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Semi-Military and Paramilitary Organizations (Mili. History)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Semi-military organizations take many forms and perform varied functions. Such organizations can be placed in three general categories: legally established entities, organizations that are opposed to a particular regime, and groups that support certain aspects of the regime but exist outside the law, such as death squads. Organizations in the first two categories are described as “semi-military” in this article, and the third category is characterized as “paramilitary.” Legally established entities can be divided further into those that are intended to support the armed forces through the provision of various services and those that are designed to supplement or substitute for the armed forces in order to keep the military services focused on defense against foreign threats and, further, to free them from tasks such as suppression of internal unrest or enforcement of controversial laws. Semi-military organizations vary considerably, ranging from those that have constituted little more than concealed armies to those that consist of unarmed men and women who have been recruited for largely humanitarian duties. The focus of this article is on those semi-military organizations that are closest to regular armed forces. Organizations, such as the Civilian Conservation Corps, a major New Deal program to combat the Great Depression set up by the administration of President Franklin Roosevelt in the United States, and Organisation Todt, a large labor service force in Nazi Germany, are omitted. Military Contractors and Mercenary Forces and Proprietary Airlines may be seen as serving armed forces. Border Security Forces and the various categories of police organizations can be viewed as substituting for armed forces. Paramilitary Organizations have a position of their own. They may be linked to the armed forces, but unofficially. They often operate in a clandestine fashion.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Scobell and Hammitt 1998 should surely be the first source to be consulted, given its broad, but sophisticated, treatment. Although it deals largely with military forces outside the scope of this article, Zurcher and Harries-Jenkins 1978 deserves serious attention owing to its detailed typology of semi-military groups. Mulaj 2010 is an imposing collection of case studies of guerrilla forces, militias, and paramilitaries. Davis and Pereira 2003 contains much important material, and the integrative essays by the two editors add significantly to the value of the book. Manwaring 2010 examines a number of contemporary semi-military groups, largely in contemporary Latin America; a long “afterword” by John T. Fisher helps put Manwaring’s research and theorizing into historical perspective. Singh 2005 focuses on women in an Indian militarized police force, and, thus, it breaks new ground at a time when women in several countries are moving closer to engaging in combat roles. The book also describes various types of semi-military forces in India. Berti 2013 addresses the development of political strategies and structures by organizations that are also using military means to achieve their objectives. Given its range and its detailed coverage of many little known aspects of the post–World War I era, Gerwarth and Horne 2012 is almost a reference work on semi-military and paramilitary organizations worldwide during the period considered.
  8.  
  9. Berti, Benedetta. Armed Political Organizations: From Conflict to Integration. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.
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  11. Examines Hezbollah, Hamas, and the IRA and their efforts to operate effectively in the political sphere. The study is much more than a collection of case studies, though, because Berti uses the rich material she has gathered to develop further hypotheses and to suggest how to react to such dual-faceted movements.
  12. Find this resource:
  13. Davis, Diane E., and Anthony W. Pereira, eds. Irregular Armed Forces and Their Role in Politics and State Formation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  14. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511510038Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. A somewhat diffuse, but, nevertheless, valuable collection of case studies, many of them historical. The book might have been strengthened by the omission of several chapters.
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  17. Gerwarth, Robert, and John Horne, eds. War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe after the Great War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  18. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199654918.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19. Comparative study with an exceptional geographical scope. For the most part, the chapters are based on extensive archival research. The authors are advanced specialists, who explore fully the nuances of their often complicated topics. The only significant shortcoming is the general lack of comparisons with present day semi-military and paramilitary structures.
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  21. Manwaring, Max G. Gangs, Pseudo-militaries, and Other Modern Mercenaries: New Dynamics in Uncomfortable Wars. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010.
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  23. Initially, readers may be confused by Manwaring’s constant use of the word gangs to describe a variety of semi-military groups, but this is an important study by a seasoned specialist in the field of guerrilla warfare. He emphasizes the primacy of politics in any effort to deal with semi-military forces.
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  25. Mulaj, Klejda. Violent Non-State Actors in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2010.
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  27. Focusing largely on Third World organizations, the collection also includes the various elements of the IRA and the Basque nationalist movement.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Scobell, Andrew, and Brad Hammitt. “Goons, Gunmen, and Gendarmerie: Toward a Reconceptualization of Paramilitary Formations.” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 26 (1998): 213–227.
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  31. Seminal article for understanding the nature of semi-military groups. This is probably the single most important study of the subject.
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  33. Singh, Santosh. Combatant Women: The Ultimate Warriors. Jaipur, India: RBSA, 2005.
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  35. Although it concentrates on the Central Reserve Police Force of India, the book provides enlightening material on semi-military organizations generally.
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  37. Zurcher, Louis A., and Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, eds. Supplementary Military Forces: Reserves, Militias, Auxiliaries. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE, 1978.
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  39. Although most of its segments deal with military reserve and official militia structures that fall outside the scope of this article, the book is worth reading because of the introduction and the essays that deal with semi-military forces in Guatemala, Thailand, and several countries in Central Africa.
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  41. Reference Resources
  42.  
  43. The numerous Countries Studies/Area Handbooks provide a good deal of rather detailed information about semi-military organizations in the many countries that are profiled. The fact that several editions of the volumes were produced for a number of countries is proof the changes that took place over several decades were addressed. Andrade 1985 includes a brief introduction that stresses semi-military police organizations and information about paramilitary forces across the globe. Recent years have seen the widespread appearance of indexing and full-text coverage in periodical articles, reports, and governmental publications that offer major resources previously not readily available. Academic Search Premier is a bibliographic source with coverage of history and the social sciences. Air University Index to Military Periodicals deals primarily with official and semi-official military publications. Columbia International Affairs Online (CIAO) is especially valuable for current literature. Historical Abstracts offers a wide array of scholarly journal articles in many languages. Staff College Automated Military Periodicals Index (SCAMPI) includes some material not in Air University Index to Military Periodicals. PAIS Lexis-Nexis Academic is intended to cover current issues in many fields, but, owing to its long existence, it provides what are now historical materials as well.
  44.  
  45. Academic Search Premier.
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  47. Coverage varies. Although the emphasis is on periodical articles, the index includes various other types of publications. Given its wide coverage, this is a necessary source for anyone researching semi-military groups.
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  49. Air University Index to Military Periodicals.
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  51. Includes many entries relevant for the study of semi-military groups. However, coverage of journals and magazines was limited in the earliest years of this highly useful index. Available in paper from 1949 to 1999 and online from 1987 onward.
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  53. Andrade, John. World Police and Paramilitary Forces. New York: Stockton, 1985.
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  55. Notwithstanding his title, Andrade emphasizes police organizations. Although the depth of coverage varies significantly, this is a convenient overview of many semi-military organizations that existed during the last years of the Cold War, including those found in former communist countries in Europe.
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  57. Columbia International Affairs Online.
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  59. Indispensable for studying contemporary semi-military groups. CIAO provides citations and often the full texts of many reports and research studies that would be extremely difficult to identify and to access without using this fine source.
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  61. Federal Research Division, The Library of Congress. Country Studies/Area Handbooks. 1964–.
