Describes the legal and illegal movements of Portuguese into colonial Peru during the peak of its silver boom, the degree to which they and their descendants came to dominate colonial trade, the efforts by Spanish merchants to have the imperial government expel their competition, and the resulting involvement of the Inquisition in the process.
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  161. Lockhart, James. The Men of Cajamarca: A Social and Biographical Study of the First Conquerors of Peru. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1972.
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  163. A prosopographical study of the 64 horsemen and the 106 foot soldiers present at the partition of the loot heaped to ransom Atahualpa’s life. It shows the majority were plebeians from cities and ports, that those with higher status in Spain were more likely to return, and that the poorer, younger, and more recently arrived tended to stay in Peru.
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  165. Varón Gabai, Rafael. Francisco Pizarro and His Brothers: The Illusion of Power in Sixteenth-Century Peru. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.
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  167. Describes the negotiations by the Pizarro family in Panama to finance the expedition to Peru, the Pizarros’ role in the conquest of the Inca Empire, their interactions with the indigenous elites, the accumulation of wealth by the family and their fellow townsmen from Estremadura, and the efforts of the Spanish Crown to reconquer Peru from the Pizarros.
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  169. Mexico
  170.  
  171. During the second half of the colonial period, the Viceroyalty of New Spain replaced the Viceroyalty of Peru as the richest, most dynamic, and most alluring region in the Spanish Empire for immigrants. The historiography on this movement is richer than that on Peru. It includes traditional military and political histories (Sanchez 1990, Flores Caballero 1974), economic and commercial histories (Brading 1971), microhistorical approaches (Altman 2000), prosopographies (Eyal 2006, Himmerich y Valencia 1991), and histories of frontier settlement (Jones 1979), among other approaches.
  172.  
  173. Altman, Ida. Transatlantic Ties in the Spanish Empire: Brihuega, Spain and Puebla, Mexico, 1560–1620. Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.
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  175. A microhistory of the migration from a woolens-manufacturing town in Castile that sent a quarter of its four thousand inhabitants to Puebla, the second-ranking city in colonial Mexico, which they also made into a center of the textile industry. Excellent study of how people, institutions, and cultural norms traveled from the Old World to the New, and how they adapted to the American milieu.
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  177. Brading, David A. Miners and Merchants in Bourbon Mexico, 1763–1810. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
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  179. Classic study of late colonial Mexico. Brading traces the northern shift in the regional origins of the Spanish immigrants during the period, their increased domination of the imperial bureaucracy, and their economic upward mobility, illuminating the process whereby waves of relatively poor immigrants managed to rise to dominant positions in trade and mining generation after generation.
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  181. Eyal, Hillel. “Colonizing the Colonizer: Spanish Immigrants and Creoles in Late Colonial Mexico City.” PhD diss., Los Angeles: University of California, 2006.
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  183. Using archival sources from Seville, provincial Spanish towns, and Mexico City, Eyal examines the regional and social origins of Spanish emigrants to New Spain during the late Bourbon period; their settlement in Mexico City, marriage patterns, and socioeconomic status, and mobility, compared by nativity and Iberian ethnic origin; and their social connections with the Creole population.
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  185. Flores Caballero, Romeo R. Counterrevolution: The Role of the Spaniards in the Independence of Mexico, 1804–38. Translated by Jaime E. Rodríguez O. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1974.
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  187. First chapter describes the Spanish community in late colonial Mexico. The rest of the book traces their political attitudes and actions from the Royal Decree of 1804 ordering the sequestration of the church’s charitable funds, through the Wars of Independence (1810–1821) and the expulsion of Spaniards in 1827–1829, to the signing of a peace treaty between Mexico and Spain in 1838.
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  189. Himmerich y Valencia, Robert. The Encomenderos of New Spain, 1521–1555. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
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  191. A prosopographical study of 506 Spanish holders of encomiendas—royal grants of rights over indigenous labor in a specific district, given to conquistadors and pioneer settlers—in early New Spain. It examines the encomenderos’s regional origins in Spain, their social background, the location of their grants, their arrival and life in Mexico, and their relationship with the Spanish Crown.
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  193. Jones, Oakah L. Los Paisanos: Spanish Settlers on the Northern Frontier of New Spain. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1979.
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  195. Focuses not on Spanish explorers, missionaries, or soldiers, but on the more numerous and important farmer-colonists who settled what is today Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Durango, Sinaloa, Sonora, Chihuahua, and Baja, California, on the southern side of the Rio Grande, and Texas, New Mexico, and California on the northern side, and on just about every aspect of colonial life.
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  197. Sanchez, Joseph P. Spanish Bluecoats: The Catalonian Volunteers in Northwestern New Spain, 1767–1810. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1990.
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  199. History of a military unit created in 1767 by the Bourbon monarchy to stiffen the defense of the borderlands in the Viceroyalty of New Spain after the Seven Years’ War. The company’s original members were recruited in Catalonia, but casualties and desertions left vacancies that were filled by other Spaniards and Mexican-born migrants.
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  201. Foreigners, Conversos, and Moriscos in the Spanish Indies
  202.  
  203. The laws of Spain restricted emigration to their American colonies to subjects of the Crown of Castile, and also prohibited foreigners from residing there, perceiving in them a potential threat to imperial security, mercantile monopolies, and religious orthodoxy (Nunn 1979). For the latter reason, immigration was also restricted to “old” Christians, individuals who could prove that all of their ancestors had been Catholic for at least three generations (Hordes 2005). The most famous of the decrees prohibiting the entry of Jews, Moors, New Christians, and their descendants, was issued by Charles V in 1523. But this was neither the first nor the last of such decrees, the last of which was issued almost at the end of the colonial period in 1802. The apparent need to repeat these decrees suggests that “illegal” immigrants had made it to the colonies in significant numbers. The works in this section show this to be the case for a variety of national and ethnic groups. Nunn 1979 shows the common presence of foreigners in Mexico during the 18th century, when they accounted for 3 percent of European immigrants, and general toleration from the local authorities and population. Calvo 1983 finds similar processes of integration and peaceful coexistence for Japanese residing in Guadalajara during the 17th century. Dubs and Smith 1942, on the other hand, finds economic jealousy against Chinese in Mexico City in the 1600s. Rustomji-Kerns 2002 relates the story of how a slave girl from India became a Catholic folk hero in colonial Puebla. Herzog 2003 offers a broader study of immigration and citizenship in the Hispanic Atlantic but also notices high levels of tolerance, particularly in practice and at the local level. Studnicki-Gizbert 2006 examines the presence of Portuguese merchants in the Spanish Empire during its first 150 years of existence. Liebman 1970 shows the presence of Jews in New Spain, although at times the term seems to encompass any one with Jewish ancestry rather than those who practiced the religion secretly. Hordes 2005 offers a more nuanced exploration of crypto-Jews in New Mexico. Cook 2008 shifts the focus to the other principal religious minority in Iberia by exploring the presence in colonial Spanish America of Moriscos, recent converts to Christianity from Islam.
  204.  
  205. Calvo, Thomas. “Japoneses en Guadalajara: ‘Blancos de honor’ durante el seiscientos mexicano.” Revista de Indias 43.172 (1983): 533–547.
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  207. Reveals the presence of Japanese residing in Guadalajara during the 17th century. The subtitle comes from the term “honorific whites” used in Apartheid South Africa to designate Japanese, and conveys the author’s findings that the acculturation of the Japanese combined with low levels of local xenophobia to facilitate their integration in colonial Mexican society.
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  209. Cook, Karoline P. “Forbidden Crossings: Morisco Emigration to Spanish America, 1492–1650.” PhD diss., Princeton University, 2008.
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  211. Using about one hundred cases of individuals accused of practicing Islam or of being descendants of Muslims and brought before secular and ecclesiastical courts, this dissertation uncovers the presence in the Indies of a group that was not supposed to be there: Moriscos, or recent Muslim coverts to Christianity.
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  213. Dubs, Homer H., and Robert S. Smith. “Chinese in Mexico City in 1635.” The Far Eastern Quarterly 1.4 (1942): 387–389.
  214. DOI: 10.2307/2048930Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  215. In the middle of the 17th century, some twenty thousand Chinese resided in Parian, a suburb of Manila set aside for them by the Spanish colonial authorities. Many of them made it to Mexico through the Manila-Acapulco trade. This short piece tells of a case in which Spanish barbers complained to the authorities in Mexico City of unfair competition from Chinese barbers.
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  217. Herzog, Tamar. Defining Nations: Immigrants and Citizens in Early Modern Spain and Spanish America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
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  219. First half of book compares the concepts and practices for determining membership in local communities and in the broader polity (vecindad and naturaleza) in Spain and Spanish America. The second half examines the construction of alterity (using the cases of Gypsies, conversos, foreign vassals, and foreign Catholics) and the broader ideals and practices of inclusion and exclusion.
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  221. Hordes, Stanley M. To the End of the Earth: A History of the Crypto-Jews of New Mexico. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
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  223. Traces the origins of crypto-Judaism in the Iberian Peninsula, the presence of conversos in the early settlements of New Mexico (1579–1607), as well as their relations with Franciscans friars during the 17th century, continuity during the Spanish-Mexican period, adaptation to Anglo-American society after 1846, and the vestiges of Judaism in the Hispano population of northern New Mexico today.
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  225. Liebman, Seymour B. The Jews in New Spain: Faith, Flame, and Inquisition. Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami Press, 1970.
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  227. Based on records of Inquisition investigations and trials of Jews and crypto-Jews held in Mexico’s and Madrid’s national historical archives, this extensive volume provide valuable glimpses into their early settlement in New Spain during the 16th century and the development of customs and community connections during the 17th century. An epilogue covers the last century of Spanish colonial rule.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Nunn, Charles F. Foreign Immigrants in Early Bourbon Mexico, 1700–1760. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979.
  230. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511665264Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. Shows the presence of numerous foreigners in 18th-century Mexico, and that in spite of the laws prohibiting that presence, non-Spanish foreign residents went about their lives without much harassment from officials or from popular xenophobia—in part because the immigrants assimilated to local society, and in part because of the de facto tolerance of civil and religious authorities.
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  233. Rustomji-Kerns, Roshni. “Mirrha Catarina de San Juan: From India to New Spain.” Amerasia Journal 28.2 (2002): 29–36.
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  235. Relates the story of Myrrha, a girl born in India in 1606 and taken to New Spain as a slave at the age of age of thirteen, who died in Puebla seventy years later revered by many as a Catholic visionary and saintly healer, but denounced by others as a foreign heathen.
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  237. Studnicki-Gizbert, Daviken. A Nation upon the Ocean Sea: Portugal’s Atlantic Diaspora and the Crisis of the Spanish Empire, 1492–1640. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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  239. Richly textured study of the Portuguese mercantile diaspora in the Spanish Empire from Columbus’s first trip to the Americas to the end of the Iberian Union in 1640. It examines the economic activity, family life, residential enclaves, and wide-ranging trade and kin networks of this expatriate maritime community of mixed Christian and Jewish origins.
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  241. Brazil
  242.  
  243. Unlike Spanish emigration to the Indies, which reached massive proportions in the second half of the 16th century and the first half of the 17th, the Portuguese transatlantic flow became numerically significant mainly during the first half of the 18th century with the discovery of gold and diamonds in Minas Gerais. Earlier colonization schemes, however, were particularly diverse, and the historiography, as shown in the following subsections, reflects this fact.
  244.  
  245. French Colonization
  246.  
  247. The French founded several colonies in what is today Brazil during the 16th and 17th centuries. These colonies have been the source of endless fascination for scholars (McGrath 1996, Daher 2002), novelists (Ruffin 2001), and filmmakers (Pereira dos Santos 1971).
  248.  
  249. Daher, Andréa. Les Singularités de la France équinoxiale: Histoire de la mission des pères capucins au Brésil, 1612–1615. Paris: Champion, 2002.
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  251. Describes the missionary effort of French Capuchins to Christianize the Tupinamba in the Amazonian region of Maranhão through charity and peaceful proselytizing, and the abandonment of this mixture of conversion and colonization, out of deference to the Spanish/Portuguese Crown, in 1615 when Louis XIII of France married Anne of Austria, the daughter of Philip III of Spain.
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  253. McGrath, John. “Polemic and History in French Brazil, 1555–1560.” Sixteenth Century Journal 27.2 (1996): 385–397.
  254. DOI: 10.2307/2544140Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  255. Attempts to decipher the religious (Calvinist) and political interests beyond the two earliest published accounts of the French foundation of Fort Coligny in the Bay of Guanabara, and thus shed some light on both that specific colonial failure and the wider cultural and political milieu in which it took place.
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  257. Pereira dos Santos, Nelson, dir. Como Era Gostoso o Meu Francês. Feature film. Brazil: Regina Films, 1971.
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  259. Based loosely on the 1557 account by a German adventurer of his travels in Brazil and his nine-month capture by the anthropophagic Tupinamba, this film, by a master of Brazilian Cinema Novo, offers an anthropological/surrealistic exploration and satire of the conflicts and relations between the indigenous population and the French and Portuguese colonizers. DVD released in 2010.
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  261. Rufin, Jean-Christophe. Brazil Red. Translated by Willard Wood. New York: Norton, 2001.
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  263. A translation of Rouge Brésil, a prize-winning historical novel by a physician-writer and one of the founders of Doctors Without Borders. It recounts the efforts by a French expeditionary force made up of soldiers, sailors, and artisans to establish a colony near Rio de Janeiro in 1555 and the conflicts that emerge between Catholics and Protestants, while offering an inquiry into the origins of imperialist prejudice.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Dutch Colonization
  266.  
  267. Scholarly interest in the Dutch, who occupied Brazil in the second quarter of the 17th century, has generated works that range from classics of imperial history (Boxer 1957) to studies of religion and religious tolerance (Schalkwijk 1998, Israel and Schwartz 2007), art history (Brienen 2006) and transatlantic approaches (Ratelband 2003).
  268.  
  269. Boxer, C. R. The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654. New York: Oxford University Press, 1957.
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  271. A classic that examines the European background; the Dutch occupation of Pernambuco and later expansion into Maranhao; the rule of Governor-General Johan Maurits, who in spite of the conflict between his Catholic and Calvinist countrymen managed to uphold a greater degree of religious freedom there than “anywhere else in the Western world”; and the resistance and eventual success by the Luso-Brazilian population.
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  273. Brienen, Rebecca Parker. Visions of Savage Paradise: Albert Eckhout, Court Painter in Colonial Dutch Brazil. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006.
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  275. Albert Eckhout arrived in Recife in 1637 and stayed in Brazil until 1644. He is one of the two best-known painters of Dutch Brazil, the other being Franz Post. The chapters in this volume cover his depictions of Dutch officials and settlers, indigenous tribes, Africans, mestizos and mulattos, and nature. Also covers contemporary discussions of ethnography and natural history.
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  277. Israel, Jonathan I., and Stuart B. Schwartz. The Expansion of Tolerance: Religion in Dutch Brazil, 1624–1654. Introduction by Michiel van Groesen. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, 2007.
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  279. In the introduction, Van Groesen discusses the religious situation in the Netherland, where the Dutch Reformed Church became dominant but its members continued to be a minority, forcing some level of accommodation. Israel examines how this played out in Dutch Brazil and finds a high degree of religious liberty—as does Schwartz, who finds widespread tolerance at the grassroots level in Luso-Brazilian society.
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  281. Ratelband, Klass. Os holandeses no Brasil e na Costa Africana: Angola, Kongo e S. Tomé, 1600–1650. Lisbon: Vega, 2003.
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  283. Thoroughly researched in manuscript sources held in the archives of the Dutch West Indies Company, this volume examines the Dutch occupation of the Portuguese colonies in Brazil, Sao Tome, Angola, and the Congo—and the connections between them.
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  285. Schalkwijk, Frans L. The Reformed Church in Dutch Brazil, 1630–1654. Zoetermeer, The Netherlands: Boekencentrum, 1998.
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  287. Translation from the Portuguese of an exhaustive study of the Dutch Reformed Church in Brazil, including its internal structure and relations with the Dutch West Indies Company and local authorities. Schalkwijk argues that the church’s missionary efforts were limited and that the secular authorities, with the support of many within the church, permitted a remarkable degree of freedom of practice for Catholics and Jews.
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  289. Jews and New Christians
  290.  
  291. At the time of the royal decree of 1496 ordering the expulsion from Portugal of all Jews who refused to convert to Catholicism, one-fifth of the country’s population, or nearly two hundred thousand persons, was Jewish. Most of them converted, at least nominally, and stayed. Four years later the first Portuguese began to arrive in Brazil, including many of the new Christians. Openly Jewish migration to colonial Brazil took place only during the Dutch period. All the studies listed below, however, with the exception of Wiznitzer 1954, provide a broader scope that includes the presence of crypto-Jews and conversos, or new Christians, in colonial Brazil. The broadest study in English is Wiznitzer 1960, which begins in the early 1500s and covers the entire colony. Others concentrate in specific regions. Feitler 2003 focuses mainly on Pernambuco and Paraiba, despite the general Nordeste of the title. Wadsworth 2004 deals with Pernambuco, and Novinsky 1972 with Bahia.
