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Baldesarre Castiglione

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  1. ntroduction
  2.  
  3. The reputation of Baldassarre Castiglione (b. 1478–d. 1529) rests on a single work, The Book of the Courtier, published in 1528. It was widely acclaimed and served as a model for civilized and polished behavior, both during the Renaissance and afterward. The book comprises a series of fictional dialogues set in the ducal palace of Urbino. Over the course of four evenings (corresponding to the four books of the Courtier), the interlocutors, often in intense debate, discuss topics of interest to their self-presentation at court. The Courtier analyzes their principal activities (warfare and, more extensively, cultural activities of various kinds) through the prism of new ideals of behavior. The focus on language use, especially through the medium of the joke, underlines the importance of urbane conversation to the courtier’s identity. Much discussion in the dialogues stems from a range of interactions among the courtiers themselves, with the women of the court, and, indirectly, with the prince. The general scope of the Courtier ensured that its influence was not limited solely to Italy. Its impact can be observed all over Europe in the form of translations, adaptations, and even parodies. For 19th- and early-20th-century scholars, Castiglione’s book epitomized the Renaissance. It incarnated an ideal of comportment that privileged the court as the foundation of new behavioral norms. However, that view changed decisively in the second half of the 20th century as a more complex reading of the Courtier emerged. Castiglione’s position as the “perfect” courtier writing the book about the “perfect” court came under significant challenge from the mid-20th century onwards with greater insistence on the historical realities of the early 16th century as they impinged on author and text. The idealized version of the court presented by Castiglione is generally resisted by critics from the 1970s onwards. Much greater emphasis is given to the “workings” of the text, to its rhetorical strategies, and, in general, to the development of critical means through which the apparently seamless surface of the dialogues reveal the paradoxes and disjunctures of Castiglione’s presentation of the court and its courtiers. This was in part based on the manuscript tradition of the text that allows readers to follow its evolution over time. Thus the idealistic interpretation, so prevalent in the 19th century, is overtaken in the 20th century by more nuanced views of the text. These readings recognize that the Courtier was not written in isolation from the catastrophic political events of the period, but in response to them. This article will place the Courtier in its historical and cultural context, focusing principally on the many and various interpretations of the text itself. In addition, some consideration will be granted to Castiglione’s minor works insofar as they illuminate his major opus and are suggestive of the multifaceted literary activities of the Renaissance courtier par excellence.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. Cian 1951 represents the last and most enduring of 19th-century-style analyses of Castiglione (notwithstanding the paradox of the late appearance of the final edition, published more than half a century after the first). Cian’s study combines painstaking empirical research with a view of Castiglione as the perfect courtier who represents the apogee of Renaissance ideals. The rejoinder by Dionisotti 1952 marks the beginning of a revision and rethinking of Castiglione’s biography and writings. As such, its importance cannot be overemphasized. The 1950s also saw the publication of another major new interpretation, this time by Loos 1955 that gives particular consideration to the key words that underpin the Courtier’s meaning. Good introductions are Maier 1961 and, particularly, Woodhouse 1978. The latter’s succinct biography of Castiglione serves as an excellent introduction to his analysis of the text and the writer’s minor works. Guidi 1973 provides an overview that places particular emphasis on the changing social structures within which Castiglione operated, both as courtier and diplomat. Anglo 1977 discusses the Courtier in terms of its medieval precedents and its impact on later thought concerning civilized behavior. The online entry Baldassarre Castiglione by Motta on the “Pathways through Literature: Italian Writers” website is an excellent starting place for undergraduate students of Castiglione. With the exception of Motta’s entry, no English translations of these sources are available as of the early 21st century.
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  9. Anglo, Sydney. “The Courtier: The Renaissance and Changing Ideals.” In The Courts of Europe: Politics, Patronage and Royalty 1400–1800. Edited by A. G. Dickens, 33–53. London: Thames and Hudson, 1977.
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  11. Places the Courtier in its cultural context by tracing attitudes toward the role of the courtier before, and following, the publication of Castiglione’s book. The author examines the major topics arising from the dialogues (such as the debate on nobility) by relating them to earlier and contemporary writings on the same subjects.
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  13. Cian, Vittorio. Un illustre nunzio pontificio del Rinascimento, Baldassar Castiglione. Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1951.