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  63. Despite the general title, volumes in this series deal with individual countries, including their institutions, such as the structure of police forces and other semi-military organizations, in some detail. The books include much information that would be difficult to locate in other sources for many countries. Initiated by the American University with the cooperation of the Department of the Army, the series is being continued by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. Current volumes, as well as some older ones, dating from 1988 through 1998, are available online.
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  65. Historical Abstracts.
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  67. See Part A: Modern History Abstracts, 1450–1914, and Part B: Twentieth Century Abstracts, 1914 to the Present. Wide coverage of materials in many languages.
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  69. PAIS Lexis-Nexis Academic.
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  71. Issued by the New York Public Library for many years, this source provides nearly a century of indexing for many publications, including books and government documents, as well as periodical articles. Paper volumes began in 1914.
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  73. Staff College Automated Military Periodicals Index (SCAMPI).
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  75. Despite considerable overlap between this source and Air University Index to Military Periodicals, the index is useful for its brief summaries of many of the items included.
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  77. Military Contractors and Mercenary Forces
  78.  
  79. Although drawing a line between mercenaries and military contractors is often difficult, mercenaries can be defined as soldiers provided by private groups outside national military establishments. Contractor’s functions and contributions cover a wide span from purely support activities to security duties that may well resemble those of conventional armed forces. Contractors were hardly strangers to the battlefield, but, after the end of the military draft in the United States, they became an even more important military asset. Their deployment by the United States in its more recent wars and several widely publicized incidents brought them into the public spotlight, but many other countries use military contractors and some of them use mercenaries. Percy 2007 provides a long-term perspective for understanding current controversies and developments. Camm and Greenfield 2005 is a judicious examination of US Army employment of contractors in combat situations. Bruneau 2011 puts the complex issues into the context of civil-military relations in the United States. Scahill 2008 closely examines the highly controversial Blackwater firm. The issue of military contractors is beginning to extend beyond their use by sovereign states, as discussed exhaustively in Patterson 2009. Although much of the literature is critical of, or at least skeptical about, the use of military contractors, Carafano 2008 and its much more positive treatment may well be a sign that attitudes are changing. Ortiz 2010 supplements treatments of the history and current status of such organizations with documentary materials and a relatively current list of contractors. Hagedorn 2014 is severely critical of the failure to supervise military contractors adequately, but does recognize their services.
  80.  
  81. Bruneau, Thomas C. Patriots for Profit: Contractors and the Military in US National Security. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
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  83. Thoroughly current treatment is based on numerous interviews and other research. Bruneau is pessimistic about the ability of the US Congress and the Department of Defense to deal effectively with the contractor controversy.
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  85. Camm, Frank A., and Victoria A. Greenfield. How Should the Army Use Contractors on the Battlefield? Assessing Comparative Risk in Sourcing Decisions. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 2005.
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  87. Searching inquiry that is required reading for anyone concerned with the issues. A detailed bibliography is included.
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  89. Carafano, James Jay. Private Sector, Public Wars: Contractors in Combat: Afghanistan, Iraq, and Future Conflicts. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2008.
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  91. Vigorous defense of employment of military contractors by the United States, arguing that the nation really has no choice in the matter.
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  93. Hagedorn, Ann. The Invisible Soldiers: How America Outsourced Our Security. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014.
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  95. Uses official federal published materials and other sources to trace the rapid and significant growth of military contractors’ involvement in US military and political operations. She notes earlier and continuing British use of such contractors.
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  97. Ortiz, Carlos. Private Armed Forces and Global Security: A Guide to the Issues. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010.
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  99. Includes an impressive chapter that describes the activities, including humanitarian relief, of military contractors in combat situations. There is a brief, but useful, historical chapter.
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  101. Patterson, Malcolm Hugh. Privatising Peace: A Corporate Adjunct to United Nations Peacekeeping and Humanitarian Operations. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
  102. DOI: 10.1057/9780230246881Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103. Sophisticated analysis that includes rich documentation and an extensive, well-organized bibliography.
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  105. Percy, Sarah. Mercenaries: The History of a Norm in International Relations. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  106. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199214334.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  107. Emphasizes the stigma that has been attached to mercenaries, despite their persistent use in military operations. Percy includes useful historical case studies of the trend toward nonuse of mercenaries in the United States, France, Prussia, and Great Britain.
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  109. Scahill, Jeremy. Blackwater: The Rise of the World’s Most Powerful Mercenary Army. Rev. ed. New York: Nation Books, 2008.
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  111. Highly detailed, heavily documented exposé that is extremely critical of Blackwater and the use of the firm by the United States.
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  113. Proprietary Airlines
  114.  
  115. Such airlines, ostensibly civilian concerns, proved useful, especially to the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), during the Cold War, particularly in the Far East. After World War II, General Claire Chennault, an aviation adviser to the Chinese Nationalist government and founder of the American Volunteer Group (“the flying tigers”), established Civil Air Transport (CAT), which proved to be of significant assistance to the Nationalists following the renewal of the civil war in China in 1945. After the Chinese Communists had defeated the Nationalists in 1949, CAT faced a financial crisis. At that point, the CIA secretly invested in the company. A better-known example of CIA use of a civilian airline was Air America (AA), a successor to CAT. It went well beyond carrying personnel and freight for the CIA by executing combat missions in Laos. Leary 1984a is the preeminent study of the subject based on its full coverage. Leary 1984b discusses the origins of CAT and the beginnings of US involvement in its history. Kaufman 2005 describes, in detail, the development in the United States of a commitment to what was then Civil Air Transport. Journound 2010 fully covers the Indochina phase of CAT/AA activity. Robbins 1979 is especially valuable for its treatment of Air America operations in Laos. Czajkowski and Leary 2005 examines the final stage of Air America activity in Indochina.
  116.  
  117. Czajkowski, Anthony F., and William M. Leary. “Air America’s Final Flights.” MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History 17.3 (2005): 14–22.
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  119. Examines the humanitarian flights undertaken by Air America to bring many Vietnamese to safety from Saigon during the last days of the Vietnam War.
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  121. Journound, Pierre. “La Cat/Air America dans les guerres d’Indochine, ou le rôle d’une compagnie aérienne privée secrètement détenue par la CIA, 1950–1975.” Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporarains 238 (2010): 129–150.
  122. DOI: 10.3917/gmcc.238.0129Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  123. Excellent overview of CAT/AA operations during both the French and US periods of the Indochina conflict.
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  125. Kaufman, Victor S. “The United States, Britain and the CAT Controversy.” Journal of Contemporary History 40 (2005): 95–113.
  126. DOI: 10.1177/0022009405049268Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127. Describes efforts by Communist China and the United States to win legal control over CAT aircraft at Hong Kong after the Chinese Nationalist defeat by going through the colonial court. That court awarded custody of the numerous aircraft to Communist China, but the planes, nevertheless, went to the United States. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Leary, William M. “CAT at Dien Bien Phu.” Aerospace Historian 31 (1984a): 177–184.
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  131. Reviews CAT supply operations during the late winter and early spring of 1954 to assist French forces at Dien Bien Phu, which were surrounded by nationalist troops.