  292.  
  293. Feitler, Bruno. Inquisition, juifs et nouveaux-chrétiens au Brésil: Le Nordeste, XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. Louven, Belgium: Leuven University Press, 2003.
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  295. Explores the presence of Jews and conversos in the Northeast of Brazil (particularly in Pernambuco and Paraiba), their organization of two official communities during the Dutch occupation, their conversion or reconversion to Christianity after the Portuguese reconquest in 1654, and the continuity of crypto-Judaism through endogamy, integration into the local environment, and a surprisingly high level of quotidian toleration from Luso-Brazilian colonial society.
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  297. Novinsky, Anita. Cristãos Novos na Bahía. Sao Paulo: Perspectiva, 1972.
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  299. The result of ten years of research, this classic study explores the “divided lives” of new Christians in Bahia during the 17th century, including their occupations, their hybrid practices of Judaism and Catholicism, and the Inquisition’s pressure on local “old” Christians to denounce their neighbors, particularly during the Great Investigation of 1646.
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  301. Wadsworth, James E. “In the Name of the Inquisition: The Portuguese Inquisition and Delegated Authority in Colonial Pernambuco, Brazil.” The Americas 61.1 (2004): 19–52.
  302. DOI: 10.1353/tam.2004.0118Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Explores the role of the Inquisition in policing religious and moral orthodoxy, and the institutional mechanisms it used to do so, including its reliance on existing colonial political establishments. Contains information on those Brazilians tried in Portugal as crypto-Jews.
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  305. Wiznitzer, Arnold. “The Number of Jews in Dutch Brazil, 1630–1654.” Jewish Social Studies 16.2 (1954):107–114.
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  307. Uses Dutch censuses and primary sources to estimate the Jewish population of northeastern Brazil during the period in question. Also discusses local attitudes toward Jews from the local Dutch Christian population and the political loyalties of Jews in the colony.
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  309. Wiznitzer, Arnold. Jews in Colonial Brazil. New York: Columbia University Press, 1960.
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  311. Describes how Jews were expelled to or found refuge in Brazil in the early 1500s after the forced conversions in Portugal, their role in the early establishment of the sugar industry, trade connections with coreligionists who had fled to Amsterdam, life during the Dutch occupation, and the continuity of secret religious practices after the return of the Portuguese.
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  313. Portuguese
  314.  
  315. Brazil’s colonial masters have, oddly, received less scholarly attention than smaller but apparently more exotic groups. Although the historiography of colonial Brazil is vast, studies of the Portuguese presence in their biggest colony are surprisingly scarce. Marchant 1942 is now almost seven decades old and restricts its inquiry to only the early years of the colony and the relations with indigenous people. Donovan 1992 deals with a small ethnic subgroup (gypsies), and Vidal 2005 with an equally small and unusual group of Portuguese settlers coming from Morocco.
  316.  
  317. Donovan, Bill M. “Changing Perceptions of Social Deviance: Gypsies in Early Modern Portugal and Brazil.” Journal of Social History 26.1 (1992): 33–53.
  318. DOI: 10.1353/jsh/26.1.33Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. Examines the early arrival of gypsies to Brazil in the 17th century; the deportation of gypsy communities to the colony by the Portuguese Crown after 1718; their continued existence as an identifiable cultural group in the face of local prejudice; and how the slave/free, black/white divide afforded gypsies a higher level of integration into local society than in Europe.
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  321. Marchant, Alexander. From Barter to Slavery: The Economic Relations of Portuguese and Indians in the Settlement of Brazil, 1500–1580. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1942.
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  323. Identifies three distinct periods: 1500–1533, when Portuguese merchants bartered Brazilwood with natives while fighting the French, a struggle that would continue during the rest of the century; 1533–1549, when the first colonist arrived, making a living by cultivating sugar, cotton, and manioc and bartering these for indigenous labor; and 1549–1580, when growing exports and demands for labor led to the emergence of Indian slavery.
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  325. Vidal, Laurent. Mazagão: La ville qui traversa l’Atlantique: Du Maroc à l’Amazonie, 1769–1783. Paris: Aubier, 2005.
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  327. Tells of the transfer, in the 18th century and by order of the Crown, of the entire population of Mazagão, a Portuguese fortress town on the coast of Morocco, to Lisbon, then across the Atlantic to Belem, and finally to the new town of Mazagão in the depths of Amazonia. The study focuses on the wait in each site, the interaction between the migrants and the locals, the tensions with the Portuguese authorities, and the gradual transformation of soldiers into colonists.
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  329. Postcolonial Migration
  330.  
  331. Mass immigration to Latin America, as the titles of Baily and Miguez 2003 and Fausto 1999 indicate, is a modern phenomenon. While no more than 1.6 million free immigrants came to the region during three centuries of colonial rule, 17.6 million arrived after independence, mostly between 1870 and 1930 and in the two decades following World War II. There is no single monographic study or synthesis of this phenomenon. Therefore all the works listed below are multiauthored, edited volumes that deal with Latin American in general rather than with a single country or a single group of origin. Baily and Miguez 2003 provide a useful overview of the global forces that made mass migration possible, in addition to the specific case studies of the volume’s chapters, as does Fausto 1999 to a lesser degree. The scope of Llordén Miñambres 1995 and Opatrný 2000 is more limited in terms of the European origins that these works cover, as is Bernasconi and Frid 2006, both thematically (the immigrant leadership) and in terms of origins and destinations, since, despite the broad title of the book, most of the chapters deal with Italians and Argentina. Martínez Montiel 1981 offers the broadest compilation on Asian migration to Latin America in terms of sources and destinations.
  332.  
  333. Baily, Samuel L., and Eduardo J. Míguez, eds. Mass Migration to Modern Latin America. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003.
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  335. The first part of this book deals with transnational/comparative cases: Spanish emigration to Cuba and Argentina, South Europeans to South Atlantic regions, Portuguese to the Americas, Italians to New York and Buenos Aires, Europeans in the latter city and Montevideo, and Japanese in Peru and Brazil. The other two parts deal with specific cases in Argentina and Brazil.
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  337. Bernasconi, Alicia, and Carina Frid, eds. De Europa a las Américas: Dirigentes y liderazgos, 1880–1960. Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 2006.
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  339. Sections cover general perspectives on immigrant leadership; ethnic political, intellectual, and religious leaders; and economic, mostly mercantile, immigrant elites. Most case studies come from the Southern Cone, with one comparative study with Cuba.
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  341. Fausto, Boris, ed. Fazer a América: A imigração em massa para America Latina. Sao Paulo: Editorial de la Universidad de São Paulo, 1999.
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  343. Chapters deal with Italian, Spanish, French, and Jewish emigration to Argentina; Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, German, Japanese, Jewish, and Syrian-Lebanese emigration to Brazil; and European emigration to Uruguay, Chile, Peru, and Cuba.
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  345. Llordén Miñambres, Moisés, ed. Acerca de las migraciones centroeuropeas y mediterráneas a Iberoamérica: Aspectos sociales y culturales. Oviedo, Spain: Universidad de Oviedo, 1995.
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  347. Chapters deal with Czech-Slovak and Yugoslavian emigration to Latin America, the microsocial aspects of Galician emigration, the origins and destinations of Spanish transatlantic crossings, Spanish associations overseas, and the connections between migration and the plastic arts in Cuba and Spain.
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  349. Martínez Montiel, Luz M., ed. Asiatic Migrations in Latin America: XXX International Congress of Human Sciences in Asia and North Africa. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1981.
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  351. Based on the papers presented in a 1976 conference in Mexico City, the chapters in this volume deal with Chinese immigration in Sonora, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Cuba; Japanese in Sao Paulo, in Brazil in general, and Mexico; Syrian Jews in Mexico; Lebanese in Mexico and in Tucuman, Argentina; and East Indians in the British Caribbean.
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  353. Opatrný, Josef, ed. Emigración centroeuropea a América Latina. Prague: Universidad Carolina de Praga, 2000.
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  355. Central Europe in this volume includes Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic; while Latin America includes Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, Venezuela and Mexico. Topically, it deals with the emigration debate in countries of origin, the propaganda of emigration agencies, and the images of countries of destinations in the immigrant press and literature.
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  357. Countries of Destination
  358.  
  359. The works included in this section do not provide overviews of immigration to Latin America during the national period, but they offer national histories of the process in specific countries. Their common characteristic is that they do not concentrate on the inflow of any one specific group of origin (the subsections that follow are arranged by country of origin or ethnicity). The only one that provides a broad history of immigration in a particular country is Devoto 2004, for Argentina. Bjerg and Otero 1995 offer, on the other hand, a collection of microhistories that together illuminate the process of migration and adaptation not only in Argentina but in general. Solberg 1970 compares the public discourse on immigration in Argentina and Chile. Lesser 1999 does the same for Brazil, using the case of non-European immigrants (Chinese, Arabs, and Japanese) to expand the discussion of race in that country beyond black and white. Holloway 1980 deals with those immigrants who headed to rural Sao Paulo, particularly its coffee frontier. Knight 2008 offers a thoughtful summary of immigration in Cuba but does not cover the 20th century, when the largest, and most diverse, streams arrived.
  360.  
  361. Bjerg, María, and Hernán Otero, eds. Inmigración y redes sociales en la Argentina moderna. Tandil, Argentina: CEMLA-IEHA, 1995.
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  363. Explores the uses of microhistory to question, or at least complement, structuralist and economicist approaches to migration studies. The twelve chapters employ social network analysis to explain the mechanism of migration and adaptations of immigrants from various regions in Italy, Spain, and Denmark to Argentine cities and the countryside.
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  365. Devoto, Fernando. Historia de la inmigración en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 2004.
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  367. A thoughtful synthesis of the global, regional, and local causes of immigration in Argentina, the ideas and policies of ruling groups and intellectual elites, the formation of immigrant communities in the country, and the process of economic integration and sociocultural assimilation of the newcomers.
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  369. Holloway, Thomas H. Immigrants on the Land: Coffee and Society in Sao Paulo, 1886–1934. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.
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  371. Discusses immigrant labor in the coffee economy of Sao Paulo and shows how the work, frugality, industriousness, and the determination of the newcomers played an essential role in the expansion of the agricultural frontier and in creating a rural society of independent farmers and small and midsized farms, despite traditional images of Sao Paulo as a region of latifundia.
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  373. Knight, Franklin W. “Migration and Culture: A Case Study of Cuba, 1750–1900.” Journal of The Historical Society 8.4 (2008): 545–566.
  374. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5923.2008.00260.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. Maintains that up to the mid-18th century, Cuba was still basically a society of white settlement, that this society was developed enough to absorb the waves of Africans, Spaniards, and Chinese that arrived over the next 150 years, and that those migrations made the island’s culture more dynamic, diverse, and inclusive.
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  377. Lesser, Jeffrey. Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.
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  379. An examination of public debates about immigration, ethnicity, and nationality in Brazil. Chapters cover the polemics about [the possibility of] Chinese immigration, Syrian-Lebanese immigrants and the arrivals’ responses, and the Japanese; in the process Lesser questions and problematizes the traditional notion of a Brazilian cultural tripod made up of European, African, and Amerindian legs.
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  381. Solberg, Carl. Immigration and Nationalism: Argentina and Chile, 1890–1914. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1970.
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  383. Not a book about actual immigrants but about public attitudes—particularly negative ones and by elites or well-known intellectuals—in two host countries that do not seem to have much in common other than their proximity when it comes to the topic of the book, since immigration was about forty times more voluminous in Argentina than in Chile.
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  385. Spaniards
  386.  
  387. Some 5.4 million Spaniards arrived in Latin America during the postcolonial period. They were not the largest national group of arrivals (Italians surpassed them by 1.3 million), but they were the most widespread in terms of destinations, and they were instrumental in preserving Hispano-Creole culture in countries that experienced a flood of non-Iberian immigration. The historiography includes a voluminous corpus published in Spain about emigration to Latin America from Spain in general (Sánchez-Albornoz 1988, Yáñez Gallardo 1994, Rueda Hernanz 2000), or from particular regions (Hernández González 1995, Azcona Pastor 2004), and by a particular gender (Liñares Giraut 2007). Pla Brugat 2002 reviews the extensive historiography on the Spanish republican exile in Latin America.
  388.  
  389. Azcona Pastor, José M. Possible Paradises: Basque Emigration to Latin America. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2004.
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  391. An English translation of a 1992 Spanish book. Its first four chapters describe the Basque country at the time of Columbus and its participation in Spain’s colonial enterprise; the next four discuss the causes of the Basque exodus in the 19th and 20th centuries and settlement in various Latin American regions; the last two cover the republican exile and the Franco period.
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  393. Hernández González, Manuel. Canarias, la emigracion: La emigración canaria a América a través de la historia. Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands: Centro de la Cultura Popular Canaria, 1995.
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  395. Describes, in less than two hundred pages, the Canary Islanders’ long migratory traditions to the New World, from the early trips of Columbus to the second half of the 20th century, with emphasis on their major destinations: Cuba, Venezuela, and the rest of the Spanish Caribbean. Includes sections on emigration to Uruguay in the mid-1800s and to Florida and Louisiana in the 1700s.
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  397. Liñares Giraut, X. Amancio, ed. El protagonismo de la mujer en las corrientes migratorios españolas. Vigo, Spain: Grupo España Exterior, 2007.
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  399. Most of the fourteen chapters deal with female emigration to Latin America. Topics include labor, sociability and associations, the feminization of rural work, public morality, exile, the “American dream” (meaning Latin American), social networks, and family letters and oral history.
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  401. Pla Brugat, Dolores. “El exilio republicano en Hispanoamérica. Su historia e historiografía.” Historia Social 42 (2002): 99–121.
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  403. The Spanish Civil War produced half a million refugees, most fleeing across the Pyrenees. This article provides an overview of those who crossed the Atlantic. Most went to Mexico, followed by Chile and the Dominican Republic, the only other two countries to welcome then officially, and then various other destinations. Includes a review of the historiography on the topic.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Rueda Hernanz, Germán. Españoles emigrantes en América, siglos XVI–XX. Madrid: Arco Libros, 2000.
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  407. Manages to include, in less than one hundred pages, a discussion of the historiography, a balance of five centuries of transatlantic crossings, a social profile of Spanish emigrants, including their regional origins and overseas destinations, the causes of the exodus, and the effect of emigration on Spain.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Sánchez-Albornoz, Nicolás, ed. Españoles hacia América: La emigración en masa, 1880–1930. Madrid: Alianza, 1988.
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  411. The first half of the book deals with the process of emigration and its effect on the main sending regions in Spain (Galicia, Asturias, Andalusia, Catalonia, the Canary Islands, and the Basque country). The second part examines the adaptation of the emigrants in their three principal destinations (Argentina, Cuba, and Brazil) and in two secondary destinations (Mexico and Puerto Rico).
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Yáñez Gallardo, César. La emigración española a América, siglos XIX y XX: Dimensión y características cuantitativas. Colombres, Asturias: Archivo de Indianos, 1994.
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  415. A quantitative examination of Spanish emigration. It includes a discussion of statistical sources and methods, and an analysis of the regional sources and the social composition of the flow in terms of occupation, education, gender, age, and rates of return.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. In Argentina
  418.  
  419. Argentina received the largest number of Spaniards (2.3 million) in Latin America during the national period, and Spaniards made up the second largest group of immigrants in that country (after the Italians). By the outbreak of World War I, Buenos Aires had a larger number of Spaniards (306,000) than had ever lived in all of Latin America at any point in time during the colonial period, or that lived then in any Spanish city other than Madrid and Barcelona. Moya 1998 offers the most comprehensive study of the topic and a systematic examination of migration and adaptation as social processes. Fernández and Moya 1999 includes chapters on topics ranging from demography to literature, and Núñez Seixas 2001 does the same for Galicians, the largest ethnoregional group among arrivals from Spain. The chapters in Lojo 2008 deal with images and stereotypes of Spanish immigrants in Argentine literature, popular theater, and journalism. Devoto and González Bernaldo 2001 focuses on political exile and compares the case of Spaniards in Argentina with Spaniards in France and Italian refugees from fascism in both Argentina and France.
  420.  
  421. Devoto, Fernando, and Pilar González Bernaldo, eds. Emigration politique: Une perspective comparative; Italiens et Espagnols en Argentine et en France, XIXe–XXe siècles. Paris: Harmattan, 2001.
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  423. Includes two theoretical chapters on political migration; three on Spanish republican exiles in Argentina; one on Spanish republican refugees in France; one on political ethno-nationalist movements by Basques, Catalans, and Galicians in Latin America; and the rest deal with Italians exiles from fascism in Argentina and Italy.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Fernández, Alejandro E., and José C. Moya, eds. La inmigración española en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 1999.