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  15. The culmination of a lifetime’s work, this remains a fundamental text for students of Castiglione. It consists of a biography, an interpretation of Castiglione’s literary production, and an attempt to synthesize the Courtier as a biographically inspired piece of writing.
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  17. Dionisotti, Carlo. “Review of Un illustre nunzio pontificio del Rinascimento, Baldassar Castiglione, by Vittorio Cian.” Giornale storico della letteratura italiana 129 (1952): 31–57.
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  19. A revisionist view of Castiglione’s biography that challenges Cian’s view of Castiglione as the ideal courtier by rereading key biographical episodes. Dionisotti draws important links between his literary production and the context of the courts, thereby creating the potential for new interpretations of the Courtier.
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  21. Guidi, José. “Baldassar Castiglione et le pouvoir politique: Du gentilhomme de cour au nonce pontifical.” In Les écrivains et le pouvoir en Italie à l’époque de la Renaissance. Edited by André Rochon, 242–278. Paris: Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, 1973.
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  23. An examination of Castiglione’s biography from the perspective of the minor feudal nobility, a class struggling to survive and adapt to changing political conditions on the Italian peninsula. The Courtier is read from the same perspective, as a refuge from brutal reality.
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  25. Loos, Erich. Baldassare Castigliones “Libro del cortegiano”: Studien zur Tugendauffassung des Cinquecento. Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann, 1955.
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  27. Presents a thoroughgoing and wide-ranging analysis of the Courtier aimed at providing an overall interpretation of the book in its historical and intellectual contexts. It still remains an invaluable introduction to the study of the text. Loos’s analysis of keywords is especially useful.
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  29. Maier, Bruno. “Baldesar Castiglione.” In Letteratura italiana: I minori. Vol. 2, 892–925. Milan: Marzorati, 1961.
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  31. A concise overview of Castiglione’s life and works.
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  33. Motta, Uberto. “Baldassarre Castiglione.” In Pathways through Literature: Italian Writers/Viaggi nel testo: Classici della letteratura italiana. Translated by Steve Scott.
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  35. This entry on Baldassarre Castiglione (available in both English and Italian) is an ideal starting point for students. It covers in some detail, and with exemplary clarity and accuracy, Castiglione’s biography, his minor works and letters, and the Courtier. The entry also has links to online catalogues.
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  37. Woodhouse, J. R. Baldesar Castiglione: A Reassessment of “The Courtier.” Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1978.
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  39. An introduction to the Courtier for undergraduate students. It is also useful for those more familiar with the text. A biographical introduction is followed by a chapter locating the dialogue in its humanistic and classical context. The bulk of the book consists of an analysis of each of the four books of the Courtier. The author views the Courtier as a manual for survival in a hostile environment.
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  41. Bibliographies
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  43. The bibliographies compiled by Monterosso 1979 and Doglio 1984 concentrate on the changing trends in Castiglione criticism, focusing on works in Italian. Although dated, they are helpful in individuating trends in earlier interpretations of the Courtier. No English translations of these sources are available as of the early 21st century.
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  45. Doglio, Maria Luisa. “L’occhio del principe e lo specchio del cortigiano—Rassegna di testi e studi sulla letteratura di corte nel Rinascimento italiano (1954–1982).” Lettere italiane 36 (1984): 239–273.
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  47. Examines the major trends and changing emphases in scholarship on the Courtier while placing it in the broader context of other studies on court culture. Although concentrating on major critical works in Italian, the author does include texts in other languages in her review.
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  49. Monterosso, Ferruccio. “Il Cortegiano a 500 anni dalla nascita di B. Castiglione.” Cultura e scuola 18 (1979): 7–22.
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  51. This bibliographical review concentrates solely on Italian criticism. It discusses both single critics and “schools” in order to delineate different approaches across time. Particular themes are also the subject of short analyses. Although by no means exhaustive, the review presents an overall picture of the history of criticism of the Courtier.
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  53. Biography and Related Studies
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  55. As of the early 21st century, no modern comprehensive biography of Castiglione exists. The closest is Cartwright 1973. However, although solidly enough based on primary sources, this work (originally published in 1908) is old-fashioned in attitude. The same can be said for Bianco di San Secondo 1941. Mutini 1979 takes a more modern approach and should be read in tandem with the older studies. Several articles on specific aspects of Castiglione’s life are extremely helpful; Hale 1981 concentrates on him as a soldier, Biow 2008 follows his career as a diplomat, and Fletcher 1988 investigates the background of his mission to England. The scholarship on Castiglione’s biography could be described as somewhat fragmentary and incomplete. Hence, the publication of relevant documents (Cian 1942, Rebecchini 1998) can be seen as laying the groundwork for further study. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  56.  