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  133. Leary, William M. Perilous Missions: Civil Air Transport and CIA Covert Operations in Asia. University: University of Alabama Press, 1984b.
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  135. Culmination of Leary’s continuing study of these significant CIA thrusts into post–World War II Asia.
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  137. Leary, William M., Jr., and William Stueck. “The Chennault Plan to Save China: US Containment in Asia and the Origins of the CIA’s Aerial Empire.” Diplomatic History 8.4 (1984): 349–364.
  138. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.1984.tb00416.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. Chennault’s “plan” was to use aircraft to aid anti-communist resistance fighters in China after the Nationalist defeat on the Chinese mainland. The CIA lacked confidence in the long-term viability of those forces and preferred to use CAT air assets in other parts of Asia.
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  141. Robbins, Christopher. Air America. New York: Putnam, 1979.
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  143. A popularly written work, this is, nevertheless, an important source due in large measure to interviews Robbins conducted with many participants.
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  145. Border Security Forces
  146.  
  147. A number of countries have maintained, or continue to maintain, border security forces of various kinds, often outside the confines of their military branches. Lobe and Morell 1978 describes the unusual role of the Border Patrol Police in Thailand, which for many years worked to forestall communist infiltration while expertly maneuvering within the extremely complicated and often changing political milieu of the country. Harris and Sadler 2004 discusses the often counterproductive efforts of the Texas Rangers to deal with the effects of the Mexican Revolution in the United States. Hernández 2010 shows how the US Border Patrol has moved from a general approach to border law enforcement to focusing on immigrants from Mexico, thereby changing traditional social and economic relations in the border area. Dunn 1996 supplements this treatment in highlighting the increasing use of military techniques and technology by the US Border Patrol. Grieves 1973 discusses a force that resulted from Cold War tensions in Germany, although it had antecedents in earlier border security organizations. Grandhagen 2004 examines a somewhat similar border force in the former German Democratic Republic, which grew to become one of the most ominous institutions of the governmental structure of that country. Support for the border forces and their role was hardly unanimous, even within the ranks of the border security personnel, as demonstrated in Sälter 2009. A more current topic is the possibility of a European-wide approach to border security, which is outlined in Monar 2006.
  148.  
  149. Dunn, Timothy J. The Militarization of the US-Mexico Border, 1978–1992: Low-Intensity Conflict Doctrine Comes Home. Austin: Center for Mexican-American Studies, University of Texas, 1996.
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  151. Examines the increasing involvement of the US armed forces in border security through their provision of training and many other forms of support to the US Border Patrol.
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  153. Grandhagen, Wolfgang. Von der Grenzpolizei zu den Grenztruppen der DDR. Berlin: Verlag am Park, 2004.
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  155. Thorough review of border security forces in the former German Democratic Republic during its entire history.
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  157. Grieves, Forest L. “Der Bundesgrenzschutz: Overlooked Strength?” Military Review 53 (February 1973): 53–56.
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  159. Succinct, but important, examination of this force that was originally conceived as a means for meeting possible small-scale incursions from the German Democratic Republic.
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  161. Harris, Charles H., III, and Louis R. Sadler. The Texas Rangers and the Mexican Revolution: The Bloodiest Decade, 1910–1920. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2004.
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  163. Traces the involvement of the Texas Rangers, a police structure with strong military roots, with border security issues. Useful, in part, because it provides insight into the conditions and attitudes prevalent just before the creation of the US Border Patrol.
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  165. Hernández, Kelly Lytle. Migra! A History of the US Border Patrol. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010.
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  167. Chronicles the development of the US Border Patrol primarily from the 1920s through the 1950s, but the book also includes an essential perspective on the patrol as it functions today.
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  169. Lobe, Thomas, and David Morell. “Thailand’s Border Patrol Police: Paramilitary Police Power.” In Supplementary Military Forces: Reserves, Militias, Auxiliaries. Edited by Louis A. Zurcher and Gwyn Harries-Jenkins, 153–178. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE, 1978.
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  171. Describes, in detail, the convoluted relationships of this police organization, including its substantial ties to the Central Intelligence Agency, and the various roles it fulfilled from the early 1950s through the late 1970s.
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  173. Monar, Joerg. “The Project of a European Border Guard: Origins, Models and Prospects in the Context of the EU’s Integrated External Border Management.” In Borders and Security Governance: Managing Borders in a Globalised World. Edited by Marina Caparini and Otwin Marenin, 193–208. Münster, Germany: LIT Verlag, 2006.
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  175. Impressive survey of all aspects of the planning undertaken for integrating border security within the European Union.
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  177. Sälter, Gerhard. Grenzpolizisten: Konformität, Verweigerung und Repression in der Grenzpolizei und den Grenztruppen der DDR, 1952–1965. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2009.
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  179. Massive study of unrest and its suppression within the border forces of the former German Democratic Republic.
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  181. Semi-Military Police
  182.  
  183. Paramilitary police have a degree of military capability that makes them different from civil police. This capability includes their training and their weapons and equipment. Their primary function is the same as civil police, however. They devote most of their time and energy to law enforcement, with a limited commitment to suppressing politically motivated activities. Semi-military police operate as individuals or small patrols, although they can be, and not infrequently are, assembled in larger numbers to undertake combat missions similar to those usually assigned to the national army or militias. In such instances, they may work closely with conventional military organizations. Beede 2008 offers a typology of police organizations that highlights semi-military and militarized police organizations. One of the key studies of paramilitary policing is Emsley 1999, which presents gendarmerie forces as having been gradually superseded by the newer model of “civil policing” represented by the British police. Jeffries 1952 is now valuable as an institutional history. The view in Emsley 1999 is tacitly disputed in Lutterbeck 2004, which argues that contemporary security challenges are inducing more robust policing. Miquel 1990 is an exceptionally detailed history of a gendarmerie, which carefully defines the military and law enforcement roles of such a force. Semi-military police were frequently employed by the old colonial empires, especially by the British. The Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) has often been interpreted as a model for the many other seemingly similar forces established in British possessions, although some authorities have disputed assertions that the RIC was a model for colonial police organizations. O’Sullivan 1999 is a remarkably impartial treatment of the RIC. Bowden 1977 usefully compares the RIC to the Palestine Police, which many former RIC men joined in the 1920s. Perito 2013 is a searching examination of the security problems experienced by the United States during a number of peacekeeping operations.
  184.  
  185. Beede, Benjamin R. “The Roles of Paramilitary and Militarized Police.” Journal of Political and Military Sociology 36.1 (2008): 53–63.
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  187. Analyzes a number of types of police organizations and their functions and explains in some detail the meaning of the often confusing phrase “paramilitary police.”
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  189. Bowden, Tom. The Breakdown of Public Security: The Case of Ireland, 1916–1921, and Palestine, 1936–1939. London: SAGE, 1977.
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  191. In addition to offering case studies of the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and the Palestine Police, Bowden discusses the nature of semi-military policing in chapter 7. He also, quite rightly, highlights the importance of adequate intelligence for semi-military police operations.