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  427. The first part of the book deals with the demographic, economic, and social aspects of emigration from the perspective of the sending country, the second with the adaptation of immigrants in various cities and regions of Argentina, and the third with their political participation, institutions, and the redefinition of ethno-national identities in the host country.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Lojo, María Rosa, et al., eds. Los “gallegos” en el imaginario argentino: Literatura, sainete, prensa. La Coruña, Spain: Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza, 2008.
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  431. As in much of Latin America, Spanish immigrants in Argentina were commonly called “Gallegos,” in part because the largest single group indeed originated in Galicia, and in part because the rest resented the name. This volume explores the representations in literature, popular theater, and the media of actual Galicians, and of Spanish immigrants in general, in Argentina during the 19th and 20th centuries.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Moya, José C. Cousins and Strangers: Spanish Immigrants in Buenos Aries, 1850–1930. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
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  435. Employs a macrostructural/microsocial framework to examine the interaction of global forces or structural conditions and local networks in shaping migration, residential patterns, occupational status, and socioeconomic mobility, as well as institutional arrangements and types of sociability. It then explores the continuities and changes in Argentine attitudes toward Spanish immigrants, and the latter’s responses.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Núñez Seixas, Xosé Manuel, ed. La Galicia austral: La inmigración gallega en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 2001
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  439. Galicians accounted for about half of all Spanish immigration to Argentina. Chapters deal with the Galician background, gender and migration, work and mobility, associations, politics, the labor movement, literature, ethnic and national identity, and the use of the Galician language.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. In Mexico
  442.  
  443. Spanish immigration in Mexico during the 19th and 20th centuries never reached the massive proportions that it did in Argentina, Cuba, and Brazil, but the scholarly literature on the topic is actually considerably more voluminous. Part of the explanation for this paradox is, as the title of Lida 1994 illustrates, the arrivals’ “privileged” position in Mexico. Some of this privilege came from economic success, which could breed xenophobia and class resentment and spur violence against the immigrants, as occurred during the War of Reform (see Falcón 1996) and the Mexican Revolution (Illades 1991). Another source was the cultural prestige, or as Farber 2002 puts it, “cultural hegemony,” of Spanish republicans exiles in Mexico. Lida 2006 provides a review of the extensive historiography on both political exiles and economic immigrants.
  444.  
  445. Faber, Sebastiaan. Exile and Cultural Hegemony: Spanish Intellectuals in Mexico, 1939–1975. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2002.
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  447. Studies the ideological evolution of republican exiles in Mexico (their principal destination in Latin America), their interaction with Mexican and Spanish politics, their continuing nationalism and even sense of Spanish cultural superiority, and the level of cultural hegemony they exercised on Mexico’s intelligentsia.
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  449. Falcón, Romana. Las rasgaduras de la descolonización: Españoles y mexicanos a mediados del siglo XIX. Mexico: El Colegio de Mexico, 1996.
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  451. Relying mostly on Spanish diplomatic dispatches and on periodicals, Falcón examines Hispano-Mexican relations from 1848, when the traffic of Yucatecan Mayas to Cuba began, to the end of Maximilian’s empire in 1867. The author also discusses the Spaniards’ sense of cultural and racial superiority, the resentment that this attitude and the immigrants’ economic power created among Mexicans, and diplomatic relations between Spain and Mexico.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Illades, Carlos. Presencia española en la Revolución Mexicana, 1910–1915. Mexico City: Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 1991.
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  455. Discusses the diplomatic and commercial relations between Spain and Mexico from the Porfiriato to the Revolution; Spanish immigration and anti-Spanish sentiments, violence, and property confiscation during the period; and the response of Spaniards and the Spanish government.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Lida, Clara E., ed. Una inmigración privilegiada: Comerciantes, empresarios y profesionales españoles en México en los siglos XIX y XX. Madrid: Alianza, 1994.
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  459. The volume’s nine chapters include an insightful discussion by the editor explaining why Spanish immigration in Mexico can be branded as “privileged.” Four chapters cover Spanish immigrants in Mexican regions or cities (Veracruz, Puebla, Monterrey, and Veracruz and Xalapa), and four have a more national perspective and deal mainly with the Spaniards’ role in commerce, industry, and politics.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Lida, Clara E. “Los españoles en el México independiente: 1821–1950. Un estado de la cuestión.” Historia Mexicana 56.2 (2006): 613–650.
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  463. Provides a thorough review of the historiography on Spanish immigration in Mexico during the last three decades. Discusses scholarly works in three categories: quantitative and sociological perspectives, the more numerous qualitative social and cultural histories, and studies of diplomatic relations between Spain and Mexico and how these relations affected Spanish residents in the country.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. In Cuba, Brazil, and Uruguay
  466.  
  467. Cuba was the seportant destination for Spanish transatlantic migrants after Argentina. The island received more than a million Spaniards during the 19th century and the first three decades of republican rule in the 20th century. The demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural impact of this inflow becomes particularly stark if one considers that by the end of the 19th century the population of the country barely reached 1.6 million. Despite its importance, scholarly attention to the topic has been limited. Moreno Fraginals and Moreno Masó 1993 explores the role of the Spanish army as a mechanism for immigration and settlement in Cuba. Oramas Camero 2007 describes the contributions to Cuban culture by Galicians, the largest ethnoregional groups among Spanish emigrants; and despite the title, Domingo Cuadriello 2004 deals not with Spaniards in Cuba in general but only with those involved in literary endeavors. Naranjo Orovio and González Martínez 1984 gives a dated but still useful overview of studies of the Spanish presence in Latin America, particularly Cuba and Brazil. Klein 1996 provides a strongly quantitative analysis of Spanish immigrants in Brazil, their third most important destination and a country where they represented the third largest immigrant group; and Zubillaga 1997 does the same for Uruguay, the Spaniards’ fourth most important destination in the Americas.
  468.  
  469. Domingo Cuadriello, Jorge. Españoles en Cuba en el siglo XX. Seville: Renacimiento, 2004.
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  471. Describes the contributions by Spanish booksellers, writers, editors, and journalists to Cuba’s literary culture.
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  473. Klein, Herbert S. La inmigración española en Brasil, siglos XIX y XX. Colombres, Spain: Archivo de Indianos, 1996.
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  475. Spaniards were the third largest group of immigrants in Brazil, and this book presents an overview of their origins, their relatively late arrival in Brazil (after the abolition of slavery in 1888 and mainly in the 20th century), their regional distribution in the host country, their role in the coffee economy in the state of Sao Paulo, and their occupational status and mobility.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Moreno Fraginals, Manuel R., and José J. Moreno Masó. Guerra, migración y muerte: El ejército español en Cuba como vía migratoria. Gijon, Spain: Júcar, 1993.
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  479. Between 1895 and 1898, Spain engaged in the largest military effort ever attempted by a colonial power: the transfer of 220,285 soldiers to Cuba. This book investigates what happened to this group and finds that fifty thousand died in the war and one hundred thousand were repatriated to Spain, while the rest either managed to stay in Cuba or returned to the island after independence.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Naranjo Orovio, Consuelo, and Elda Evangelina González Martínez. “Notas bibliográficas sobre la emigración española a América Latina en el siglo XX: El caso de Cuba y Brasil.” Reis: Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 26 (1984): 215–226.
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  483. In three sections, this early article reviews the historiography on Spanish emigration to Latin American in general, to Cuba, and to Brazil. Most works on the subject, however, have appeared after the article’s publication.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Oramas Camero, Ángela. Los gallegos de La Habana. Havana: Instituto Cubano del Libro, 2007.
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  487. This book by a Cuban journalist describes the Galician community in Havana, its principal institutions, and its contributions to Cuba’s literature, architecture, music, and arts in general.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Zubillaga, Carlos, ed. Españoles en el Uruguay: Características demográficas, sociales y económicas de la inmigración masiva. Montevideo: Universidad de la República, 1997.
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  491. Deals with the volume and demographic characteristics of Spanish immigration in Uruguay, Spain’s emigration policy, the immigrants’ socioeconomic adaptation, their neighborhoods in Montevideo, regionalism, participation in the labor movement, associations and sociability, and religiosity.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Italians
  494.  
  495. Italians were the single largest national group among immigrants to Latin America, accounting for almost 40 percent of the total inflow during the 19th and 20th centuries. They made up the largest group particularly in the main host countries of South America: Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. Italians also arrived relatively early, beginning in the 1840s, something that magnified their demographic, economic, and cultural impact. By the end of the 19th century, the largest concentration of Italians outside of Italy could be found in Buenos Aires, which at 229,000 surpassed the Italian-born population of New York by 84,000, and the next three largest Italian overseas communities were in Sao Paulo, Montevideo, and Rosario. The scholarly literature on the Italian diaspora is particularly multilingual, which to a degree also reflects different historiographical traditions. The sections below, therefore, are organized by the language of the studies rather than by the destination of the emigrants.
  496.  
  497. English-Language Studies
  498.  
  499. The Anglophone literature on the Italian diaspora in Latin America includes one of the classic early studies of European migration (Foerster 1919); a modern classic in comparative history (Baily 1999); a study of post–World War II migration, an important but lesser-known period in European transatlantic migration (La Cava 1999); a sociological analysis of ethnocultural continuities and changes (Schneider 2000); an intellectual and cultural history of the role of overseas communities in the formation of the Italian nation (Choate 2008); and a linguistic analysis of the Italianization of the phonology of Spanish in Argentina and Uruguay (Cassano 1972).
  500.  
  501. Baily, Samuel L. Immigrants in the Lands of Promise: Italians in Buenos Aires and New York City, 1870–1914. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.
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  503. Fuses the inductive approach of historical methods and the deductive approach of the social sciences to examine migration, residential, occupational, and institutional patterns and explain the greater success of Italian immigrants in Buenos Aires when compared to their compatriots in New York City.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Cassano, P. V. “The Influence of Italian on the Phonology of the Spanish of Argentina.” Forum Italicum 8 (1972): 557–573.
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  507. Studies how various regional Italian accents changed the phonetics and intonation of Castilian in the River Plate region.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Choate, Mark I. Emigrant Nation: The Making of Italy Abroad. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
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  511. Much of this book deals with Italian politics and political debates between the 1880s and the 1920s. But it also contains much on the emigrant overseas communities, particularly in Argentina and Brazil, and their role in promoting Italian language, nationalism, economic interests, and prestige in the diaspora, as well as the influence of these efforts back home.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Foerster, Robert F. The Italian Emigration of Our Times. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1919.
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  515. A classic study in the history of European migration that covers the Italian exodus to various European and North African countries as well as the crossings to the Americas. Includes two chapters on Argentina and two on Brazil.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. La Cava, Gloria. Italians in Brazil: The Post–World War II Experience. New York: Peter Lang, 1999.
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  519. Studies the efforts of the postwar Italian and US governments to promote and subsidize Italian emigration to Brazil to decrease unemployment, assuage social tensions, and thus undermine the clout of the Communist Party. Emphasizes the failure of the program and questions the common assumption that Italians integrated economically and assimilated culturally in Brazil with relative ease.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Schneider, Arnd. Futures Lost: Nostalgia and Identity among Italian Immigrants in Argentina. Oxford and New York: Peter Lang, 2000.
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  523. Examines the views on identity, modernity, success, and failure of upper-middle-class Italo-Argentines interviewed in Buenos Aires in 1988–1989. Argues that the affluent were more likely to preserve the cultural traits of their immigrant ancestors. The claim is impossible to ascertain since the non-affluent are not interviewed, but the book does show the reversibility of assimilation processes.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Italian-Language Studies
  526.  
  527. Italian-language works are particularly numerous because they include many studies of the migration of specific regional groups published by local Italian universities and commercial and public presses, such as Meo Zilio, 1987 and Grossutti 1997. For an extensive list of these types of works, see the website Esperienza Italiana in Argentina, listed in the European Immigration section. The selected studies listed below include a gargantuan guide to primary and archival sources (Colloquio sulle fonti per la storia dell’emigrazione 2002); a sociolinguistic analysis of the use of the Italian language in Latin America (Lo Cascio 1987); a study of criminology and concerns about immigrant criminality (Scarzanella 1999); and an investigation of Italian Fascist emigration (Bertagna 2006).
  528.  
  529. Bertagna, Federica. La patria di riserva: L’emigrazione fascista in Argentina. Rome: Donzelli, 2006.
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  531. Traces the exodus of Fascist leaders to Argentina before, and particularly after, World War II; the legal and illegal mechanisms that made this possible; the relations of the arrivals with the Catholic Church and the Peronist regime; and their political and journalist activities in the Italo-Argentine community.
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  533. Colloquio sulle fonti per la storia dell’emigrazione, ed. “Emigrazione italiana in America Latina.” In L’emigrazione Italiana 1870-1970. Rome: Ministero per i Beni e le attività Culturali, 2002.
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  535. Seventeen international scholars describe the sources, particularly primary documents, for the study of Italian migration held in archives in Italy (including various provincial and ecclesiastical archives), Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil. The material in Latin American countries includes parliamentary papers, private collections, those of the Scalabrinian order, local archives, and university holdings.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Grossutti, Javier. I rientri in Friuli da Argentina, Brasile, Uruguay e Venezuela, 1989–1994. Udine: Ente Regionale per i Problemi Agrari (ERMI), 1997.
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  539. An Argentine-born historian at the University of Udine studies the connections between the surrounding region of Friuli in northeastern Italy and various Latin American countries, and how emigration, particularly after World War II, preserved family linkages that later facilitated the reverse migration of old emigrants and their descendants.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Lo Cascio, Vincenzo, ed. L’italiano in America Latina: Convegno internazionale svoltosi a Buenos Aires nei giorni 1/5 settembre 1986. Florence: Le Monnier, 1987.
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  543. Essays discuss the linguistic continuity and changes in the Italian immigrant communities of Latin America and the impact of Italian on the local languages.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Meo Zilio, Giovanni. Presenza, cultura, lingua e tradizioni dei Veneti nel mondo: America Latina. Venice: Giunta Regionale del Veneto, 1987.
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  547. Traces the presence of immigrants from the region of Venice (Veneto) in Latin America, particularly in Brazil, where they made up the largest Italian regional group. Also looks at the preservation of Venetian cultural habits and language.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Scarzanella, Eugenia. Italiani malagente: Immigrazione, criminalità, razzismo in Argentina, 1890–1940. Milan: F. Angeli, 1999.
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  551. Studies the influence of Italian intellectuals and professional-level immigrants and visitors on the development of criminology in Argentina; the rhetorical association of criminality with immigration and race—a discourse that seemed to target southern Italian arrivals in particular; and the shift from concerns about criminality to preoccupations about the lack of population growth after transatlantic immigration declined drastically in the 1930s.
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  553. Studies in Spanish and Portuguese
  554.  
  555. Some Spanish-language publications, such as Devoto and Miguez 1992, keep a Latin American perspective, but most concentrate on particular countries. For Argentina, Devoto 2008 offers the most recent and broadest account of Italian immigrants in a country that many of them simply referred to as l’America, and Cocopardo and Moreno 1994 deal with the inflow from the southern half of the peninsula and the role of families in the process. For Venezuela, Vannini de Gerulewicz 1998 provides a detailed description of the Italian presence and its contributions to the host country. The Portuguese-language historiography is voluminous but consists mostly of regional Brazilian studies. The broadest is Trento 1989, an account of Italian immigration to that country over a period of a century and a half.
  556.  
  557. Cocopardo, Maria Cristina, and José Luis Moreno, eds. La familia italiana y meridional en la emigración a la Argentina. Naples: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1994.
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  559. Essays deal with southern Italian emigration to Argentina, a flow that increased after the last decade of the 19th century, and both the role of families in facilitating the moves and how migration influenced family structure and gender relations.
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  561. Devoto, Fernando J. Historia de los italianos en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 2008.
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  563. The most recent and broadest historical account of the Italian experience in Argentina. Sections cover the early arrival of northern Italians, particularly from Liguria and the Piedmont, and their settlement in cities and the pampas; the inflow of southern Italians in the early 20th century and their relations with Argentines and their northern compatriots; and the interwar and postwar streams.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Devoto, Fernando, and Eduardo Míguez, eds. Associacionismo, trabajo e identidad étnica: Los italianos en América Latina en una perspectiva comparada. Buenos Aires, CEMLA, 1992.
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  567. A collection of seventeen essays originally presented at a conference in Lujan in 1988. The first section examines the formation of immigrant voluntary associations, institutions, and forms of sociability. The second focuses on the functions of ethnicity and nationality in the world of work. There are chapters on Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile, but the overall emphasis is on Argentina.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Trento, Angelo. Do Outro lado do Atlântico: Um século de imigração italiana no Brasil. Sao Paulo: Nobel, 1989.
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  571. Extensive treatment of the Italian background and emigration policies; settlement in the state of Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, and the South of Brazil; work and the labor movement; and social practices (associations, schools, the immigrant press, assimilation). Last two chapters extend the analysis to the interwar and post–World War II periods, including the relations between the old and newer arrivals.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Vannini de Gerulewicz, Marisa. Itália y los italianos en la historia y en la cultura de Venezuela. Caracas: Universidad Central de Venezuela, 1998.