  57. Bianco di San Secondo, Ernesto. Baldassar Castiglione nella vita e negli scritti. Verona, Italy: Edizioni “l’Albero,” 1941.
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  59. Provides a wealth of documentary material on Castiglione’s life. However, its now-outdated attitude toward its subject means that it should be read with caution.
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  61. Biow, Douglas. “Castiglione and the Art of Being Inconspicuously Conspicuous.” Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 38.1 (2008): 35–55.
  62. DOI: 10.1215/10829636-2007-018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  63. Explains the reasons behind the dearth of discussion in the dialogues of the courtier as a diplomat (a role that Castiglione himself performed for the greater part of his career). Also available in a slightly modified form in his book, In Your Face: Professional Improprieties and the Art of Being Conspicuous in Sixteenth-Century Italy (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010), pp. 35–59.
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  65. Cartwright, Julia. Baldassare Castiglione: The Perfect Courtier; His Life and Letters, 1478–1529. 2 vols. New York: AMS Press, 1973.
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  67. Also published under the author’s married name, Julia Cartwright Ady. Originally published in 1908, this is a solid, reliable account of Castiglione’s life based on archival sources and a broad range of secondary material in Italian. Cartwright uses Castiglione’s correspondence to good effect (a selection of unpublished letters is printed). It is still useful today, although somewhat outdated in attitude.
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  69. Cian, Vittorio. “Nel mondo di Baldassar Castiglione: Documenti illustrati.” Archivio storico lombardo, new ser., 7 (1942): 3–97.
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  71. A treasure trove of miscellaneous documents regarding Castiglione’s life and family background. Included are notarial documents, a register of Castiglione’s books, and vernacular poetry, as well as documents on Castiglione’s wedding, his wardrobe, his will, and his elevation to clerical status.
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  73. Fletcher, Doris. “Why Castiglione Went to England.” Bulletin of the Society for Renaissance Studies 5 (1988): 7–13.
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  75. The article clarifies the political intricacies that lay behind Castiglione’s diplomatic mission to England.
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  77. Hale, J. R. “Castiglione’s Military Career.” Italian Studies 36 (1981): 41–57.
  78. DOI: 10.1179/007516381791069557Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79. Hale demonstrates that Castiglione himself was less than an ideal soldier and, indeed, that fighting was distasteful to him. This aspect of his life shapes the way in which war is treated in the Courtier. Also published in Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture, edited by Robert W. Hanning and David Rosand (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983), pp. 143–164.
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  81. Mutini, Claudio. “Baldassarre Castiglione.” In Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani. Vol. 22. Edited by Alberto M. Ghisalberti, 53–68. Rome: Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana, 1979.
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  83. This entry gives a concise analysis of Castiglione’s life, linking it to specific sections of the Courtier. Approximately half the article is devoted to a semiological analysis of Castiglione’s major work.
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  85. Rebecchini, Guido. “The Book Collection and Other Possessions of Baldassarre Castiglione.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes 61 (1998): 17–52.
  86. DOI: 10.2307/751243Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  87. This publication contains inventories of Castiglione’s books and precious objects.
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  89. Correspondence
  90.  
  91. Castiglione’s correspondence is of critical importance to the provision of fundamental documentation for his life. His letters also provide insights into the political conditions in Italy and Europe in the early 16th century. His letters are even more important because of his career as a diplomat, which put him in contact with the leading political figures of the age (the culmination of his diplomatic activity was his appointment as the pope’s ambassador to Charles V). However, a modern, complete edition of Castiglione’s letters does not exist as of the early 21st century. Tantalizingly, La Rocca 1978 published the first volume of a projected complete edition (a modified version of his work is available online), but unfortunately the outstanding volumes did not eventuate. The closest we have to a complete collection of the correspondence comes from the 18th-century scholar Serassi (Serassi 1769–1771), which is readily accessible online. The modest collection edited by Gorni 1969 is still useful for letters that are difficult to find. So, too, is the commentary by Gorni 1979. Letters written to Castiglione are scattered across many collections. Of interest are the few letters that his wife wrote to him, published by Vetrugno 2004. No English translations of these sources are available as of the early 21st century.
  92.  