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  193. Emsley, Clive. Gendarmes and the State in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  194. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198207986.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Classic discussion of semi-military police organizations. Emsley interprets them as having undergone a gradual decline.
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  197. Jeffries, Charles Joseph. The Colonial Police. London: Parrish, 1952.
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  199. Dry administrative study, but, nevertheless, essential for its coverage of the varied colonial police establishments and their evolution.
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  201. Lutterbeck, Derek. “Between Police and Military: The New Security Agenda and the Rise of Gendarmeries.” Cooperation and Conflict 39 (2004): 45–68.
  202. DOI: 10.1177/0010836704040832Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  203. Cogent argument that semi-military police organizations are regaining their significance in view of new transnational problems, such as illegal immigration and the need for suitable security forces as part of international peacekeeping operations. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  205. Miquel, Pierre. Les gendarmes. Paris: Olivier Orban, 1990.
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  207. Massive, painstaking investigation of the history of the French gendarmerie, which examines every aspect of the force and, equally important, of its members and even their families.
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  209. O’Sullivan, Donal J. The Irish Constabularies 1822–1922: A Century of Policing in Ireland. Kerry, Ireland: Brandon, 1999.
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  211. Thorough study of semi-military policing in Ireland, which includes some material on post-1922 developments.
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  213. Perito, Robert Where Is the Lone Ranger? America’s Search for a Stability Force. 2d ed. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2013.
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  215. Effectively demonstrates the difficulties that the US military forces have encountered in more recent peacekeeping efforts. Perito provides a detailed plan for US development of the kind of security force, similar to a European constabulary or gendarmerie, that is needed to replace troops in such situations.
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  217. Militarized Police
  218.  
  219. Militarized police organizations have been established largely to keep the military out of confrontations with the civil populace, not to perform ordinary law enforcement duties. Militarized police may serve as riot forces that are specially trained to manage crowd control without the use of excessive violence. Other militarized police may constitute “field forces,” which are components of civil or semi-military police organizations, employed primarily for combating guerrillas or, in some instances, for use in riot situations. Hill 1989 provides a detailed treatment of one such “field force.” Finally, militarized police can be deployed openly with the armed forces. Probably no other country has used militarized police as much as Germany did during World War II, a story told in Westermann 2005. Tessin, et al. 2000 provides extensive organizational background material on those German formations. Despite the number of works touching upon the police reinforcements sent to Ireland in 1920–1921, Leeson 2011 is an advanced study of these highly controversial police and their operations significantly. Despite joining a civil police structure, these reinforcements went to Ireland essentially for military duties. India, too, has employed numerous militarized police formations. Subramanian 2007 is a worthwhile introduction to the subject, and Khalidi 2003 focuses specifically on recruitment patterns within these formations and on how the operations of the security forces have been influenced by those patterns. Singh 2005 is one of the rare studies of women in a militarized police organization. A large literature is available that covers the subject of special weapons and tactics teams and similar organizations in the United States. Most studies endorse the teams, but Fisher 2010 is a detailed study of the many problems that can result from what the author views as their indiscriminate employment.
  220.  
  221. Fisher, Jim. SWAT Madness and the Militarization of the American Police. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2010.
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  223. Thoroughgoing attack on the use of special weapons and tactics teams by police forces in the United States. Fisher provides numerous case studies of raids by such teams and includes extensive references to each incident.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Hill, Richard. The Colonial Frontier Tamed: New Zealand Policing in Transition, 1867–1886. Wellington, New Zealand: GP Books, 1989.
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  227. Hill’s study is part of a larger series of books under the title The History of Policing in New Zealand, which is, perhaps, the most complete analysis of police development in any country. This volume is especially important because it discusses the development of a militarized component within the New Zealand police structure.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Khalidi, Omar. Khaki and the Ethnic Violence in India: Army, Police and Paramilitary Forces during Communal Riots. New Delhi: Three Essays Collective, 2003.
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  231. Describes the functions of numerous Indian security forces and provides important analyses of the ethnic composition of the armed forces and other security elements in relation to their behavior in the course of suppressing riots.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Leeson, D. M. The Black and Tans: British Police and Auxiliaries in the Irish War of Independence, 1920–1921. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  234. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199598991.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  235. Using archival materials and extensive statistical analysis, the author destroys many myths about these police reinforcements, although he also shows that they were as brutal and dysfunctional as had been portrayed in earlier works.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Singh, Santosh. Combatant Women: The Ultimate Warriors. Jaipur, India: RBSA, 2005.
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  239. Presents the results of a study of women members of the Central Reserve Police Force of India that was carried out between 1996 and 1998 and again between 2000 and 2002.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Subramanian, K. S. Political Violence and the Police in India. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2007.
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  243. Examines the extensive use of what amount to militarized police formations in various sections of India. Chapter 4 is of special importance owing to the explanation it provides of different components of India’s security forces.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Tessin, Georg, Norbert Kannapin, and Brün Meyer. Waffen-SS und Ordnungspolizei im Kriegseinsatz, 1939–1945: Ein Überblick anhand der Feldpostübersicht. Osnabrück, Germany: Biblio, 2000.
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247. Offers an extensive description of the structure of German police formations committed to wartime service.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Westermann, Edward B. Hitler’s Police Battalions: Enforcing Racial War in the East. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005.
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  251. Thorough examination of the use of German police, including many foreign volunteers, in counterguerrilla campaigns in eastern Europe.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Combined Police/Military Organizations
  254.  
  255. The best-known examples of such forces are the constabularies established in several Caribbean countries while they were occupied by US military forces in the early 20th century. Some civilian and military leaders in the United States came to the conclusion that combined law enforcement/military forces should replace the overly large, expensive, and poorly administered and led armies in such countries as Haiti and Nicaragua. The first experiment was made in Cuba, when a Guardia Rural was initiated during the first US occupation in 1898–1902. The Guardia Rural, however, did not acquit itself well when a revolt broke out that led to the reoccupation of Cuba by the United States between 1906 and 1909. The Guardia Rural was retained, but a Cuban army was also constituted. A more uniform set of events occurred in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua. Constabularies were instituted, and, despite limited financing, they slowly evolved under the tutelage of the marines, who provided officers for them. The concept of a nonpartisan, professional force in these countries seems to have paralleled somewhat similar experiments in the United States, where state police forces were instituted, in part, to keep the army and the National Guard out of management-labor conflicts. In the Caribbean countries, once US forces and advisers had been withdrawn, the leaders of the constabularies assumed control of their countries. Their rule was tyrannical and long-lived. They provided political stability, but they generally did little to advance the standard of living and did even less to initiate moves toward democratization of the political system. Goldwert 1962 is the first monograph to examine in any detail some of the constabularies that the United States imposed on several countries in the Caribbean area. McCrocklin 1956 is another institutional study that supplies essential information, although it provides little analysis of events. Millett 1977 is a major study of the way in which one of the constabularies dominated the country where it was established. Macaulay 1985 is a superb history of a long guerrilla campaign and the development of a combined police-military formation to combat the insurgents. Schmidt 1971 and Calder 1984 are similar studies for Haiti and the Dominican Republic, respectively. Munro 1964 is essential for understanding US policy toward the Caribbean area, including Washington’s aim to reconstruct the internal security structures of a number of countries. Keyser 1926 is a contemporary account, from the perspective of the marines, of a step in the long-term US campaign to eliminate many of the armies of countries in the Caribbean area.