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  575. A detailed but mainly descriptive account of the Italian presence in Venezuela, and contributions of Italians to their adopted country.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Portuguese
  578.  
  579. The Portuguese represented the third-most-numerous group among arrivals to Latin America during the postcolonial period—although at 11 percent of the total inflow, that position was significantly below that of Italy (40 percent) and Spain (32 percent). The relative position is even lower in the historiography, probably reflecting the less-developed nature of the Portuguese economy and academic infrastructure compared to the country’s Iberian neighbor and Italy. Portuguese transatlantic crossings were also more unidirectional. Some 82 percent headed for Brazil, 15 percent for the United States, and 2 percent for Argentina, with a late flow to Venezuela and Canada in the 1950s and 1960s (Klein 1991). Although there are more studies of the Portuguese presence in the United States (a reflection of available resources rather than topical importance) within the literature on Latin America, Brazil has logically attracted the most attention. Pescatello 1970 studies the transatlantic flow and impact on both the sending and receiving of societies. Klein 1991 provides an empirically dense analysis of the background and adaptation of the Portuguese in Brazil in comparison to other immigrant groups. Barbosa 2009 and Hahner 1976 concentrate on Lusophobia in Rio de Janeiro, one of the principal destinations of the Portuguese, at the beginning and end of the 19th century. Mosher 2000 deals with the same topic in Pernambuco, and Vieira 1980 does it through the lenses of popular humor. Yet Borges 2009, the most complete and impressive study of Portuguese immigration in Latin America, or anywhere for that matter, deals not with Brazil but with Argentina.
  580.  
  581. Barbosa, Rosana. Immigration and Xenophobia: Portuguese Immigrants in Early 19th Century Rio de Janeiro. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2009.
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  583. Deals with Portuguese immigration to Rio de Janeiro between Brazilian independence in 1822 and the middle of the 19th century, the social characteristics of the arrivals, their efforts to adapt to the new environment, the local elite’s views, and popular Lusophobia.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Borges, Marcelo J. Chains of Gold: Portuguese Migration to Argentina in Transatlantic Perspective. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
  586. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004176485.i-353Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. A masterful study that combines microhistory and an Atlantic perspective. It analyses the local sending context in the Portuguese Algarve, particularly in two rural parishes, the formation of village-based but transnational networks of information and support, what determines who departs and who stays behind, and the long-term adaptation of those who leave, based on a close study of the Portuguese community in two Argentine towns.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Hahner, June E. “Jacobinos versus Galegos: Urban Radicals versus Portuguese Immigrants in Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 18.2 (1976): 125–154.
  590. DOI: 10.2307/174772Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Focuses on the activities of a radical ultranationalistic group that styled itself as Jacobins against Portuguese immigrants, disdainfully referred to as Galegos, who made up more than one-fifth of the city’s 523,000 inhabitants in 1890 and controlled much of its commerce.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Klein, Herb. “The Social and Economic Integration of Portuguese Immigrants in Brazil in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries.” Journal of Latin American Studies 23.2 (1991): 309–337.
  594. DOI: 10.1017/S0022216X00014012Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595. Empirically rich study of the Portuguese background, regional origins, regional distribution in Brazil, the social traits (sex, marital status, occupation, literacy, etc.) of the Portuguese compared to other immigrants at arrival, and measures of adaptation (land and business-ownership, and rates of exogamy, illegitimacy, criminality, and savings), also in comparison to other groups.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Mosher, Jeffrey C. “Political Mobilization, Party Ideology, and Lusophobia in Nineteenth-Century Brazil: Pernambuco, 1822–1850.” Hispanic American Historical Review 80.4 (2000): 881–912.
  598. DOI: 10.1215/00182168-80-4-881Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Shows how the Praieiros, a political group in Pernambuco allied with the Liberal Party, appealed to nationalist and class resentment among the native-born middle and lower classes in the decades following independence by denouncing Portuguese immigrants, who continued to control much of the local commerce, as clannish, imperialist, and exploiters.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Pescatello, Anne Marie. “Both Ends of the Journey: An Historical Study of Migration and Change in Brazil and Portugal, 1889–1914.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 1970.
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  603. A transnational study avant la lettre. Explores the connections between the society of origin and that of destination during the peak period of emigration, and how the flow affected both ends. Pays careful attention to local specificities, particularly in Portugal, and to socioeconomic structures and trends.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Vieira, Nelson H. “The Luso-Brazilian Joke.” Western Folklore 39.1 (1980): 51–56.
  606. DOI: 10.2307/1499764Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607. Article focuses on popular jokes in Brazil that ridicule Portuguese immigrants as greedy, gluttons, and dense. It attempts to connect this type of ethnic humor with Brazilian nationalism.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Germans
  610.  
  611. Germans made up the largest group of immigrants to Latin America other than those originating in the Iberian and Italian peninsulas, with close to half a million of them arriving during the 19th and 20th centuries. They also arrived earlier than many other nationalities and were more likely to arrive as family groups heading to rural colonies—something that combined with high fertility rates to magnify their demographic impact, particularly in regions where they concentrated, such as the deep south of Brazil (see Mauche 1994, Luebke 1987, Luebke 1990, Nadalin 2000), southern Chile (Blancpain 1974), and parts of the Argentine pampas (Weyne 1986). Newton 1977 and Newton 1992, respectively, deal instead with an urban community, the Germans of Buenos Aires, and with the presumed “Nazi menace” in Argentina. Wagner 1991, meanwhile, studies the small but economically powerful German community in Guatemala.
  612.  
  613. Blancpain, Jean-Pierre. Les Allemands au Chili, 1816–1945. Cologne: Böhlau, 1974.
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  615. At 1,162 pages, this voluminous work provides a detailed account of just about every aspect of German immigration to Chile: their origins, recruitment mechanisms, colonization projects, occupations, properties (including their productivity and values), role in expanding the agricultural frontier, credit and banking, religious affiliation, education, cultural and leisure activities, influence on the Chilean military, German and Chilean nationalism, relations with the local Mapuches, and so on.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Luebke, Frederick C. Germans in Brazil: A Comparative History of Cultural Conflict During World War I. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987.
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  619. Provides basic information on the four hundred thousand or so German settlers in southern Brazil and the formation of an ethnic community, often in comparison with the United States. Then focuses on Germanophobia during World War I, when rioters destroyed hundreds of German homes, and the Brazilian government closed hundreds of school, banned the German language press, and forbade the use the German, even in church services.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Luebke, Frederick C. Germans in the New World: Essays in the History of Immigration. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990.
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  623. Compiles eight previously published essays, an unpublished paper, and a new overview of three hundred years of German emigration. One of the chapters compares German settlement patterns in Brazil and the United States; another compares images of German immigrants in the two countries; and a third describes the restrictions and harassment imposed on ethnic Germans in Brazil during World War I.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Mauch, Cláudia, et al., eds. Os Alemães no sul do Brasil: Cultura, etnicidade, história. Canoas, Brazil: Editora da ULBRA, 1994.
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  627. Sixteen essays cover the early history of rural settlements, the demography of Teuto-Brazilians, religion, politics, nationalism and citizenship, ethnic schools, the immigrants’ influence on the architecture of Porto Alegre, the marketing of ethnic identity as a tourist commodity, and the adoption of the equestrian culture from gauchos in Rio Grande do Sul.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Nadalin, Sérgio Odilon. Imigrantes de origem germânica no Brasil: Ciclos matrimoniais e etnicidade. Curitiba, Brazil: Aos Quatro Ventos, 2000.
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  631. Anthropological study of German descendants in southern Brazil, the religious behaviors of Catholics and Lutherans, the connection of religion to ethnic identity, marriage patterns, and issues of pluralism and assimilation.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Newton, Ronald C. German Buenos Aires, 1900–1933: Social Change and Cultural Crisis. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977.
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  635. Begins with a survey of German immigration during the 1800s and the formation of the “old colony.” Focus then shifts to its development during the first third of the 20th century into a community of forty-five thousand, and to the internal ideological and political conflicts during the Weimar Republic that facilitated the takeover of many of its organizations by Nazi sympathizers in the 1930s.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Newton, Ronald C. The “Nazi Menace” in Argentina, 1931–1947. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
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  639. In a sort of sequel to his first book, Newton begins by describing the German community in Argentina in the 1930s. He then addresses German activity in Argentina during World War II and the reactions of the governments of Argentina, Britain, and the United States, exposing, along the way, the notion of a Nazi-infested Argentina as little more than a myth.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Wagner, Regina. Los alemanes en Guatemala, 1828–1944. Guatemala: Editorial IDEA, 1991.
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  643. Traces the origins of German immigration in Guatemala and its modest growth. At its peak in the 1920s, the number of Germans in the country barely reached three thousand, but they controlled at the time one-third of its coffee production and a larger proportion of its export. Pressure from the United States during World War II led the Guatemalan government to deport many Germans and confiscate their properties.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Weyne, Olga. El Último Puerto: Del Rhin al Volga y del Volga al Plata. Buenos Aires: Instituto Torcuato Di Tella, 1986.
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  647. Follows the trail of ethnic German recruited in the 1760s by the German-born tsarina Catherine the Great to settle farm lands along the Volga River, their transatlantic exodus about a century later to avoid the Russification campaigns of the period, and their settlement in rural towns in the Argentine pampas such as Crespo and Coronel Suarez.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Jews
  650.  
  651. About 420,000 Jews immigrated to Latin America during the national period. The majority of them (about four-fifths overall) originated, as in the case of the United States, in Eastern Europe and arrived mostly between the 1880s and the 1920s, with a smaller inflows of refugees before and after World War II. These movements and the Jewish experience in Latin America has generated a large body of scholarship. The works presented below are restricted to overviews and collections of essays and include one of the earliest works of synthesis (Elkin 1980); an edited volume on broad topics of adaptation, repression, and the possibility of integration (Elkin and Merkx 1987); two collections that mix historical and literary approaches (Sheinin and Barr 1996, Ruggiero 2005); an edited volume that aims to rethink the experience of Latin American Jews by incorporating it in the broader history of the region (Lesser and Rein 2008); and a collection of essays that compares the Jewish and Arab experience in Latin America (Rein 2008). Works on individual countries are listed in the following subsections.
  652.  
  653. Elkin, Judith Laikin. Jews of the Latin American Republics. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980.
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  655. A synthesis of the Jewish presence in Latin America that begins with the colonial period, moves rapidly to the independence era, and then centers on the late 19th and 20th centuries. Topics include the demographics of migration, rural settlements in the pampas, urban work and entrepreneurship, the formation of ethnic communities, and exclusion and assimilation.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Elkin, Judith Laikin, and Gilbert W. Merkx, eds. The Jewish Presence in Latin America. Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987.
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  659. The volume’s four sections—Historical Issues, Comparative Dimensions, Adaptation and Evolution, and Defining a New Identity—convey its principal themes and approaches and contain nine general articles on Jews in Latin America, five on Argentina, two on Brazil, and one on Costa Rica. Various chapters deal with the repression of right- and left-wing dictatorships during the 1970s and 1980s.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Lesser, Jeffrey, and Raanan Rein, eds. Rethinking Jewish-Latin Americans. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008.
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  663. The “rethinking” in the title refers to an attempt to integrate the experience of Jews and their descendants into Latin American history and move beyond the traditional emphasis on anti-Semitism. Chapters, therefore, cover a broad spectrum of topics ranging from participation in women’s organizations, the anarchist movement, and Yiddish choruses to literary images and comparisons with the Japanese-Brazilians.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Rein, Raanan, ed. Árabes y judíos en Iberoamérica: Similitudes, diferencias y tensiones. Seville: Fundacíon Tres Culturas, 2008.
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  667. Compares the immigration and integration of Arabs and Jews, their participation in the economy and politics of the receiving countries, intra-group differences, the formation and evolution of social identities, representations and images in popular culture and in literature, the tensions between the two groups and their peaceful coexistence and cooperation.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Ruggiero, Kristin, ed. The Jewish Diaspora in Latin America and the Caribbean: Fragments of Memory. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2005.
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  671. Includes three chapters on refugee relocation to Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil; three on the “construction of memory” in Argentina in the aftermaths of the Mossad’s capture of Eichmann in 1960, the Dirty War of the 1970s, and the 1994 bombing a Jewish mutual aid society; four on identity and hybridity in Cuba, Martinique, and Mexico; and three on poetry and art.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Sheinin, David, and Lois Baer Barr, eds. The Jewish Diaspora in Latin America: New Studies on History and Literature. New York: Garland, 1996.
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  675. Chapters cover various aspects of the Jewish presence in Argentina and Brazil; Jews in revolutionary Cuba; post–World War II Jewish immigration; literature, oral history, memoirs, testimonials, and autobiographies as genres in Jewish studies; the colonial origins of anti-Semitism and its expression in 20th-century political movements in Argentina, Chile, and Mexico.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. In Argentina
  678.  
  679. Argentina received about two-thirds of the Jews who migrated to Latin America during the last two centuries. Since the 1970s, however, low fertility, out-marriage, secularization, and emigration have decreased Argentine Jewry to less than two hundred thousand (as of 2011). But at its peak in the 1960s, Argentina had the fifth-largest Jewish community in the world, with some three hundred thousand members. Avni 1991 provides a broad history of this movement. Mirelman 1990 and Sofer 1982 focus on Buenos Aires, a city with one of the largest Jewish populations anywhere. Freidenberg 2009 examines one of the most important narratives of origin and cultural symbols in Argentine Jewry: the arrival in the 1880s of rural colonists and the formation of the emblematic image of the Jewish gaucho.
  680.  
  681. Avni, Haim. Argentina and the Jews: A History of Jewish Immigration. Translated from the Hebrew by Gila Brand. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1991.
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  683. Describes the conditions in Eastern Europe that acted as push factors; Jewish immigration to rural colonies during the 1880s, the larger movement to cities, which peaked in the decade before 1914, and the smaller inflow of refugees before and after World War II; and the efforts of the Argentine government during this last period to minimize the admission of refugees.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Deutsch, Sandra McGee. Crossing Borders, Claiming a Nation: A History of Argentine Jewish Women, 1880–1955. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010.
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  687. This book locates Jewish women at the center of Argentine society. Its chapters deal with their lives in the early agricultural colonies in the pampas and in Buenos Aires; their work (including sex work) and professional advancement; family life and sexual mores; and their engagement in left-wing politics during the 1930s, in antifascist struggles over the following decades, and in community philanthropy and Zionism.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Freidenberg, Judith N. The Invention of the Jewish Gaucho: Villa Clara and the Construction of Argentine Identity. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
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  691. Methodologically sophisticated ethnography of Villa Clara, an agricultural colony in the province of Entre Rios founded in1890 to accommodate about one thousand Jewish settlers, which later received a mélange of other arrivals from Switzerland, France, Poland, Germany, Italy, and Spain. Freidenberg explores the formulation and uses of the image of the Jewish gaucho as a metaphor for immigrant incorporation.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Mirelman, Victor A. Jewish Buenos Aires, 1890–1930: In Search of an Identity. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1990.
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  695. Describes the attraction of Argentina for Eastern European Jews; the existence of anti-Semitism and its reinforcement by fears about anarchism and the Bolshevik Revolution; the development of community institutions, including Jewish political parties and Zionist organizations; the efforts of the ethnic community to combat Jewish involvement in prostitution trafficking; and issues of cultural preservation and assimilation.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Sofer, Eugene F. From Pale to Pampa: A Social History of the Jews of Buenos Aires. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1982.
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  699. Examines the turbulent political environment in late-19th-century Eastern Europe that encouraged the transatlantic exodus, the community organizations founded by the arrivals, their settlement in a central ghetto and eventual residential dispersal, and the issue of work and occupational upward mobility, or rather, according to the author, the lack of it.
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  701. In Brazil
  702.  
  703. Brazil has the second largest Jewish population in Latin America after Argentina. Although the first Jews arrived in 1500 with Cabral (the “discoverer” of Brazil) and accounted for more than a third of the European population during the Dutch period, the formation of the present-day community is basically a 20th-century phenomenon. That community grew from just 1,021 listed in a 1900 census to an estimate of 42,000 in the early 1930s and 125,000 in the 1960s (Levine 1968). Falbel 2007 tells the story of those who headed for the countryside, a small but symbolically important group. The majority settled in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. Lesser 1995 and Carneiro 1998 deal with this urban majority and their questions of anti-Semitism.
  704.  
  705. Carneiro, Maria Luiza Tucci. O anti-semitismo na era Vargas: Fantasmas de uma geração, 1930–1945. Sao Paulo: Editora Brasiliense, 1988.
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  707. Based on archival material, newspapers, and collections of private correspondence, this work provides a detailed study of anti-Semitism in Brazil’s political arena during the Vargas regime; the influence of Nazism among certain circles within the country’s elites and their disdain for Freemasons, blacks, and Jews; and the efforts of others to aid Jewish refugees.