  93. Gorni, Guglielmo. “Il rovescio del Cortegiano o le lettere di Castiglione.” Paragone-Letteratura 354 (1979): 63–79.
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  95. An analysis of the more personal letters in Castiglione’s correspondence, particularly those written to his mother.
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  97. Gorni, Guglielmo, ed. Baldassar Castiglione: Lettere inedite e rare. Milan: Ricciardi, 1969.
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  99. A small collection of interesting letters, some of which are still easier to access here than elsewhere.
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  101. La Rocca, Guido, ed. Baldassar Castiglione, Le lettere. Vol. 1, 1497–marzo 1521. Milan: Mondadori, 1978.
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  103. Extensively annotated. An electronic version with editorial revisions and some additional letters is available: Lettere di Baldassarre Castiglione—parte prima (1497–1513); Lettere di Baldassarre Castiglione—parte seconda (1514–1521). It should be noted that the electronic version lacks La Rocca’s annotations, making the printed edition a more useful study guide.
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  105. Serassi, Pierantonio, ed. Lettere del conte Baldessar Castiglione ora per la prima volta date in luce. Padua, Italy: Comino, 1769–1771.
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  107. Still the largest printed collection of Castiglione’s letters. This invaluable research tool can be readily consulted online, thus adding to its value.
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  109. Vetrugno, Roberto. “‘Pregola la non me voglia dementichare’: Lettere di Ippolita Torelli Castiglione.” Studi linguistici italiani 30.2 (2004): 204–233.
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  111. Vetrugno publishes twelve letters written by Castiglione’s spouse. He places them in the context of matrimonial politics of the early 16th century, with an extensive linguistic analysis.
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  113. Minor Works
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  115. Castiglione’s literary output covers a number of genres: poetry, pastoral, biography, and the epistle. These pursuits reveal him to be an accomplished player in the cultural production of the courts. For example, his pastoral Tirsi indicates that he was active in both the composition and performance of Renaissance drama. His literary activities encompass both the vernacular and Latin, the latter being represented by his poetry. These texts help to form a context for the Courtier. More broadly, they are suggestive of the way in which a courtier might construct a literary identity for himself. As of the early 21st century, no single-volume collection of Castiglione’s minor works is available. The closest in print is the anthology included in the Maier 1981 edition of the Courtier. However, newer, more generously annotated editions are now available for some of the minor works: Motta 2006 (Vita di Guidubaldo duca di Urbino), Vela 1998 (Il Tirsi), and Di Teodoro 2003 (Lettera a Leone X). Castiglione’s poetry is available in editions that often offer different selections: Serassi 1760 (Poesie volgari, e latine) and Fantato 2004 (Rime e giochi di corte). Salemi 1981 provides useful translations of some of the Latin poetry, and Parenti 1996 presents a careful analysis of Castiglione’s Latin output. As of the early 21st century, no English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available.
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  117. Di Teodoro, Francesco P., ed. Raffaello, Baldassar Castiglione e la “Lettera a Leone X”: “. . . con lo aiutto tuo mi sforcerò vendicare dalla morte quel poco che resta . . .” Con l’aggiunta di due saggi raffaelleschi. Rev. ed. San Giorgio di Piano (BO), Italy: Minerva Edizioni, 2003.
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  119. A detailed investigation into the collaboration between Castiglione and Raphael on the Lettera a Leone X (Letter to Leo X) regarding the preservation of ancient Roman architecture. Includes manuscripts of the Letter and of the 18th-century printed edition, together with photographic reproductions.
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  121. Fantato, Michela, ed. Baldassarre Castiglione: Rime e giochi di corte. Mantua, Italy: Camera di Commercio di Mantova, 2004.
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  123. A manuscript miscellany of Castiglione’s vernacular verse that clearly demonstrates his immersion in contemporary court poetry. Also available online (but without the substantial introduction).
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  125. Maier, Bruno, ed. Il libro del cortegiano con una scelta delle Opere minori di Baldesar Castiglione. 3d ed. Turin, Italy: Unione Tipografico Editrice Torinese, 1981.
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  127. Presents Castiglione’s Tirsi, his vernacular poetry, and the Latin poem fictionally written to him by his wife. Also some letters, including Alfonso de Valdés’s letter to Castiglione and the latter’s response.
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  129. Motta, Uberto, ed. Baldassarre Castiglione: Vita di Guidubaldo duca di Urbino. Rome: Salerno, 2006.