  256.  
  257. Calder, Bruce J. The Impact of Intervention: The Dominican Republic during the US Occupation of 1916–1924. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1984.
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  259. No other book, whether in Spanish or in English, approaches the coverage or the excellence of this monograph. Calder provides more material on the constabulary in the Dominican Republic than Macaulay 1985 (originally published in 1967) and Schmidt 1971 do for similar forces in the countries they discuss.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Goldwert, Marvin. The Constabulary in the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua: Progeny and Legacy of United States Intervention. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1962.
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  263. Although not a particularly analytical work, this study continues to be a useful source of information.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Keyser, Ralph Stover. “Constabularies for Central America.” Marine Corps Gazette 11.6 (1926): 87–97.
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  267. While emphasizing the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua, Stover provides an informative survey of the US State Department’s determined effort to replace national armies in Central America with constabularies.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Macaulay, Neill. The Sandino Affair. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1985.
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  271. Thorough examination of the conflict between the US and Nicaraguan insurgents in the 1920s and early 1930s, which proved to be the catalyst for the establishment of the Somosa regime. Originally published in 1967.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. McCrocklin, James H. Garde d’Haiti, 1915–1934. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute, 1956.
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  275. Formal institutional study that provides much useful material about the force and its contributions to the occupation regime. Relatively little is said about the military campaigns and the controversies that surrounded this US intervention.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Millett, Richard. Guardians of the Dynasty: A History of the US Created Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua and the Somosa Family. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1977.
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  279. Covers the whole history of the force up until the last days of rule by the Somosas. Millett was highly critical of the role that it played for decades.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Munro, Dana G. Intervention and Dollar Diplomacy in the Caribbean, 1900–1921. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964.
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  283. Scholarly treatment that is invaluable for providing insight into the US State Department’s perception of security problems in various countries around the Caribbean and its consequent decision to press their governments to establish constabularies.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Schmidt, Hans. The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1971.
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  287. Careful study that does not neglect French-language sources for the story of the occupation. This volume is necessary reading to put material from McCrocklin 1956 into perspective.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Police as Covert or Embryonic Armies
  290.  
  291. In some Third World countries, including a number of former British colonies, police forces evolved into armies. Prior to World War I, for example, a gendarmerie operated by the Persian government was established that became part of the Persian army in 1921, a story recorded in Cronin 1996. Lunt 1999 describes the conversion of the Arab Legion, based in Jordan, into a military organization by the British. Sometimes, police organizations have been interim arrangements intended to cloak the development of armed forces in situations in which they were prohibited by international agreements. Tessin 1974 describes elements of the German police that became part of the German army after Hitler disavowed restrictions imposed on the German armed forces by the Treaty of Versailles. The West built armies in the guise of police organizations in Austria, Japan, and Korea after World War II, as described, respectively, in Carafano 2002, Maeda 1995, and Millett 2005. The Soviets and East German authorities followed a similar course in what became the former German Democratic Republic, as reviewed in Diedrich 2001.
  292.  
  293. Carafano, James Jay. Waltzing into the Cold War: The Struggle for Occupied Austria. College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2002.
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  295. Chapter 9 discusses the development of the Austrian constabulary as an interim army before the Austrian State Treaty and the removal of Allied occupation forces permitted open establishment of an army.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Cronin, Stephanie. “An Experiment in Military Modernization: Constitutionalism, Political Reform and the Iranian Gendarmerie, 1910–1921.” Middle Eastern Studies 32.3 (July 1996): 106–138.
  298. DOI: 10.1080/00263209608701121Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Skillfully follows the tortuous history of the force and the political associations and aspirations of its members. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Diedrich, Torsten. Die getarnte Armee: Geschichte der Kasernierten Volkspolizei der DDR, 1952 bis 1956. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag, 2001.
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  303. Hugely detailed treatise that treats the steady progression of the Volkspolizei to a more military role and, finally, to its formal establishment as the army of the German Democratic Republic.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Lunt, James D. The Arab Legion. London: Constable, 1999.
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  307. First-hand account of the evolution of the legion from police work to military service during World War II. Chapter 8, “The Making of an Army,” is especially important in this regard.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Maeda, Tetsuo. The Hidden Army: The Untold Story of Japan’s Military Forces. Chicago: Edition q, 1995.
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  311. The post–World War II Japanese army began as the National Police Reserve, a development narrated in Part 1. Significant space is devoted to the ways the Allies and the Japanese dealt with problems arising from the need to move away from Japanese military traditions and yet employ some World War II veterans.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Millett, Allan R. The War for Korea, 1945–1950: A House Burning. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2005.
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  315. Provides a complete examination of the successful efforts of the United States to develop a Korean army, which initially functioned as a constabulary.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Tessin, Georg. Deutsche Verbände und Truppen, 1918–1939. Osnabrück, Germany: Biblio Verlag, 1974.
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  319. Discusses the inclusion of some elements of the German police structure in the army during the mid-1930s.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Paramilitary Organizations
  322.  
  323. Paramilitary organizations, often referred to simply as “paramilitaries,” are a complex phenomenon that has assumed an important role in a number of societies during the last few decades of the 20th century into the beginning of the 21st century. Paramilitaries receive support from political and economic elites to assist in preserving the status of those elites. They may arise through the devolution of roles from the government or they come about as the result of the weakening of state authority, forcing elites to cultivate alternative or supplementary structures in order to maintain their advantageous positions. They are, perhaps, most closely associated with Latin American countries, but they exist in many nations. In a sense, they resemble guerrilla bands; however, instead of rebelling against a regime, they support it through the use of political mobilization methods, including propaganda, and violence, often of a clandestine character. Owing to their extensive use of violence, they are frequently characterized as “death squads.” Mazzei 2009 has become the leading theoretical study of paramilitaries. Campbell’s introductory chapter in Campbell and Brenner 2000 is a penetrating analysis that is especially valuable because of the large number of references included. Klare 2004 examines paramilitary forces from a broad political perspective and, further, asserts that international arms sales are a major factor in contributing to the persistence of paramilitary groups. The author argues eloquently for much greater controls over the arms trade. Hristov 2009 can be read usefully with Klare 2004. Payne 2000 discusses a category of rightist groups that use both violence and open political action to achieve their goals, which are generally aimed at shaping public policy rather than effecting regime change. Wood 2006 probes the highly complicated story of one of the most prominent loyalist paramilitaries in Northern Ireland, the Ulster Defence Association. Sluka 2000 analyzes the widespread existence of paramilitaries in both democratic and nondemocratic societies. Bedoya 2013 is a searching analysis of paramilitaries that have undertaken both illegal and legitimate lines of economic activity in Colombia.
  324.  
  325. Bedoya, Jairo. “Ni mercaderes, ni padrinos: A la búsqueda de un concepto para comprender los grupos tipo mafia surgidos en Medellín.” In Paz, paso a paso: Una mirada a los conflictos colombianos desde los estudios de paz. Edited by José Fernando Serrano Amaya and Adam Baird, 195–216. Bogotá: Editorial Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, 2013.