  708. Find this resource:
  709. Falbel, Nachman. “Jewish Agricultural Settlement in Brazil.” Jewish History 21.3–4 (2007): 325–340.
  710. DOI: 10.1007/s10835-007-9043-6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  711. Describes the organization of agricultural colonies for Russian Jews in Rio Grande do Sul between 1904 and 1912, and for German Jews in 1936 in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Author argues that the colonies were not successful economically but that they undermined the stereotype about the nonproductive Jew and thus contributed to the removal of bans on Jewish immigration in Brazil.
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  713. Lesser, Jeffrey. Welcoming the Undesirables: Brazil and the Jewish Question. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  715. Focuses on Brazilian immigration policy. The title of the book captures the conflicting goals of Brazilian officials to please the US Department of State by admitting Jewish refugees that the United States was unwilling to accept, and their own desires to keep out a “race” perceived as non-European and inferior.
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  717. Levine, Robert M. “Brazil’s Jews during the Vargas Era and After.” Luso-Brazilian Review 5.1 (1968): 45–58.
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  719. Provides a short overview of the Jewish presence in Brazil followed by a discussion of the shift in the origins of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe to German-speaking countries from the 1930s on, of the rise of anti-Semitism during the Vargas regime, and of Jewish life in the country in the post–World War II period.
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  721. In Mexico
  722.  
  723. Mexico has the third-largest Jewish community in Latin America, estimated at about forty thousand. Della Pergola and Lerner 1995 provides a thorough demographic and sociological analysis of this community. Gojman de Backal 1993 offers seven volumes of sources and essays on the Ashkenazi half of that community. Bokser de Liwerant 1993 does something similar but more modest in scale, and without focusing on any Jewish subgroup. Cánovas 2009 explores notions of origin and identity in Jewish Mexican literature written during the last half-century.
  724.  
  725. Bokser de Liwerant, Judit, et al. Imagenes de un encuentro: La presencia judia en México durante la primera mitad del siglo XX. Mexico City: UNAM, 1992.
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  727. Large compilation of primary documents and images stretching temporally from the conquest to the late 20th century, accompanied by scholarly essays and annotations.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Cánovas, Rodrigo. “Los relatos del origen: Judíos en México.” Nueva Revista de Filología Hispánica 57.1 (2009): 157–197.
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  731. Traces the stories of origin in Mexican Jewish literature using twenty-five texts written in Spanish or English by fourteen authors during the last three decades of the 20th century and the first decade of the 21st.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Della Pergola, Sergio, and Susana Lerner. La población judía en México: Perfil demográfico, social y cultural. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1995.
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  735. Offers a thorough demographic portrayal of Mexican Jewry by origin—shown to be 45 percent Ashkenazi, 42 percent Syrian, mostly from Aleppo, and 13 percent of Ladino-speaking Sephardic origin circa 1990. Looks at residence in Mexico, age, marital status, occupation, education, and other social variables.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. Gojman de Backal, Alicia, ed. Generaciones judías en Mexico: La Kehila Ashkenazi, 1922–1992. 7 vols. Mexico City: Comunidad Ashkenazi de Mexico, 1993.
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  739. This seven-volume work includes memoirs, correspondence, literature, photographs, and other texts compiled by a team of Mexican historians, archivists, and photographers. Records Ashkenazim immigration and the development of a kehilla (the structure of communal secular and religious organizations), and discusses issues of identity and integration.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. In Other Countries
  742.  
  743. Jews settled in every country in Latin America. The two largest settlements after those in Argentina, Brazil, and, to a lesser degree, Mexico, could be found in Uruguay, where the community of twenty thousand resembled Argentina’s in its overwhelmingly Ashkenazi origins (Aldrighi 2000, Facal Santiago 2002), and in Cuba, where a community of similar size had mainly Sephardic origins, became more mixed with the arrival of Ashkenazim from the 1920s on, and decreased sharply after the Cuban Revolution, with most individuals ending up in Miami (Levine 1993). Arbell 2002 deals with Sephardic settlement in the French, British, Dutch, Danish, and Spanish Caribbean. Wells 2009 tells the captivating story of one of the smallest Jewish communities in Latin America: the refugee settlement of Sosúa established in the Dominican Republic during World War II.
  744.  
  745. Aldrighi, Clara, et al. Antisemitismo en Uruguay: Raíces, discursos, imágenes, 1870–1940. Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones Trilce, 2000.
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  747. Four chapters examine the local attitudes toward the Zola affair; the emergence of Nazi ideology within the German community of Uruguay in the 1930s; the growth of anti-Semitism in the same decade as part of a broader nationalist reaction against immigrants and leftist radicalism; and the long-term evolution of anti-Semitism in Catholic and secular conservative thought from 1870 to 1940.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Arbell, Mordehay. The Jewish Nation of the Caribbean: The Spanish-Portuguese Jewish Settlements in the Caribbean and the Guianas. Jerusalem: Gefen, 2002.
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  751. Detailed description of Sephardic settlement in the French Caribbean (Martinique and Guadalupe, Haiti, Cayenne), Dutch (Curacao, Suriname, St. Eustatius, Pomeroon), British (Jamaica, Barbados, St. Nevis, Tobago), and Danish (Virgin Islands) colonies, on the liberated Spanish colonies, and on the Venezuelan coastal town of Tucacas.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Facal Santiago, Silvia. “Vida comunitaria de los judíos alemanes y los republicanos españoles en Uruguay.” Revista de Historia de América 130 (January–June 2002): 41–55.
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  755. Compares the arrival in Uruguay of German Jewish refugees and Spanish republican exiles between 1933 and 1945, entry restrictions, the relations of the two groups with preexisting Jewish, German, and Spanish communities, their organization of support associations, and their connections with the Uruguayan left. The similarities in social background, manner of arrival, and ideology between the two groups led to similar processes of adaptation.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Levine, Robert. Tropical Diaspora: The Jewish Experience in Cuba. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1993.
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  759. Records the rise of a community made up mostly of immigrants from the Ottoman Empire and Morocco, with a smaller Eastern European component; the lack of anti-Semitism and xenophobia in what the author describes as a relatively open society; Jewish participation in Cuban society and their upward mobility; and the exodus of more than nine-tenths of Cuban Jews after the 1959 revolution. Reprinted, with a new foreword by Anthony P. Maingot, in 2010 (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener).
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Wells, Allen. Tropical Zion: General Trujillo, FDR, and the Jews of Sosúa. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009.
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  763. Thoroughly researched and fascinating account of Trujillo’s offer, at the Evian international conference in France in 1938, to accept one hundred thousand Jewish refugees, his donation of twenty-six thousand acres in Sosúa on the northern shore of the Dominican Republic to create an agricultural colony for the refugees, the negotiations and intrigues with the US government and the American Jewish community, and the arrival of a few hundred Jewish refugees, among them the author’s father, and their settlement and lives in Sosúa.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Arabs
  766.  
  767. Arab emigration to the Americas originated basically in the Levant, mostly in Lebanon and Syria, with a smaller component of Palestinians, the majority in all cases being Christian, with Muslim and Jewish minorities (Akmir 2009). In terms of ethnic identity, the Syrian-Lebanese often claimed that they were Phoenician rather than Arabs, but they were more often referred to, with an element of disdain, as Turks (in most of South America) or Moors (in the Caribbean). This, along with the immigrants’ concentration on commerce and their economic success (including the case of the richest man in the world, Carlos Slim, the Mexican-born child of Lebanese parents; see Alfaro-Velcamp 2007) originated the joke heard in various Latin America countries that the immigrants were turcos when they arrived as peddlers, became Syrians when they bought a store, and turned into Lebanese when they became millionaires. Like other transatlantic emigrants, their major destinations were the United States, Argentina, and Brazil—in this case in roughly equal numbers, about one hundred thousand to each country during the late 19th and 20th centuries (Truzzi 1997, Martos 2007, Civantos 2006, Karam 2007). But they also headed to regions and countries such as Paraguay, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Haiti, and Central America that received few European immigrants (Akmir 2009, Klich and Lesser 1997, Roberts 2000, González 1992)
  768.  
  769. Akmir, Abdeluahed, ed. Los árabes en América Latina: Historia de una emigración. Madrid: Siglo XXI, 2009.
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  771. The introduction discusses the economic, political, religious, and cultural causes of Arab emigration to Latin America. Chapters cover the arrival, organizations, economic activities, and adaptation of the host societies of immigrants in Argentina, Chile, Peru, Brazil, Paraguay, Mexico, Central America, and Cuba.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Alfaro-Velcamp, Theresa. So Far from Allah, So Close to Mexico: Middle Eastern Immigrants in Modern Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007.
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  775. Examines the arrival of a group that was about 80 percent Lebanese and 90 percent Christian; their early engagement in peddling and later move to formal commerce, industry, finance, politics, and the professions; and their evolving and fungible identities in relation to Mexican nationalism and the possibility of multiculturalism.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Civantos, Christina. Between Argentines and Arabs: Argentine Orientalism, Arab Immigrants, and the Writing of Identity. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2006.
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  779. More interested in the Orient as a representation than in the experiences of immigrants, this book contrast texts from Argentine canonical writers (Sarmientos and Lugones in Part I, Borges and Arlt in Part II) and those of less-known Arab-Argentine writers, and ends with an analysis of language use and identity among the latter.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. González, Nancie L. Dollar, Dove, and Eagle: One Hundred Years of Palestinian Migration to Honduras. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.
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  783. Based on fieldwork in the towns of Bethlehem, Beit Jala, and Beit Sahur, and in the city of San Pedro de Sula, this book explores the migration of Christian Palestinians to Honduras during the 20th century, their connections their hometowns, their economic ascent from peddlers to store owners to industrialists, their marriage patterns, ethnic identity, and slow movement from Orthodox to Catholic Christianity.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Karam, John Tofik. Another Arabesque: Syrian-Lebanese Ethnicity in Neoliberal Brazil. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2007.
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  787. Drawing from a range of sources such as newspaper articles, interviews, and television programs, Karam traces the intensification of Arab ethnic identity in Brazil and its increased prestige over a period that coincides with the opening and globalization of the country’s economy, and attempts to find connections between the two processes.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Klich, Ignacio, and Jeff Lesser, eds. Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Realities. London: Frank Cass, 1997.
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  791. Volume includes five chapters on the coexistence, ethnic history, literary portrayals, and historiography of Arab and Jews in Argentina; and one chapter each on various aspects of the two groups’ history in Brazil, Bolivia, Colombian, Haiti, Honduras, and Mexico.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Martos, Sofia. “The Balancing Act: Ethnicity, Commerce, and Politics Among Syrian and Lebanese Immigrants in Argentina, 1890–1955.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2007.
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  795. Using a wide range of Arabic and Spanish sources, this dissertation explores the arrival, transnational connections, occupations and business strategies, ethnic institutions, sociability and family life, religion, and cultural persistence and change among immigrants from Lebanon and Syria in Argentina, particularly in the city of Cordoba, between the beginning of the inflow to the end of the Peronist government.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Roberts, Lois J. The Lebanese in Ecuador: A History of Emerging Leadership. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2000.
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  799. Traces the arrival of immigrants from a handful of Lebanese Maronite villages to Guayaquil during the cacao boom of the early 20th century; their early concentration in peddling and retail trade; their ascent to industrialists and bankers; and that of their descendants into politics (including a vice president and two presidents of Ecuador) and the country’s social elite.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Truzzi, Oswaldo M. S. “The Right Place at the Right Time: Syrians and Lebanese in Brazil and the United States: A Comparative Approach.” Journal of American Ethnic History 16.2 (1997): 3–34.
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  803. Shows that the origins and early activities of the immigrants were similar in both host countries, with about 90 percent being Christians from Mount Lebanon and the majority engaging in peddling upon arrival, but that those in Brazil had greater success in moving on to wholesale commerce, industry, and, for their descendants, the professions and political power.
  804. Find this resource:
  805. French
  806.  
  807. France was not a major exporter of labor during the great global migrations of the 19th and early 20th centuries. On the contrary, it had the lowest rates of emigration among Western European countries. The 360,000 who moved to Latin America during the period represented only 2 percent of the total European inflow. But several traits increased their impact. They arrived early and often as family groups, which increased their demographic impact. The majority of these early comers were farmers and shepherds who played an important role in the settlement and the development of agro-pastoral activities in parts of the Argentine and Uruguayan pampas (Sarramone 1994) and in southern Brazil (Vidal and Luca 2009). Those who headed to the cities had a disproportionately high influence in local commerce and, given the prestige of French culture in the Atlantic world, in the arts, fashion, and literature, as Choix-Riche Chanet 2004 shows for the River Plate and South Atlantic region, Zago 1986 and Pelosi 2008 for Argentina, Vidal and De Luca 2009 for Brazil, Demard 1999 for Mexico, and Godbersen 2008 for Peru.
  808.  
  809. Croix-Riche Chanet, Ch. R. de la. Franceses en Rio del Plata y el Atlántico sur, 1526–1876. Buenos Aires: Mega Libros Editores, 2004.
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  811. This one-thousand-page volume deals mainly with the colonial period, including the French explorations and imperial experiences in Brazil during the 16th and 17th centuries and the trade and contraband during the 18th century, but it also discusses extensively French immigration and settlement during the early national period.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Demard, Jean Christophe. Río Nautla: Étapes de l‘intégration d‘une communauté française au Mexique, 1833–1926. Prez-sur-Marne: Guéniot, 1999.
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  815. Exhaustive study that employs a range of documents drawn from French archives to detail the arrival in the early 19th century of a group of French immigrants to Jicaltepec, Veracruz, and their settlement there over the next century.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Godbersen, Guillermo. La inmigración francesa al Perú. Lima: Linea del Tiempo, 2008.
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  819. Describes the early arrival of French immigrants in Peru after independence, their continuing presence over the next two centuries (and that of their descendants), their institutions and associations, and their economic and cultural influence in Peru.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Pelosi, Hebe C. Las relaciones franco-argentinas 1880–1918: Inmigración, comercio y cultura. Buenos Aires: Librería-Editorial Histórica, 2008.
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  823. Examines the French inflow into Argentina, rural and urban settlement among the arrivals, their activities as merchants and industrialists, their social institutions and cultural influence, the Argentine presence in France, and commercial and cultural relations between the two countries in general.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Sarramone, Alberto. Bearneses, gascones y otros franceses en la Pampa. Azul, Argentina: Editorial Biblos Azul, 1994.
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  827. Traces the movement into the Argentine pampas during the 19th century of immigrants from the Pyrenean regions of Bearn, Gascony, and the three French Basque provinces of Soule, Lower Navarre, and Labourd. Explores their work in sheep raising and farming, and the history of their integration into a local society—the town of Azul and its rural surroundings—that they in part created.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Vidal, Laurent, and Tania Regina de Luca, eds. Franceses no Brasil: séculos XIX–XX. Sao Paulo: Editora UNESP, 2009.
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  831. Twenty-two chapters cover topics related to the immigrants’ origins and their modes of migration, their adaptation to Brazil in terms of occupations, commerce, associations, politics, involvement in the socialist movement, communal relations, religion, and their settlement in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Minas Gerais, and rural colonies.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Zago, Manrique, ed. Los Franceses en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Manrique Zago Ediciones SRL, 1986.
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  835. Part of a series on immigrant groups in Argentina that is densely illustrated with vintage photographs and other images. Recounts the arrival of the French to the country, and their institutions and associations, economic and occupational activities, settlement in cities and rural colonies, and contributions to their host country.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. British and Irish
  838.  
  839. British merchant adventurers were the first immigrants to arrive in visible numbers to Latin America right after the independence wars. Marshall 2000 includes chapters on this movement in Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador, and Chile. Reber 1979 provides a monographic study of the same group in Buenos Aires from the first attempts at independence to 1880. The other principal type of British early emigration came from the Celtic periphery and took the form of rural, agro-pastoral settlements. Williams 1991 traces the history of a Welsh agricultural colony founded in Patagonia in 1865. Korol and Sábato 1981 tells of the even older settlement of Irish shepherds in the pampas, and Healy 2008 describes their ambivalent attitudes toward their English neighbors. Graham-Yooll 1999 offers a panoramic history of the British presence in Argentina, and Edmundson 2009 does the same for Chile.
  840.  
  841. Edmundson, William. A History of the British Presence in Chile: From Bloody Mary to Charles Darwin and the Decline of British Influence. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
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  843. Narrates the British presence from 16th-century explorers and pirates to today’s estimated 350,000 Anglo-Chileans. Describes their influence on trade, the development of nitrate mining, the settlement of Patagonia, education, sports, and the Chilean economy and culture in general. Includes appendix with list of English newspapers in Chile.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Graham-Yooll, Andrew. The Forgotten Colony: A History of the English-speaking Communities in Argentina. Rev. ed. Buenos Aires: LOLA, 1999.
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  847. Expanded edition of book originally published in London in 1981. Tells the story of British immigration in Argentina from the arrival of English merchants and Irish shepherds in the 19th century to the complicated situation of Anglo-Argentines during the Falkland War of 1982 and after the restoration of British-Argentine diplomatic relations in 1989.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Healy, Claire. “The Irish ‘Ingleses’ in Nineteenth-Century Buenos Aires.” History Ireland 16.4 (2008): 37–40.