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  327. Shows how such groups, after their association with the narcotic traffic, expanded to provide “protection” in various contexts.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Campbell, Bruce B., and Arthur D. Brenner, eds. Death Squads in Global Perspective: Murder with Deniability. New York: St. Martin’s, 2000.
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  331. Wide-ranging survey of death squads in various countries in diverse political situations.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Hristov, Jasmin. Blood and Capital: The Paramilitarization of Colombia. Athens, OH: Ohio State University Press, 2009.
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  335. Penetrating analysis of paramilitary institutions in Colombia and the processes through which they evolved. Hristov is uncompromisingly critical of US support for the Colombian government and, thus, the paramilitaries.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Klare, Michael T. “The Deadly Connection: Paramilitary Bands, Small Arms Diffusion, and State Failure.” In When States Fail: Causes and Consequences. Edited by Robert I. Rothberg, 116–134. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
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  339. Describes the emergence of paramilitary forces in the contexts of the process of state failure and of the widespread trade in small arms.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Mazzei, Julie. Death Squads or Self-Defense Forces? How Paramilitary Groups Emerge and Challenge Democracy in Latin America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
  342. DOI: 10.5149/9780807898611_mazzeiSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Using material from case studies of paramilitaries in Colombia, El Salvador, and Mexico, Mazzei has skillfully developed a theory of how and why economic, political, and military leaders come to foster paramilitaries in specific circumstances. She also shows how foreign influence can discourage the continuance of paramilitaries.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Payne, Leigh A. Uncivil Movements: The Armed Right Wing and Democracy in Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
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  347. Payne has made substantial contributions to the analysis of rightist groups through her case studies of Argentina, Brazil, and Nicaragua. Those contributions include her skillful examination of the ways certain groups in those countries have tried to distinguish themselves from earlier right-wing organizations.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Sluka, Jeffrey A., ed. Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
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  351. The anthropologists who wrote chapters in this work dealing with societies in all areas of the world deftly discuss general patterns and the developments that have been specific to particular countries and regions within countries. They rightly refuse, moreover, to legitimate state violence as necessary to maintain order.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Wood, Ian S. Crimes of Loyalty: A History of the UDA. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006.
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  355. This detailed examination of the political and military facets of loyalist paramilitarism in Northern Ireland is based on many significant materials, including discussions with some of the principal leaders of the Ulster Defence Association. The text is enhanced by a section of brief biographies and a twenty-page chronology, 1966–2004.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Guerrillas
  358.  
  359. The numerous guerrilla groups that have existed, or continue to exist, vary greatly in their military capability. Many are free-standing forces that enjoy little support internationally, but others have fought in close cooperation with conventional military armies. Brooker 2010 packs a great deal of information into a short book, making the volume probably the most useful current introduction to the subject. Munck and de Silva 2000 is also a sophisticated, illuminating treatment. Beals 1970 remains current because the examples set by many of the guerrillas the author studies still influence insurgents struggling today. Kruijt 2008, in part, usefully updates Beals 1970. Prieto 2007, nevertheless, is the best overview of guerrilla warfare in Latin America. Lanning and Cragg 1992 is vital for understanding the Vietnam War. Grenier 2005 has moved the ongoing debate among military historians about the extent to which the United States has developed a unique method of waging war from an emphasis on technology and industrial production to one that stresses strategy and tactics. Veuthey 1976 explores the highly complex legal issues associated with guerrillas and the methods used by them and by their opponents.
  360.  
  361. Beals, Carleton. Great Guerrilla Warriors. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1970.
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  363. This is a highly readable, sympathetic account of numerous guerrilla leaders by a renowned journalist and critic of imperialism. Beals had personal contacts with several of the guerrillas for whom he provides biographies.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Brooker, Paul. Modern Stateless Warfare. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  366. DOI: 10.1057/9780230274761Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. Thoroughly up-to-date treatment that also discusses the history of guerrilla insurgency. The book is full of valuable insights, such as Brooker’s comparison of guerrilla operations with air warfare.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Grenier, John. The First Way of War: American War Making on the Frontier, 1607–1814. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  370. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511817847Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Argues that English colonists and, later, US citizens gradually adapted to fighting Native Americans by establishing ranger forces that used surprise attacks on their opponents’ infrastructure and by employing tactics that did not spare noncombatants. This ruthless approach, originally influenced by the nature of European religious wars, helped shape US conduct of operations in later conflicts.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Kruijt, Dirk. Guerrillas: War and Peace in Central America. London: Zed Books, 2008.
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  375. Generally sympathetic to many guerrillas, the book is also a scholarly study. Kruijt emphasizes the roles of guerrilla leaders and bases his work heavily on his interviews with many contemporary commanders.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Lanning, Michael Lee, and Dan Cragg. Inside the VC and the NVA: The Real Story of North Vietnam’s Armed Forces. New York: Fawcett Columbine, 1992.
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  379. This classic study remains unmatched for its detailed treatment. The authors give much emphasis to the experiences of individual members of the Vietcong.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Munck, Ronaldo, and Purnaka L. de Silva, eds. Postmodern Insurgencies: Political Violence, Identity Formation, and Peacemaking in Comparative Perspective. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
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  383. Consists largely of case studies of conflicts in various nations, but it also includes chapters on gender, Islam, and possible techniques for ending conflicts. Extensive references and important bibliographies are included.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Prieto, Alberto. Las guerrillas contemporáneas en América Latina. Mexico City: Ocean Sur, 2007.
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  387. Demonstrates the impact of “Che” Guevara’s thinking on past and contemporary guerrillas. Prieto provides wide coverage of the situation in Latin America.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Veuthey, Michel. Guérilla et droit humanitaire. Geneva, Switzerland: Institut Henri-Dunant, 1976.
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  391. Richly documented and splendidly organized treatment of the legal facets of guerrilla warfare. Veuthey includes useful historical information, but his emphasis is on World War II and, even more, on developments after World War II into the 1970s.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Anti-Colonial Struggles
  394.  
  395. Bell 1976 usefully studies a number of independence campaigns in the British Empire. Bell 2000 reflects the application of the author’s encyclopedic knowledge of guerrilla movements to a case study. Galvin 1989 discusses the initial fighting in the Revolutionary War, thereby demonstrating that the Minutemen were more experienced in military matters and considerably better organized than usually assumed. Gann and Henriksen 1981 focuses on the protracted war in what was Northern Rhodesia. Edgerton 2002 is, in good part, a scholarly tribute to the sub-Saharan Africans who contested invasions by Europeans. Starkey 1998 supplies a great deal of information in a small volume, and, in so doing, the author shatters many myths about colonial struggles in British North America. The Philippine-American War (1899–c. 1902) has received well-deserved attention in recent decades, and Mojares 1999 is a significant contribution to the literature. Maloba 1993 analyzes a colonial struggle that has received renewed attention within recent years and makes useful comparisons between events in Kenya and the situations in Malaya, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe.
  396.  