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  851. A short illustrated article on Irish settlement in Buenos Aires and the surrounding plains. It centers on the tension between British identity—Irish immigrants were referred to as “English” along with other Anglophone arrivals by Argentines—and a growing Irish nationalism; and on the advantages that Catholicism gave them in the host society. Available online.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Korol, Juan Carlos, and Hilda Sábato. Cómo fue la inmigración irlandesa en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Plus Ultra, 1981.
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  855. Describe the arrival beginning during the Irish famine of the 1840s of rural laborers and shepherds to the Argentine pampas, their work and sociability there, how their early arrival and the country’s economic boom fomented upward mobility, the role of religion, migration to the cities, and assimilation to Argentina.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Marshall, Oliver, ed. English-Speaking Communities in Latin America. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
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  859. Chapters deal with the British cultural influence during the Wars for Independence; British merchant colonies in 19th-century Mexico, Bahia, Ecuador, and Chile; British shepherds in Chilean Patagonia; the recruitment of English rural laborers as Brazilian colonists; the British introduction of football to Brazil; the British and Irish communities in Argentina; and West Indian settlements in Honduras, Colombia, and Costa Rica.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Reber, Vera Blinn. British Mercantile Houses in Buenos Aires, 1810–1880. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.
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  863. Deals with the arrival of British merchants in Argentina over the seven decades after independence, their business practices, the local economic and political conditions, and the integration of the merchants into local society as their own success brought in imitators and competitors and decreased the British share of import-export businesses from a third to less than a sixth during the period the book covers.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Williams, Glyn. The Welsh in Patagonia: The State and the Ethnic Community. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1991.
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  867. Traces the history of a Welsh rural colony founded in Chubut in 1865 as an effort to preserve Welsh culture from English encroachment. Describes the agro-pastoral economy, the settlers fervent Methodism and egalitarian ethos, peaceful relations with Patagonian Indians, and the decline of Welsh culture in the 20th century as the descendants of the settlers intermarried, became Spanish-speaking and Catholic, and increasingly indistinguishable from the local population.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Anglo-Americans
  870.  
  871. Some of the first Anglo-Americans to move to Latin America were former Confederates who left for Mexico, the Caribbean, and particularly Brazil after the US Civil War. These individuals have been the subject of several books and an even larger number of articles (e.g., Harter 1985, Rolle 1992, Griggs 1987). Some of the latest Anglo-Americans to move to the region are the more than one million who are estimated to reside in Mexico today, including two hundred thousand undocumented immigrants, whom Mexicans often call, with a clear element of irony, “drybacks” (Croucher 2009). In between, about fifty thousand made it to Cuba during the first third of the 20th century, many of them as settlers in agricultural colonies (Deere 1998). During the same period, American black nationalists tried to established settlements in Brazil, only to encounter a series of obstacles placed by Brazilian authorities eager to preserve the country’s image of racial harmony but nervous about the importation of Pan-African ideologies (Meade and Pirio 1988).
  872.  
  873. Croucher, Sheila L. The Other Side of the Fence: American Migrants in Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
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  875. Based mainly on field work in the towns of San Miguel de Allende in the state of Guanajuato and Chapala in Jalisco, Croucher explores the factors that push US citizens to leave and those that pull them toward Mexico; the movements by technology professionals, artists, and retirees; and their political positions, privileged status, and relative isolation from local society.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Deere, Carmen Diana. “Here Come the Yankees! The Rise and Decline of United States Colonies in Cuba, 1898–1930.” Hispanic American Historical Review 78.4 (1998): 729–765.
  878. DOI: 10.2307/2518425Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. Traces the formation by North American immigrants in Cuba of rural colonies to produce citrus and winter fruits for export to the United States. The colonies grew from thirty-seven in 1903 to about eighty in 1920 and promoted calls for annexation of Cuba to the United States. Eventually political instability in the island and trade protectionism in the United States led to the decline of the colonies.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Griggs, William Clark. The Elusive Eden: Frank McMullan’s Confederate Colony in Brazil. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1987.
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  883. Recounts the trials and tribulations of a group of Texan Confederates who emigrated to Brazil after the US Civil War and attempted to recreate the slave society of the US South in the state of Sao Paulo at a time when Brazilian slavery was declining.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Harter, Eugene C. The Lost Colony of the Confederacy. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1985.
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  887. Describes the exodus of former Confederates to Mexico and Brazil. The first movement took place under the auspices of Maximilian’s empire, and it floundered after its collapse in 1867. The movements to Brazil were broader in social composition, including farmers, traders, professionals, and became permanent. The bulk of the book focuses on the history of these settlements and their eventual absorption into Brazilian society.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Meade, Teresa, and Gregory Alonso Pirio. “In Search of the Afro-American ‘Eldorado’: Attempts by North American Blacks to Enter Brazil in the 1920s.” Luso-Brazilian Review 25.1 (1988): 85–110.
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  891. Recounts the efforts of black nationalists related to the Garvey movement to found Afro-American colonies in Brazil, a country that they originally perceived as a racial democracy, and the Brazilian government’s attempts to thwart those efforts, fearing the spread of Pan-African ideologies, while preserving the image of racial tolerance.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Rolle, Andrew. The Lost Cause: The Confederate Exodus to Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
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  895. Describes the conditions in the US South that encouraged the exodus of some five thousand confederates to Mexico after the end of the Civil War, and their settlement in an agricultural colony on the road from Mexico City to Veracruz, which they named Carlotta in honor of the Emperor Maximilian’s wife. First published 1965.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. West Indians and Haitians
  898.  
  899. During the first three decades of the 20th century, hundreds of thousands of West Indian workers, particularly from Jamaica and Barbados, migrated to various areas of the Spanish Caribbean. Chomsky 1996 describes their connection with the development of the United Fruit Company on the Atlantic coast of Costa Rica. Putnam 2002 offers a fuller and richer study of their history in the same country and emphasizes their eventual integration into the local society. Chambers 2010, on the other hand, stresses the West Indians’ preservation of a separate identity in Honduras. Conniff 1985 and O’Reggio 2006 examine the case of Panama, and both emphasize the West Indians’ eventual cultural integration, perhaps because (unlike Chambers 2010 but like Putnam 2002) these studies go forward in time to the 1960s and 1980s, respectively. Haitian workers were more geographically limited in their emigration. Some went to Cuba, and McLeod 2000 studies their presence there in comparison to the West Indians, drawing interesting contrasts that could explain the significantly different treatment received by the two groups. The other Haitian destination lay across the border. Derby 1994 shows how the increasing delineating and regulation of that border led to a rise in nationalist resentment against Haitian residents in the Dominican Republic during the first four decades of the 20th century, an antagonism that in 1937 led to the worse massacre of immigrants in the history of the Western Hemisphere. Martínez 1995 deals with Haitian immigrants in the Dominican Republic during the late 20th century.
  900.  
  901. Chambers, Glenn A. Race, Nation, and West Indian Immigration to Honduras, 1890–1940. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010.
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  903. Traces the Honduran liberal reforms and immigration policy of the turn of the 20th century and their relation to the development of the banana industry on the north coast of the country, the immigration of West Indian workers, the rise in anti-immigrant and anti-black sentiments, and the immigrants’ efforts to preserve their ethno-cultural identities as black Antilleans, Protestants, and English speakers.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Chomsky, Aviva. West Indian Workers and the United Fruit Company in Costa Rica, 1870–1940. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996.
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  907. Studies the development of an enclave economy on Costa Rica’s Atlantic coast and of a labor force of West Indian, particularly Jamaican, migrants. Explores their origins, community and labor organizations, cultural preservation, and interaction and conflict with the United Fruit Company, which include divergent views of disease control and health.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Conniff, Michael L. Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1985.
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  911. Traces the history of West Indians in Panama, succinctly from the 1850s and in more detail during the 20th century, the immigrants’ complicated relations with the canal authorities and with native Panamanians, their transition from a seasonal workforce to an ethnic community, and their eventual integration into mainstream Panamanian culture.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Derby, Lauren. “Haitians, Magic, and Money: Raza and Society in the Haitian-Dominican Borderlands, 1900 to 1937.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 36.3 (1994): 488–526.
  914. DOI: 10.1017/S0010417500019216Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  915. Explores how the consolidation of the nation-state in the Dominican Republic and its delimitation and regulation of the frontier contributed to the branding of Haitian migrants as foreigners and a savage race that threatened the body politics, the tensions between this rhetoric and everyday contact in the borderlands, and the popular association there of Haitians with economic and religious power. Available online from the Society for Comparative Study of Society and History.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Martínez, Samuel. Peripheral Migrants: Haitians and Dominican Republic Sugar Plantations. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1995.
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  919. Based on ethnographic fieldwork and historical research, this work examines the seasonal movement of Haitian rural laborers to the sugar estates in the Dominican Republic, their efforts to adapt to the new environment, and their connections with and impact on their home communities and kin.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. McLeod, Marc C. “Undesirable Aliens: Haitian and British West Indian Immigrant Workers in Cuba, 1898 to 1940.” PhD diss., The University of Texas at Austin, 2000.
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  923. Compares the histories of the three hundred thousand black Caribbean immigrants who arrived in Cuba during the first three decades of the 20th century, and attempts to explain why some thirty-eight thousand Haitians but few if any British West Indians were expelled from the country by contrasting their levels of education, political organization (Garveyism), religious practices (Episcopalian vs. Vodou), and diplomatic backing.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. O’Reggio, Trevor. Between Alienation and Citizenship: The Evolution of Black West Indian Society in Panama, 1914–1964. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2006.
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  927. Describes the recruitment by the Panama Canal authorities of workers from Jamaica and Barbados in the first three decades of the 20th century, the relations of the arrivals with native Panamanians of various races and with white North Americans in the Canal Zone, the formation of an West Indian community, and its slow integration into Panamanian society after World War II.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Putnam, Lara. The Company They Kept: Migrants and the Politics of Gender in Caribbean Costa Rica, 1870–1960. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
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  931. Employing a broad arrange of sources, from novels and judicial records to oral histories and censuses, Putnam offers a theoretically sophisticated exploration of West Indian immigration to the port town of Limon, the arrivals’ continued connections to Jamaica, community formation, gendered-strategies of adaptation, and interactions with local authorities and with Hispanic migrants from the highlands of the country.
  932. Find this resource:
  933. Japanese
  934.  
  935. Some 320,000 Japanese emigrated to Latin America during the 20th century. Three-quarters of this exodus was controlled by the Japanese government, and Endoh 2009 examines the Japanese political and ideological background of the exodus during its two phases in the decades before and after World War II. Masterson and Funada-Classen 2004 offers an overview of the Japanese presence in Latin America. Hirabayashi, et al. 2002 provides an even broader scope but with a post–World War II emphasis. Lone 2001 focuses on Brazil, the single most important destination of Japanese emigrants in the Americas. Besides arriving in large numbers, the Japanese also came as family groups because—unlike the planters of Hawaii, who just wanted laborers—Brazilian authorities also wanted to populate the hinterland of Sao Paulo. As a result Brazil now has the largest population of Japanese descent outside of Japan, estimated by Lone at 1.3 million. Lesser 2007 deals mainly with the second- and third-generation descendants of the immigrants in Sao Paulo during the 1960s and 1970s. Takenaka 2004 discusses the Japanese presence in Peru during the first half of the 20th century and the influence of this history on Japanese Peruvianstoday. Tigner 1967 studies the experience of immigrants from the Ryukyu Islands, particularly Okinawa, who made up a majority of the Japanese in Argentina.
  936.  
  937. Endoh, Toake. Exporting Japan: Politics of Emigration to Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009.
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  939. Describes the history of Japanese emigration to Latin America during two separate periods (1921–1941 and 1953–1970), the construction of Japanese emigration policy, the myriad actors and interests involved in the process (and the ideology behind it), and the social origins of the emigrants and the reasons they chose to participate in the emigration programs.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James A. Hirabayashi, eds. New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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  943. Introduction provides an overview of Japanese emigration from 15th-century pirates to 21st-century executives; the next twenty-one chapters deal the large Nikkei communities of Brazil and the United States, the mid-sized groups of Peru and Canada, the small settlements of Bolivia and Paraguay, and the three hundred thousand Latin American dekasegi, or temporary workers, who have settled in Japan during the last two decades.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Lesser, Jeffrey. A Discontented Diaspora: Japanese Brazilians and the Meanings of Ethnic Militancy, 1960–1980. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007.
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  947. Uses the cases of Nikkei actors and actresses in pornochanchadas, comic sexploitation movies, and guerrillas in Sao Paulo to explore how a new generation of Japanese-Brazilians challenged stereotypes of Japanese propriety and docility during a period of both military authoritarianism and cultural effervesce, particularly among the young.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Lone, Stewart. The Japanese Community in Brazil, 1908–1940: Between Samurai and Carnival. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
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  951. Challenges negative depictions of Japanese immigration in Brazil common in Japanese historiography, according to the author, stressing that the Japanese experience in Brazil was characterized not by isolation and alienation but by cosmopolitanism and engagement with Brazilians and other immigrants, and by significant economic success and upward social mobility in a relatively open society.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Masterson, Daniel M., with Sayaka Funada-Classen. The Japanese in Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004.
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  955. Discusses early Japanese migration to Hawaii and North America; the arrivals between 1908 and 1937 in Brazil, Peru, Mexico, and in smaller settlements; the impact of the Asian wars, 1938–1952; the post-1952 migrations and the relations of the new arrivals with the established Nikkei communities; and the situation of these communities in the late 20th century.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Takenaka, Ayumi. “The Japanese in Peru: History of Immigration, Settlement, and Racialization.” Latin American Perspectives 31.3 (2004): 77–98.
  958. DOI: 10.1177/0094582X04264745Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. Traces the Japanese presence in Peru from the arrival of 790 rural laborers in 1898 to the present, with sections on the causes of the outflow, the social characteristics of the emigrants, conditions in Peru and racial discrimination, how the economic success of the immigrants led to greater hostility, and the present-day situation of relative integration along with continued racialization and high levels of ethnic solidarity.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Tigner, James Lawrence. “The Ryukyuans in Argentina.” Hispanic American Historical Review 47.2 (1967): 203–224.
  962. DOI: 10.2307/2511480Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  963. Traces the arrival of a handful of Japanese who came to Argentina, mainly from Brazil and Peru, up to the first decade of the 20th century; the direct migration from the Ryukyu Islands from the outbreak of World War I to the 1950s; their occupational concentration in laundries and truck-farming; their conversion to Catholicism; and the formation of a significant Okinawan community.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Chinese and Indians
  966.  
  967. The number of Chinese arrivals to Latin America, more than four hundred thousand, surpassed the Japanese inflow, but their demographic impact was much lower due to the conditions of the stream—most of it was made up of “coolies” or indentured workers, and more than 95 percent was male—and the high rates of return. Indians also arrived as contracted laborers, but that movement was more gender-balanced and permanent, which explains the fact that their descendants today make up four-tenths of the population in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname. Look Lai 1993 compares the experiences of these two groups in the British Caribbean. Hoefte 1998 studies Indian and Javanese indentured laborers in Suriname. Meagher 2008 gives a broad account of the coolie trade to Latin America, including its origins in China. Wilson 2004 focuses on the Chinese in the British West Indies and Cuba, with two chapters on Chinese-Caribbean migration to the United States. Look Lai and Chee-Beng 2010, an edited volume, covers the Chinese presence in Latin America from colonial times to the peak of indentured migration in the 19th century to recent renewals of Chinese arrivals in Peru and Suriname. For Cuba, which had the largest Chinese population in the world outside of Asia during the 19th century, Corbitt 1971 still provides the broadest study, López-Calvo 2008 focuses on literary representations, and Yun 2008 employs the rich information in a 1876 report written in English by a commission from the imperial Chinese to rescue the voices of the indentured laborers (for the original source, see Helly 1993 under Primary Sources). For Mexico, Romero 2010 offers a rich, multilevel analysis that is arguably the best monographic study of the Chinese experience anywhere in Latin America.
  968.  
  969. Corbitt, Duvon C. A Study of the Chinese in Cuba, 1847–1947. Wilmore, KY: Asbury College, 1971.
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  971. Describes the immigrants as discriminated against and isolated from Cuban society, which, along the skewed sex ratios, would explain the author’s calculations that 125,000 Chinese were brought to Cuba as contract laborers between 1847 and 1874, but only 14,000 remained by 1900; and that another 150,000 entered during the first four decades of the 20th century, but only 20,000 remained by the late 1940s.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Hoefte, Rosemarijn. In Place of Slavery: A Social History of British Indian and Javanese Laborers in Suriname. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998.
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  975. Using the plantation Marienburg as a case study, describes the contracting for laborers from British Indian and Java; their demographic impact on Suriname; work, health, and the organization of indenture labor in the plantations; and the social, religious, and cultural life of Asians and their descendants.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Look Lai, Walton. Indentured Labor, Caribbean Sugar: Chinese and Indian Migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
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  979. Describes the push factors in China and India and the conditions in the British West Indies, the experiences of the indentured laborers in the plantations, and the post-indenture relations of the Chinese and Indian immigrants and their descendants with the Creole population.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Look Lai, Walton, and Tan Chee-Beng, eds. The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
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  983. Chapters cover colonial movements related to the trade between Manila and Acapulco and the first appearance of Chinese in Mexico, the coolie trade of the 19th century to Cuba and Peru, Sinophobia during this period and up to the 1930s, new streams of Chinese immigration in the late 20th and early 21st centuries to Peru and Surinam, and the use of history in the efforts to revitalize Havana’s Chinatown.
  984. Find this resource:
  985. López-Calvo, Ignacio. Imaging the Chinese in Cuban Literature and Culture. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2008.
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  987. Traces representations of Chinese in Cuban literature from the arrival of the first coolies in the 1840s to the present. Topics include early images of Chinese slavery; Sinophobia and anti-immigrant attitudes; contradictory depictions of Chinese as savage and refined, and as cowards and heroes of the Cuban war of independence; Orientalism; and the exotization of the china mulata.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. Meagher, Arnold J. The Coolie Trade: The Traffic in Chinese Laborers to Latin America 1847–1874. Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2008.
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  991. During the period covered, about a quarter of a million workers contracted in southern China were sent to Cuba and Peru. This publication of a 1975 doctoral dissertation describes the recruiting schemes in China, which were usually run by kinsmen or townsmen of the indentured laborers, and the conditions and resistance during the trip and in the sugar plantations in Cuba and the guano deposits and nitrate fields in Peru.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Romero, Robert Chao. The Chinese in Mexico, 1882–1940. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2010.
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  995. Using a wide array of archival sources and a transnational perspective, Romero traces Chinese immigration to Mexico to the passage of the US Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and charts the arrival, circulation, and smuggling of an estimated sixty thousand migrants over the next six decades from Guangdong, the United States, and the Caribbean, the formation of Chinese communities, and relations with Mexican society.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Wilson, Andrew, ed. The Chinese in the Caribbean. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2004.
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  999. First four chapters deal with the emigration of some eighteen thousand Chinese to British Guiana, Trinidad, and Jamaica during the second half of the 19th century; the next two with the larger flow (about 150,000) to Cuba; and the final two with the rise and decline of Chinese-Cuban restaurants in New York City since the 1960s, and with circular Chinese migration from Panama.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Yun, Lisa. The Coolie Speaks: Chinese Indentured Laborers and African Slaves in Cuba. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2008.
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  1003. Despite the title, the bulk of the book deals with the Chinese. After an overview of the coolie trade and Cuba’s sugar industry and a chapter on methodology, it examines the written testimonies coolies made to an inquiring commission from the Chinese government; the coolies’ oral testimonies, with an emphasis on the themes of race and resistance; and the biography of a Cuban-born Afro-Chinese author.
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005. Immigrants and Afro-Descendants
  1006.  
  1007. Most European emigrants to the New World settled in regions without a past of plantation agriculture and African slavery: the temperate zones of the hemisphere in the Northeast and Midwest of the United States, Canada, and the River Plate region and southern South America. But many did go to regions such as Cuba, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo, which had a recent past of slavery and later internal rural-to-urban migration of Afro-descendants. Andrews 1997 provides an overview of the relations between these two groups in relation to work and labor organization. Andrews 1992 focuses on the same process in Sao Paulo during the century following the abolition of slavery in Brazil. McPhee 2006 moves the lense out of the workplace with an examination of the relations of Afro-Brazilians to immigrants, particularly Portuguese, in a neighborhood of Rio de Janeiro. The case of Cuba adds another level of complication, because besides the native Afro-Cuban population and internal white and black internal migrants, the island was unique in the Western Hemisphere in receiving massive numbers of both white (Europeans, mainly Spanish) and black (British West Indians, mainly Jamaicans, and Haitians) immigrants during the first three decades of the 20th century. De la Fuente 1997, Naranjo Orovio and García González 1996, McLeod 1998, and Chomski 2000 all deal with various, but overlapping, aspects of this Cuban puzzle. Greene 2004 tackles a case that in a smaller scale was as complicated as Cuba’s: the Canal Zone of Panama, a relatively small area that included Anglo-Americans, Panamanians of various colors, immigrant workers from Spain and the West Indies, and a range of ideologies ranging from white supremacy to internationalist anarchism.
  1008.  
  1009. Andrews, George Reid. Blacks and Whites in Sao Paulo, Brazil: 1888–1988. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992.
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  1011. Argues that racial inequality in 20th-century Brazil (or at least Sao Paulo) is not the result of Afro-Brazilians’ handicaps resulting from slavery vis-à-vis European immigrants, but of white racial solidarity and discrimination, including the tendency of immigrant entrepreneurs to hire their co-nationals (although in this case, the solidarity seems more ethno-national than racial).
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Andrews, George Reid. “Black Workers in the Export Years: Latin America, 1880–1930.” International Labor and Working-Class History 51 (Spring 1997): 7–29.
  1014. DOI: 10.1017/S0147547900001964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015. Overview of the interaction between black workers, European immigrants, and unionization in southern Brazil, and of native blacks, Afro-Caribbean migrant workers, Spanish immigrants, and labor organizations in Cuba, with some references to Central America and Colombia.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Chomski, Aviva. “‘Barbados or Canada?’ Race, Immigration, and Nation in Early-Twentieth-Century Cuba.” Hispanic American Historical Review 80.3 (2000): 415–462.
  1018. DOI: 10.1215/00182168-80-3-415Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019. Examines the debate about Afro-Caribbean immigration, its relations to racial ideals for the new republic, conflicting notions of nationalism, anti-imperialism, and the involvement of various sectors of Cuban society—including Afro-Cuban leaders and intellectuals.
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. de la Fuente, Alejandro. “Two Dangers, One Solution: Immigration, Race, and Labor in Cuba, 1900–1930.” International Labor and Working-Class History 51 (Spring 1997): 30–49.
  1022. DOI: 10.1017/S0147547900001976Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1023. Examines the efforts of the Cuban republican elites to both whiten the island’s population and undermine labor militancy by promoting the immigration of white families; the arrival of largely male and young Spanish, other European, West Indian, and Haitian immigrants; and the successful efforts of anarchist and communist unions to create a strong, multiracial labor movement.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Greene, Julie. “Spaniards on the Silver Roll: Labor Troubles and Liminality in the Panama Canal Zone, 1904–1914.” International Labor and Working Class History 66 (Fall 2004): 78–98.
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  1027. Examines the labor organizations created by Spanish immigrant workers; their anarchist ideology and international connections; their liminality, or in-between position in the racial, class, and national hierarchies of the US-dominated Canal Zone; and their conflicting attitudes toward black immigrant workers from the Anglophone Caribbean.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. McLeod, Marc C. “Undesirable Aliens: Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism in the Comparison of Haitian and British West Indian Immigrant Workers in Cuba, 1912–1939.” Journal of Social History 31.3 (1998): 599–623.
  1030. DOI: 10.1353/jsh/31.3.599Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1031. During the first three decades of the 20th century, about six hundred thousand workers from Haiti and the British West Indies emigrated to Cuba. In the 1930s, some thirty-eight thousand Haitians, but no British West Indians, were forcefully deported. McLeod finds an explanation for the contrast in the significantly higher level of literacy, urban skills, and diplomatic backing enjoyed by the latter group.
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. McPhee, Kit. “‘Immigrants with Money Are No Use to Us’: Race and Ethnicity in the Zona Portuária of Rio de Janeiro, 1903–1912.” The Americas 62.4 (2006): 623–650.
  1034. DOI: 10.1353/tam.2006.0085Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035. Examines the relations of European immigrants, particularly Portuguese, with their Afro-Brazilian neighbors in the port district of Rio de Janeiro, and the latter’s use of racial (blackness) and national (Brazilian citizenship and patriotism) discursive strategies in their responses to the newcomers.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Naranjo Orovio, Consuelo, and Armando García González. Racismo e inmigración en Cuba en el siglo XIX. Madrid: Doce Calles, 1996.
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  1039. Examines the concerns of Cuban scientists, intellectuals, and leaders—mainly between 1800 and the 1870s—about the island’s racial makeup, and their efforts to ban the immigration of groups considered nonwhite and promote the arrival of those deemed racially superior.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Labor Movement
  1042.  
  1043. European immigrants, particularly Italians, Spaniards, and Eastern European Jews, played a critical role in the development of the labor movement in Latin America. During the formative years of the movement, from the 1880s to the 1920s, anarchism supplied its most important influence in terms of both ideology and grassroots practices. The connection between immigration and labor activism appears clearly during the first May Day demonstrations in 1890. The only places where they were held in the Western Hemisphere were cities of immigrants: New York, Chicago, Havana, Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and Rosario. By the early 20th century, Buenos Aires had one of the largest labor movements in the world and competed with and Barcelona and Paris as the most important foci of anarchist activism. Moya 2002, Moya 2004, and Moya 2010 explore the role of Italians, Ashkenazi Jews, and Spaniards in that movement; and Costanzo 2009 examines the efforts of the Argentine governments to expel them. Baily 1969 discusses why Italian immigrants played a much more important role in the labor movement in Argentina and Brazil than in the United States. Maram 1979 provides an overview of the connection between the anarchist and labor movements in Brazil. Romani 2002 offers a transnational perspective through the biography of an Italian anarchist active in South America and Europe. Sánchez Cobos 2008 studies the role of Spanish anarchists in Cuba’s labor movement. Dorsey 2004 focuses on workers’ resistance outside of the labor movement in his discussion of violence among Chinese coolies in Cuban plantations.
  1044.  
  1045. Baily, Samuel L. “The Italians and the Development of Organized Labor in Argentina, Brazil, and the United States, 1880–1914.” Journal of Social History 3.2 (1969): 123–134.
  1046. DOI: 10.1353/jsh/3.2.123Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. Attempts to explain why Italians played a key role in the development of organized labor in Argentina and Brazil but not in the United States. The majority of Italians in South America came from the more developed north of the Peninsula, and compared to the 80 percent from the south who came to the United States, they arrived earlier and encountered less discrimination and competition.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Costanzo, Gabriela. Los indeseables: Las Leyes de Residencia y Defensa Social. Buenos Aires: Madreselva, 2009.
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  1051. Examines the passing by the Argentine Congress in 1902 and 1910 of legislation to facilitate the expulsion of foreign-born anarchists and labor militants from Argentina, the public debates surrounding the bills and laws, and their implementation.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Dorsey, Joseph C. “Identity, Rebellion, and Social Justice among Chinese Contract Workers in Nineteenth-Century Cuba.” Latin American Perspectives 31.3 (2004): 18–47.
  1054. DOI: 10.1177/0094582X04264492Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055. Discusses the legal and labor position of Chinese coolies, their racial ambiguity, and stereotypes about their passivity and sexual perversion. Dorsey uses twelve cases of homicide to explore the resistance and reaction of Chinese workers to repressive labor conditions.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Maram, Sheldon Leslie. Anarquistas, imigrantes e o movimento operario brasileiro, 1890–1920. Rio de Janeiro: Paz e Terra, 1979.
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  1059. Translated and revised version of a 1972 doctoral dissertation from the University of California, Santa Barbara. It examines the role of European immigrants in the development of the labor movement in Brazil, particularly in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, and the dominant role played by anarchists in the process.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Moya, José C. “Italians in Buenos Aires’s Anarchist Movement: Gender Ideology and Women’s Participation.” In Women, Gender, and Transnational Lives: Italian Women of the World. Edited by Donna Gabaccia and Franca Iacovetta, 189–216. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002.
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  1063. Combines ethnic, class, and gender analysis to examine the high level of participation of Italian working-class immigrant women in Argentina’s anarchist labor movement, and to explain what elements of ideology and praxis could account for that level of involvement.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Moya, José C. “The Positive Side of Stereotypes: Jewish Anarchists in Early-Twentieth-Century Buenos Aires.” Jewish History 18.1 (2004): 19–48.
  1066. DOI: 10.1023/B:JEHI.0000005735.80946.27Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1067. Describes the increase in Jewish participation in Buenos Aires’s anarchism after the pogroms of 1905, showing that in relation to their numbers in the general population, Jews became the most overrepresented group (along with Catalans). Attempts to explain such intensity through a sociological rather than religious/cultural analysis, thus questioning notions of ethnic exceptionality.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Moya, José C. “El anarquismo argentino y el liderazgo español” In Patriotas entre naciones: Elites emigrantes españolas en Argentina. Edited by Marcela García Sebastiani, 361–372. Madrid: Editorial Complutense, 2010.
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  1071. Examines the role of leadership in a movement that presumably did not have any, by defining the term as levels of activism rather than formal control. Shows Italians greatly surpassed Spaniards in Argentina’s anarchist movement during the 1890s, but that parity was achieved in the next decade as the Iberian ethnoregional origins of the leadership became similar to that of the rank and file.
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073. Romani, Carlo. Oreste Ristori: Uma aventura anarquista. Sao Paulo: Annablume, 2002.
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  1075. A biography of an Italian anarchist who migrated to Buenos Aires at the age of twenty-six in 1900, was deported to Italy in 1902 for his leadership in the first general strike in Argentine history, jumped ship in Montevideo, and continued his militancy there, in Argentina, Brazil, Spain during the Civil War, and Italy, where he was executed by a Fascist firing squad in 1943.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Sánchez Cobos, Amparo. Sembrando Ideales: Anarquistas españoles en Cuba, 1902–1925. Sevilla: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 2008.
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  1079. Provides some background on Spanish migration to Cuba during the 19th century, and its continuation and increase after Cuba’s independence from Spain. It then focuses on the critical role played by Spanish anarchists in the local labor movement, working-class culture, radical education, and the efforts of the republican government to control these activities, including the deportation of activists.
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. International Migration within Latin America
  1082.  
  1083. With the decline of European and Asian immigration after the 1950s, international mobility in Latin America increasingly took the form of emigration out of the region (which is not covered in this bibliographical essay) and border crossing between neighboring countries. These movements flowed, not surprisingly, from poorer countries to their relatively rich neighbors: from Paraguay, Bolivia, and Peru to Argentina; from Colombia to Venezuela, during the latter’s oil boom; from Andean countries to Chile in the last two decades; from Nicaragua to Costa Rica; from Guatemala to Mexico; from Haiti to the Dominican Republic; and from the Dominican Republic to Puerto Rico. Oteiza 2010, Martínez Pizarro and Reboiras Finardi 2001, and Novick 2008 provide overviews of these migrations. Donato, et al. 2010 emphasizes movements to the United States but also contain studies of international migrations within Mexico and Central America. Rockefeller 2010 offers an ethnographic study of Bolivian migration to Buenos Aires. Halpern 2009 studies the claims to the status of political exiles by Paraguayans in Argentina, and Yankelevich 2009 examines such claims by Argentines in Mexico.
  1084.  
  1085. Donato, Katharine M., et al., eds. Salvando fronteras: Migración internacional en América Latina y el Caribe. Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Mexican Migration Project, 2010.
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. The emphasis in this collection of sociological studies is on migration to the United States. But the volume also contains chapters or sections from the perspective of the sending countries, on return migration, and on international movements within Latin America. Topics include broad trends in Latin American migrations since the 1970s, gender patterns, policy, violence, selectivity, remittances, and occupational mobility.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Halpern, Gerardo. Etnicidad, inmigración y política: Representaciones y cultura política de exiliados paraguayos en Argentina. Buenos Aires: Prometeo, 2009.
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  1091. Describes the organizations formed by Paraguayans in Argentina, particularly Buenos Aires, their claim to the status of political exiles in the face of a sending and a receiving state that designate them as economic immigrants, and the prejudices against the immigrants sustained by media representations.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Martínez Pizarro, Jorge, and Leandro Reboiras Finardi, eds. International Migration and Development in the Americas: Symposium on International Migration in the Americas, San José de Costa Rica, September 2000. Santiago, Chile: Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), 2001.
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  1095. The result of a conference held in Costa Rica, this volume covers migratory trends in the Americas during the late 20th century, the relationship between migration and development, governance of migration and multilateral diplomacy, and questions related to human rights. Available online from ECLAC.
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Novick, Susana, et al., eds. Las migraciones en América Latina: Políticas, culturas y estrategias. Buenos Aires: CLACSO, 2008.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. Most contributions deal with emigration from the central Andean countries to Argentina, Spain, Brazil, and Chile. Topics include the labor market, racism, women and domestic work, and gastronomy as both immigrant business and spaces of socialization. Two chapters tackle the policies and politics of migration in Cuba and Colombia, and three other look at broader issues of social networks, multiculturalism, and citizenship.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Oteiza, Enrique, ed. Patrones migratorios internacionales en América Latina. Buenos Aires: Eudeba, 2010.
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  1103. Examines international migrations in the post–World War II period, the changes in origins (from Europe to other Latin American countries) and destinations (beyond the River Plate region), the type of movements, the new policies and politics in host countries, and issues of human rights and multiculturalism.