  397. Bell, J. Bowyer. On Revolt: Strategies of National Liberation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976.
  398. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674733381Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Focuses on post–World War II independence struggles in British-controlled areas, such as Egypt, Malaya, and Cyprus. Bell presents much valuable material on the strategies and tactics of those guerrilla campaigns.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Bell, J. Bowyer. The IRA 1968–2000: Analysis of a Secret Army. London: Frank Cass, 2000.
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  403. Bell covers seemingly every aspect of the IRA and its several offshoots. His analysis is supplemented by a brief, dated, but, nevertheless, important survey of the huge literature on the IRA and Northern Ireland.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Edgerton, Robert B. Africa’s Armies: From Honor to Infamy: A History from 1791 to the Present. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2002.
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  407. Readable and thoroughly documented account of African forces in a variety of conflicts, ranging from initial efforts to combat European imperialists to the widespread involvement of armies in African politics. Edgerton offers some prescriptions for reducing military interference with political processes.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Galvin, John R. The Minutemen: The First Fight: Myths and Realities of the American Revolution. 2d ed. Washington, DC: Pergamon-Brassey’s, 1989.
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  411. Describes the extensive development of the Minutemen as relations between the colonists and Great Britain deteriorated. Minutemen, many of them veterans of the French and Indian War, were relatively well trained and equipped for combat with the British.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Gann, Lewis H., and Thomas H. Henriksen. The Struggle for Zimbabwe: Battle in the Bush. New York: Praeger, 1981.
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  415. Well-documented discussion of the war from both African and white perspectives. The authors argued that the economic impacts of the insurgency and counterinsurgency finally undermined white power.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Maloba, Wunyabari O. Mau Mau and Kenya: An Analysis of a Peasant Revolt. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993.
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  419. Usefully includes not only much on the economic background to the political aspects of the uprising, but also discusses, rather precisely, Mau Mau political strategy and both military strategy and tactics.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Mojares, Resil B. The War against the Americans: Resistance and Collaboration in Cebu, 1899–1906. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de Manila University Press, 1999.
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  423. Probing analysis of the Philippine nationalist movement in a major segment of the island nation based on intensive research both in the Philippines and in the United States.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Starkey, Armstrong. European and Native American Warfare, 1675–1815. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
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  427. Incisive analysis of the two modes of warfare that demonstrates the superiority of Native American tactics and the long-time inability of European invaders to match their opponents’ skills.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Operations in Conjunction with Conventional Military Forces
  430.  
  431. Operations in conjunction with conventional military forces have occurred frequently in history. An early-19th-century example is the Peninsular War against Napoleon in Spain during which British, Spanish, and Portuguese troops were assisted by Spanish guerrillas. Much use was made of guerrillas during World War II, primarily by the Allies. The Soviets used partisans in their own country and in many areas of eastern Europe and the Balkans. Biddiscombe 1998 illustrates the significance of a movement that had been dismissed previously. Kuisong 2011 analyzes the differences between the approaches employed by the Chinese Nationalists and the Chinese Communists against the Japanese. Esdaile 2004 is an impressive study of one of the best-known examples of a guerrilla campaign. Finley 1994 is a pioneering study of another sequence of events with some similarities to those in Spain. Grenkevich 1999 expertly puts the Soviet partisan movement into the historiography of guerrilla warfare. Hill 2005 is a shorter but, nevertheless, worthwhile study that interprets the partisan movement as having strengthened the Stalinist regime. Musial 2009 deals primarily with White Russia, which he believes to have been the most important area for Soviet partisan operations. Reynolds 2005 analyzes in extreme detail the effort by the US Office of Strategic Services to penetrate Thailand, an ally of Japan during World War II, largely for intelligence purposes.
  432.  
  433. Biddiscombe, Alexander Perry. Werwolf! The History of the National Socialist Guerrilla Movement, 1944–1946. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998.
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  435. Comprehensive treatment of Nazi efforts to attack Allied forces that advanced into, and finally occupied, Germany.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Esdaile, Charles J. Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits and Adventurers in Spain, 1808–1814. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2004.
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  439. Generally judicious assessment of the significance of the guerrilla war in Spain based on a seemingly comprehensive use of manuscript collections in Spain and Britain. Esdaile’s “Conclusion” is a searching discussion of its historiography. The author’s utter misinterpretation of the findings in Finley 1994 is a decidedly disturbing note, however.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Finley, Milton. The Most Monstrous of Wars: The Napoleonic Guerrilla War in Southern Italy, 1806–1811. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1994.
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  443. Highly focused monograph that argues the British lost an opportunity by failing to support the Italian partisans adequately. Finley provides some helpful comparisons between guerrilla warfare in southern Italy and Spain. The narrative is enhanced by outstanding maps.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Grenkevich, Leonid D. The Soviet Partisan Movement, 1941–1944: A Critical Historiographical Analysis. London: Frank Cass, 1999.
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  447. Stresses the importance of the partisan contribution and the degree of coordination and cooperation between guerrillas and conventional Soviet forces.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Hill, Alexander. The War behind the Eastern Front: The Soviet Partisan Movement in North-West Russia, 1941–1944. London: Frank Cass, 2005.
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  451. Covers the political and social aspects of the partisan effort in perhaps even greater detail than Musial 2009. Hill notes the significant numbers of partisans who had been members of the Soviet armed forces before becoming guerrillas, a factor that increased the effectiveness of the guerrilla units.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Kuisong, Yang. “Nationalist and Communist Guerrilla Warfare in North China.” In The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945. Edited by Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven, 308–327. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
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  455. Skillful comparative study that shows the Nationalists failed completely at the same time that the Communists greatly expanded their forces and their effectiveness.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Musial, Bodgan. Sowjetische Partisanen, 1941–1944: Mythos und Wirklichkeit. Paderborn, Germany: Schöningh, 2009.
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  459. Focusing largely on White Russia, Grenkevich devotes a section of his book to the social history of the Soviet partisan war and elsewhere in this study, which discusses the roles of Jews and Poles.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Reynolds, E. Bruce. Thailand’s Secret War: The Free Thai, OSS, and SOE during World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  462. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497360Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Heavily based on archival sources, this massive study shows how the United States built a lasting relationship with Thailand that aided the United States materially in its endeavor to maintain security in Southeast Asia after 1945.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Civil Wars
  466.  
  467. Guerrilla operations often constitute elements in civil wars. A subject relatively neglected for decades, guerrilla forces in the Civil War in the United States between 1861 and 1865 have received significant scholarly attention only within the past few decades. Fellman 1989 is a seminal work focusing on a resolutely contested state. Sutherland 2009 is another study of critical importance for anyone interested in guerrillas in a US context. Although Civil War–era guerrillas, or “partisans” as they were generally known, tend to be linked with the Confederacy, numerous pro-Union guerrilla bands could be found in the southern states. Inscoe and McKinney 2000 includes rich material on this subject in one state. Jones 1989 provides a vivid picture of political attitudes and living conditions among one relatively recent guerrilla uprising, largely through extensive interviews with participants. The Philippine guerrilla experience can be compared usefully with the findings in Schubert 2006. Whaley 1969 demonstrates the influence of Soviet advisers on the conduct of the Spanish Civil War by the Spanish government. Kissane 2005 is a political study that is indispensable for understanding the nature of a conflict that broke out at the time that the national independence of Ireland was largely achieved. Like Whaley 1969, Kissane 2005 devotes due attention to the role of foreign involvement in a conflict.