  1104. Find this resource:
  1105. Rockefeller, Stuart A. Starting from Quirpini: The Travels and Places of a Bolivian People. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010.
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  1107. An ethnographic study of Quirpini, a Quechua-speaking village in the highlands of Bolivia, regional mobility and market and connections with San Roque, a nearby Spanish-speaking town, the migration of villagers to Buenos Aires, their community there, and the links and circulations with the hometown.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Yankelevich, Pablo. Ráfagas de un exilio: Argentinos en México, 1974–1983. Mexico City: Colegio de México, 2009.
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  1111. Examines the role of the Mexican diplomatic corps in Argentina in relation to those seeking asylum from persecution during the military regimes of the period; the social composition of Argentines exiles in Mexico; their political practices, associations, and ideological divisions; and the evolving identities shaped by the experience of exile and of the host society.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Primary Sources
  1114.  
  1115. Published primary sources offer a direct and accessible window into the immigrant experience, particularly for those scholars and students who do not have the resources, time, or inclination to travel to distant official archives or have no access to private collections of documents. These published materials represent valuable resources for both research and teaching.
  1116.  
  1117. Immigrant Letters, Colonial Period
  1118.  
  1119. Mobility promotes correspondence. Letters are more commonly found among migrants than among sedentary populations with similar levels of literacy. The legalistic culture of the Iberian empires furthered this general tendency. As Lockhart and Otte 1976 put it, all sorts of imperial bureaucrats “were constantly writing to higher authority . . . petitioning, proposing, polemicizing.” For a long time, these official communications provided a central corpus in the historiography of the Iberian imperial enterprise in the Americas and beyond. But in the 1970s historians began to find private correspondence of immigrants from diverse social origins. These letters were written to friends and family in Spain but were appended to emigration permit applications by the relatives to show that their passage to America would be paid by the writer of the letter, and were thus found in the Archivo de Indias in Seville. This opened up possibilities for a more inclusive history of Iberian colonialism in the Americas, one that went beyond conquistadors and imperial officials to incorporate the broader mass of merchants, bakers, tanners, farmers, and so on. Lockhart and Otte 1976 includes letters from the decades following the Spanish conquest of the American mainland. Otte 1996 focuses on correspondence from Mexico and Peru during the second half of the 16th century and first two decades of the 1600s. Macías and Morales Padrón 1991 shifts the temporal lens to the 18th century. Usunáriz Garayoa 1992 is restricted to correspondence penned by Basques, although the letters are written in Castilian. Pérez Murillo 1999 collects those written from Cuba during the early 19th century. Márquez Macías 1994 covers a longer period, since the author starts her collection in the 1760s. Further, although most of the letters come from the Spanish Caribbean, many from the mainland are included. Sánchez Rubio and Testón Nuñez 1999 is unique in the genre in that the letters came from an archive in the New World rather than Spain and deal mainly with accusations of bigamy.
  1120.  
  1121. Lockhart, James, and Enrique Otte, eds. Letters and People of the Spanish Indies: Sixteenth Century. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
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  1123. Compilation of letters from conquistadors (including some women) and merchants during the early decades after contact; from a broader variety of writers, including a professor of theology, a troubadour, a peddler in Campeche, and two Flemish tailors; and finally from officials and clerics. A preface and introductions to the three sections provide historical context.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Macías, Isabelo, and Francisco Morales Padrón, eds. Cartas desde América, 1700−1800. Seville: Junta de Andalucía, 1991.
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  1127. Similar to the material gathered by Otte 1996 but for the 18th century. Many letters are from husbands in the Indies eager to convince their wives in Spain to join them, assuring them that transatlantic travel is now safe and that they would enjoy lofty reputations in the New World. Others are from uncles sending for their nephews back home to work in—and often inherit—their American businesses.
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129. Márquez Macías, Rosario. Historia de América: La emigración española en tinta y papel. Huelva, Spain: Ertoil, 1994.
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  1131. Includes 149 letters written by settlers to their families and friends in Spain between 1768 and 1824, and found in the Archivo de Indias. The largest number come from Cuba and the Antilles, presumably because the period includes the Wars of Independence and the exodus of Spaniards in the mainland, followed by the viceroyalties of the River Plate, Peru, and New Spain.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. Otte, Enrique, ed. Cartas privadas de emigrantes a Indias, 1540–1616. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1996.
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  1135. Volume compiles 650 letters written by Spanish immigrants in the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru asking their families—mainly wives, brothers, and nephews—to join them in the Indies. The correspondence discusses family relations, personal finances, adventures and daily life in the Indies, among other topics, drawing a rare and intimate picture or early colonial life.
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. Pérez Murillo, María Dolores, ed. Cartas de emigrantes escritas desde Cuba: Estudio de las mentalidades y valores en el siglo XIX. Cadiz, Spain: Universidad de Cádiz, 1999.
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  1139. Compiles ninety-two letters written by Spanish immigrants in Cuba between 1808 and 1829. The correspondence consists of “call letters,” asking relatives to join the immigrants in Cuba. Although private documents, they also served a public function: providing proof of support for would-be emigrants to receive exit permits, which explains why they were found in the Archivo General de Indias.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. Sánchez Rubio, Rocio, and Isabel Testón Nuñez, eds. El hilo que une: Las relaciones epistolares en el Viejo y el Nuevo Mundo, siglos XVI–XVIII. Cáceres, Spain: Universidad de Extremadura, 1999.
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  1143. Unlike other volumes in this section, which come from Spanish archives, the 382 letters collected here were found in Inquisition documents related to the crime of bigamy held at the Archivo General de la Nación in Mexico City.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Usunáriz Garayoa, Jesús Maria, ed. Una visión de la América del XVIII: Correspondencia de emigrantes guipuzcoanos y navarros. Madrid: MAPFRE, 1992.
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  1147. Similar to Macías and Morales 1991, but restricted to emigrants from the Basque province of Guipuzcoa and from Navarre. The social class of the writers is heterogeneous, but with few from individuals on the extremes (i.e., from nobles and the gentry or from day laborers and servants).
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149. Immigrant Letters, National Period
  1150.  
  1151. Immigrant letters, ironically, are more difficult to find for postcolonial times, despite the tremendous increase in literacy and the significant development of the mail system during that period. The reason for this paradox is that letters were not used for bureaucratic purposes, such as the emigration permit petitions held in the Archivo de Indias for the colonial period, and they are thus more likely to be found in family homes than in government archives. Nonetheless, many collections have been found in the last few decades. Martínez Martín 2008 offers a useful overview of the collections that have been published. Franzina 1994 includes letters from Italian rural immigrants, some written in local dialects, something not commonly found in these collections. Baily and Ramella 1988 also deals with Italians. The collection is less unique in that the correspondence comes from urban and more educated immigrants, but it is rare in two ways: it includes both ends of the correspondence, and the letters have been translated into English. Núñez Seixas and Soutelo Vázquez 2005 also includes some back-and-forth correspondence of a Spanish Galician family, between their home village and Argentina; and Soutelo Vázquez 2001 collects letters from various Galician families to their relatives in Brazil, Venezuela, and Uruguay. Da Orden 2010 offers a microhistorical study of the migration after World War II of a Galician family to an Argentine town, and includes in an appendix the letters and photographs they exchanged. Salomon 2002 compiles private letters from German immigrants in southern Brazil. Wtulich 1986 does the same for Polish immigrants in Brazil and the United States, with the advantage that the letters were translated to English. Murray 2006 includes both family correspondence and memoirs of Irish immigrants in Argentina originally written in English.
  1152.  
  1153. Baily, Samuel L., and Franco Ramella, eds. One Family, Two Worlds: An Italian Family’s Correspondence Across the Atlantic, 1901–1922. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988.
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  1155. Includes 208 letters between the parents of the Sola family from Biella, an industrial town in Piedmont, and their sons and one daughter-in-law in Buenos Aires. Because the parents made copies of the letters they sent, both ends of the correspondence are here. The result reads like a family novel, and the editors provide helpful historical context. The letters are translated to English.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Da Orden, María Liliana. Una familia y un océano de por medio: La emigración gallega a la Argentina; Una historia a través de la memoria epistolar. Barcelona: Anthropos, 2010.
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  1159. The history of a Galician family that migrated to Argentina after World War II, constructed through the exchange of letters and photographs with their relatives back home. Topics include changing identities, relations between parents and children—particularly the family matriarch who stayed in Spain—socioeconomic aspirations, an aging. Appendix has a selection of letters and photographs.
  1160. Find this resource:
  1161. Franzina, Emilio. Merica! Merica! Emigrazione e colonizzazione nelle lettere dei contadini veneti e friulani in America Latina 1876–1902. Verona: Cierre Edizioni, 1994.
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  1163. Assembles letters written by rural emigrants from northeastern Italy, some of them in the regional Venetian and Friulian languages, residing in Brazil and Argentina during the last quarter of the 19th century. First published 1979.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Martínez Martín, Laura. “Las correspondencias de la emigración en la época contemporánea: Una mirada historiográfica.” Migraciones y Exilios 9 (2008): 135–150.
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  1167. A historiographical discussion of the scholarly literature on migrant correspondence, with the emphasis on Mediterranean Europe and Latin America. Available online.
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169. Murray, Edmundo, ed. Becoming Irlandés: Private Narratives of the Irish Emigration to Argentina, 1844–1912. Buenos Aires: L.O.L.A., 2006.
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  1171. A compilation, in the original English, of two sets of family letters and two memoirs written by Irish immigrants in Argentina. Murray notes identity shifts in the sources from British (there is not a single Gaelic word in the documents), to Argentine/Catholic nationalism, and to a recent renaissance of Irish symbolic ethnicity that lies beyond the time period of the sources.
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. Núñez Seixas, Xosé M., and Raul Soutelo Vázquez, eds. As cartas do destino: Unha familia galega entre dois mundos, 1919–1971. Vigo, Spain: Galaxia, Vigo, 2005.
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  1175. A Spanish counterpart to Baily and Ramella 1988. It compiles about two hundred letters written by the Naveiras family from a village in the Galician parish of Ferreira over a period of half a century. Topics include descriptions of daily life, the differences between Galician emigrants and those who stayed behind, hometown associations, and the immigrant’s efforts to promote progress back home.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Salomon, Marlon, ed. As correspondências: Uma história das cartas e das práticas de escrita no Vale do Itajaí. Florianópolis, Brazil: Editora da UFSC, 2002.
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  1179. Based on letters by immigrants in Blumenau, a German agricultural colony in the state of Santa Catarina in southern Brazil. In includes published and unpublished correspondence and letters related to legal divorce cases.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Soutelo Vázquez, Raúl, ed. De América para a casa: Correspondencia familiar de emigrantes galegos no Brasil, Venezuela e Uruguai, 1919–1969. Santiago de Compostela: Consello da Cultura Galega, 2001.
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  1183. Unlike Núñez Seixas and Soutelo Vázquez 2005, this volume compiles letters from different immigrant families in three Latin American countries to their families back home, rather than from a single family. Letters were collected by schoolteachers who gave their students a questionnaire to take home, asking their parents and grandparents whether they had any family letters from emigrants.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Wtulich, Josephine, ed. Writing Home: Immigrants in Brazil and the United States, 1890–1891. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.
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  1187. A selection, translation, and annotation of 352 letters from a larger collection originally published in Polish in 1973. Written during the peak of “Brazilian fever” in Poland, the letters from Brazil tend to offer more vivid and favorable descriptions of the new country, and express a greater intention to stay, that those from the United States.
  1188. Find this resource:
  1189. Diaries, Memoirs, Autobiographies, Testimonies, Interviews
  1190.  
  1191. The increase in popular literacy since the late 19th century, accompanied by surges in the cult of individual introspection and the practice of keeping diaries, writing memoirs, and autobiographies, has produced a rich and varied corpus for the study of modern migrations. The titles below show the diversity of genres. They include travel diaries (Croci and Bonfiglio 2002), memoirs (de Boni 1977, Strobel 1987), autobiographies (Cattarulla 2003, Marsal 1969), biographies (Glickman 2000, Schalom 2003), collective testimonies (Agosin 2002), a collection of interviews with children and grandchildren of immigrants (Parissi 2008) and a report for the Chinese imperial government that includes written and oral testimonies from Chinese coolies in Cuba (Helly 1993). As with any other source, they are not unproblematic simply because they appear to have the stamp of authenticity, of having been produced by the participants themselves. But together and in combination with other methodologies, they can illuminate the most quotidian, intimate, and psychological aspects of the immigration experience.
  1192.  
  1193. Agosin, Marjorie, ed. Taking Root: Narratives of Jewish Women in Latin America. Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies, 2002.
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  1195. Jewish women from almost all of Latin America, both Ashkenazi and Sephardi, and from a variety of social backgrounds (although those in academia and the professions predominate) recall growing up in first- and second-generation immigrant households, with a mixture of cultural practices that stretched from Sabbath candles to Christmas trees, and from Yiddish songs to Salsa music.
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  1197. Cattarulla, Camilla. Di proprio pugno: Autobiografie di emigranti italiani in Argentina e in Brasile. Reggio Emilia, Italy: Diabasis, 2003.
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  1199. Examines autobiographies of Italian immigrants in Argentina, Brazil, and occasionally other places in Latin America, including Cuba, where Antonio Meucci, a twenty-seven-year-old Florentine inventor, arrived in 1835 and designed what many historians of technology acknowledge to be the first telephone. Topics include descriptions of the transatlantic trip, the new lands, and ruminations about national and cultural identity.
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  1201. Croci, Federico, and Giovanni Bonfiglio. El baúl de la memoria: Testimonios escritos de inmigrantes italianos en el Perú. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 2002.
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  1203. Contains the sixty-seven-page travel diary and family correspondence of Giovanni Soldi, an Italian immigrant and enology student who arrived in Peru in 1897 at the age of twenty-eight. Material was found in the Archivio Ligure della Scrittura Popolare in Genoa.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. de Boni, Luis A., ed. La Mérica: Escritos dos primeiros imigrantes italianos. Caxias do Sul, Brazil: Universidad de Caxias do Sul, 1977.
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  1207. A collection of letters, short memoirs, and other writings by Italian immigrants in Rio Grande do Sul, in southern Brazil during the last third of the 19th century.
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  1209. Glickman, Nora. The Jewish White Slave Trade and the Untold Story of Raquel Liberman. New York: Routledge, 2000.
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  1211. Describes the history of international Jewish prostitution trafficking rings in Argentina from the 1880s to the early 1930s, and tells the story of Raquel Liberman, a Polish-born woman who emigrated to Argentina in 1922 at the age of twenty-two, was introduced into the prostitution business by her in-laws, and successfully fought a mobster association, a struggle became a cause célèbre.
  1212. Find this resource:
  1213. Helly, Denise, ed. The Cuba Commission Report: A Hidden History of the Chinese in Cuba. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
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  1215. A reproduction of an 1876 English-language report from an imperial mission sent by the government of China to investigate the living conditions of Chinese coolies in Cuba’s sugar plantations. Drawn from extensive interviews with more than one thousand Chinese immigrants, the report provides rich information about their work and activities, adaptation and resistance, interaction with other groups, and aspirations.
  1216. Find this resource:
  1217. Marsal, Juan Francisco, ed. Hacer la América: Autobiografía de un emigrante español en la Argentina. Buenos Aires: Editorial del Instituto, 1969.
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  1219. Written by J.S., an anonymous Catalan immigrant who returned to Spain after a thirty-two-year sojourn in Argentina. Tells of his many occupations in the host country, particularly as an itinerant photographer, and his relations with his family in Catalonia and Argentina, including repeated denials about having a second domestic union there. Also includes a sociological analysis of return migration by the editor.
  1220. Find this resource:
  1221. Parissi, Julio César, ed. Nos trajeron los barcos: Historias de padres y abuelos inmigrantes. Buenos Aires: Sudamericana, 2008.
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  1223. Interviews with twenty Argentine artists and writers who tell the stories of their immigrant parents or grandparents. They include narratives of Lithuanian Jews escaping pogroms to settle in Buenos Aires’ warehouse district, Basque and Irish shepherds in the Pampas, Italian autodidactic “organic intellectuals,” among others.
  1224. Find this resource:
  1225. Schalom, Myrtha. La Polaca: Inmigración, rufianes y esclavas a principios de siglo XX. Buenos Aires: Grupo Editorial Norma, 2003.
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  1227. A biographical novel about Raquel Liberman—the Polish seamstress who arrived in Argentina at the age of twenty-two with two babies to find her husband had died there, and later fought the traffickers gang Zwi Migdal. Work is based on Liberman’s personal documents, letters, and photographs, which were given to the author by Liberman’s granddaughter.
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229. Strobel, Gustav Hermann. Relatos de um pioneiro da imigração alemã. Curitiba, Brazil: IHGEP, 1987.
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  1231. Accounts by a German immigrant of his experiences in an agricultural colony in Paraná during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, his family relations, including with those who stayed behind in Saxony, his evangelical Lutheran faith and conflicts with Catholics, and his relations with locals and other immigrants.
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