  468.  
  469. Fellman, Michael. Inside War: The Guerrilla Conflict in Missouri during the American Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
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  471. Brilliantly sets the stage for a discussion of the guerrilla campaigns through careful examination of economic, social, and political patterns in Missouri on the eve of the Civil War.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Hopkinson, Michael. Green against Green: The Irish Civil War. New York: St. Martin’s, 1988.
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  475. Drawing largely on archival research, Hopkinson’s book remains the best study of the war in both its conventional and its guerrilla periods. The author considers all aspects of the conflict. Hopkinson carefully noted the problems of writing about the civil war and the factors limiting access to many archival sources.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Inscoe, John C., and Gordon B. McKinney. The Heart of Confederate Appalachia: Western North Carolina in the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
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  479. Like Fellman 1989, these authors use political, social, and economic data skillfully to discuss the background of guerrilla conflict.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Jones, Gregg R. Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1989.
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  483. Provides a good sense of political attitudes and living conditions among the guerrilla bands discussed. As a long-time observer, Jones conducted many interviews with communist leaders during the 1980s.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Kissane, Bill. The Politics of the Irish Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  486. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199273553.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Searching discussion of the reasons for the war in a work that also deals with the guerrilla campaign at some length. Chapter 5 is of special importance owing to Kissane’s effort to explain why the conflict was protracted.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Schubert, Frank. “‘Guerrillas Don’t Die Easily’: Everyday Life in Wartime and the Guerrilla Myth in the National Resistance Army in Uganda, 1981–1986.” International Review of Social History 51 (2006): 93–111.
  490. DOI: 10.1017/S0020859005002348Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Illuminating examination of the guerrilla experience in Uganda. The narratives of rank-and-file guerrillas differ markedly from the portrayal of the war by the victorious National Resistance Army’s elite. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Sutherland, Daniel E. A Savage Conflict: The Decisive Role of Guerrillas in the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009.
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  495. This is an authoritative treatment that is based on a massive amount of research in manuscript collections. Sutherland’s bibliography appears to be comprehensive.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Whaley, Barton. Guerrillas in the Spanish Civil War. Cambridge: Center for International Studies, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1969.
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  499. Despite the recent publication of several Spanish-language studies, this continues to be the most useful research, partly because of its discussion of the reasons the Spanish government did not want to initiate general guerrilla operations. The book is limited somewhat by its failure to carry the story of guerrilla operations much beyond the official end of the war in 1939.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Political and Religious Militias
  502.  
  503. Militia is used in this section to denote forces that are mostly outside the governmental sphere and, thus, are not national armed forces reserves. Today, militias are found largely in areas outside Europe, and they function to protect ethnic or religious groups. They have not been exclusively a feature of authoritarian parties. Grinspan 2009 offers a thorough examination of a very early political party militia that supported the Republican Party but alarmed southern extremists. Although it discusses neither a religious nor, strictly speaking, a political militia, Seymour 2012 merits attention for its depiction of a military body that originated because of the reluctance of the Quaker rulers of Pennsylvania to provide protection to the colony. Bowman 2007 is another study of a militia that developed in a democratic polity, although it had the avowed aim of defying the British Parliament if that body gave Ireland home rule. Reichardt 2002 is a groundbreaking comparative study of party militias associated with the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy. Diehl 1977 is one of the few studies that treats a number of semi-military groups in a single country. Gayer and Jaffrelot 2009 is an essential collection of studies of movements that, although relatively little known in Europe and the United States, often engage in conflicts of significant proportions. Like Gayer and Jaffrelot 2009, Francis 2005 is a highly important survey of militias in one area of the world. Wehrey, et al. 2009 is a careful examination of a religious militia that is of continuing importance in Iran as well as of concern to the outside world. Alden, et al. 2011 investigates the problems of disarming militias and ensuring at the same time that civilian populations have a thorough sense of security, despite losing their own protective forces.
  504.  
  505. Alden, Chris, Monika Thakur, and Matthew Arnold. Militias and the Challenges of Post-Conflict Peace: Silencing the Guns. London: Zed Books, 2011.
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  507. Focuses on the militias in Afghanistan, the Congo, South Sudan, and Timor-Leste, although other groups are discussed. The authors conducted numerous interviews in the countries studied.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Bowman, Timothy. Carson’s Army: The Ulster Volunteer Force, 1910–22. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2007.
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  511. First major study of an important, but previously neglected, organization. The author draws on in-depth research into the military aspects of the militia, but he also places the force in the context of Irish politics and the home rule crisis shortly before World War I.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Diehl, James M. Paramilitary Politics in Weimar Germany. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1977.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. Provides succinct, but authoritative, discussions of all the many semi-military groups that existed in Germany between the end of World War I and the appointment of Hitler as chancellor in 1933, and their relationships with political parties.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Francis, David J., ed. Civil Militia: Africa’s Intractable Security Menace? Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Offers numerous, thoroughly researched, current case studies, along with several segments providing theoretical perspectives, that make this essential reading. Like various other works included in this section, this volume would have benefited from comparative references to militias in other continents.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Gayer, Laurent, and Christophe Jaffrelot, eds. Armed Militias of South Asia: Fundamentalists, Maoists and Separatists. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
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  523. Provides searching analyses of a large number of militias. The articles include extensive bibliographies and extremely detailed footnotes. The work suffers somewhat, though, because it does not compare militias of the area with seemingly similar groups in other parts of the world.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Grinspan, Jon. “‘Young Men for War’: The Wide Awakes and Lincoln’s 1860 Presidential Campaign.” Journal of American History 96 (2009): 357–378.
  526. DOI: 10.1093/jahist/96.2.357Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Presents concise but thorough research on a relatively little-studied element of the Republican Party that was important in mobilizing public opinion and enlistments behind Lincoln’s efforts to preserve the union in 1861.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Reichardt, Sven. Faschistische Kampfbünde: Gewalt und Gemeinschaft im italienischen Squadrisimus und in der deutschen SA. Cologne: Böhlau, 2002.
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  531. Massive, genuinely comparative, study that appears to examine every aspect of the subject, including gender issues. The extensive bibliography is valuable in itself.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Seymour, Joseph. The Pennsylvania Associators, 1747–1777. Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2012.
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  535. For decades, the Pennsylvania Associators filled a gap in colonial defense owing to the absence of a Pennsylvania militia, and at the beginning of the American Revolution, they formed the basis for a Pennsylvania contribution to the Continental Army. Some members, moreover, served outside Pennsylvania during the colonial wars.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Wehrey, Frederic, Jerrold D. Green, Brian Nichiporuk, et al. The Rise of the Pasdaran: Assessing the Domestic Roles of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps. Santa Monica, CA: RAND National Defense Research Institute, 2009.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Views the Pasdaran as a multifaceted organization that permeates Iranian society in order to prevent what it considers undesirable change.
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