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  131. This definitive critical edition of the De Vita et gestis Guidubaldi Urbini ducis (Concerning the life and deeds of Guidubaldo Duke of Urbino) is published with an Italian translation. The editor supplies the historical background to the Life and weaves it into the history of the text and its variants. However, this does not appear in the version available online.
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  133. Parenti, Giovanni. “Per Castiglione latino.” In Per Cesare Bozzetti: Studi di letteratura e filologia italiana. Edited by Simone Albonico, Andrea Comboni, Giorgio Panizza, and Claudio Vela, 185–218. Milan: Fondazione Arnoldo e Alberto Mondadori, 1996.
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  135. A careful study of Castiglione’s limited but influential output of Latin poetry. Parenti assesses his use of classical sources, places the poetry in its contemporary humanist context, and examines its reception.
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  137. Salemi, Joseph S. “Selected Latin Poems of Baldassare Castiglione.” Allegorica 6 (1981): 102–148.
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  139. Provides texts and translations of ten of Castiglione’s Latin poems (and some notes). Included are “De morte Raphaelis pictoris” (On the death of the painter Raphael), and “Hippolyte Balthassari Castilioni coniugi” (Hippolita to her husband Baldassare Castiglione). Has a brief introduction to each poem.
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  141. Serassi, Pierantonio, ed. Castiglione, Baldassarre. Baldassarre Castiglione: Poesie volgari, e latine del Conte Baldessar Castiglione corrette, illustrate, ed accresciute di varie cose inedite aggiuntevi alcune rime e lettere di Cesare Gonzaga suo cugino. Rome: Per Niccolò e Mar. Pagliarini, 1760.
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  143. Available online. Still the most complete edition of Castiglione’s poetry.
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  145. Vela, Claudio. “Il Tirsi di Baldassar Castiglione e Cesare Gonzaga.” In La poesia pastorale nel Rinascimento. Edited by Stefano Carrai, 245–292. Padua, Italy: Antenore, 1998.
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  147. A critical edition of the pastoral drama with an extensive introduction.
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  149. Editions of the Courtier
  150.  
  151. It is instructive to note that the first printed edition of the Courtier (dating back to 1528) differs in significant ways from modern editions. (See Castiglione 1986, the facsimile edition.) This is particularly evident from the way in which modern editors have introduced chapters into the book structure for greater ease of reading. In this sense, the facsimile presents an interesting experience for readers accustomed to the more user-friendly editions of the 20th century. Maier 1981 appears to be the edition of the Courtier most often used by scholars. Cian 1947 offers a singularly helpful edition that clarifies many of the contemporary references in the text by indicating their sources. Quondam 1981 is a valuable resource for students, with an informative introduction and notes. The first printed edition can be usefully compared to the second redaction of the Courtier through the work of Ghinassi 1968. This has allowed scholars to pinpoint changes at a particular stage in the composition of the dialogue and to compare them with Castiglione’s revisions to the final version. No English translations are available for these sources as of the early 21st century.
  152.  
  153. Castiglione, Baldassar. “Il libro del Cortegiano”: Aldo Venezia 1528. Rome: Bulzoni, 1986.
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  155. A facsimile of the first edition of the Courtier. It can be difficult to locate as only three hundred copies were printed.
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  157. Cian, Vittorio, ed. Il libro del cortegiano. 4th ed. Florence: Sansoni, 1947.
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  159. Still irreplaceable for the abundant notes and references it contains. Its “Dizionarietto biografico” (biographical dictionary) provides much information on the characters. Reprinted in L’arte della conversazione nelle corti del Rinascimento (The art of conversation in the courts of the Renaissance) by Floriana Calitti (Rome: Istituto Poligrafo e Zecca dello Stato, 2003), pp. 727–756.
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  161. Ghinassi, Ghino, ed. La seconda redazione del “Cortegiano” di Baldassarre Castiglione. Florence: Sansoni, 1968.
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  163. This edition of an earlier manuscript redaction provides vital information on Castiglione’s working techniques and explains how this version metamorphosed into the printed edition.
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  165. Maier, Bruno, ed. Il libro del cortegiano con una scelta delle Opere minori di Baldesar Castiglione. 3d ed. Turin, Italy: Unione Tipografico Editrice Torinese, 1981.
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  167. This can be regarded as the standard modern edition of the Courtier in Italian. It offers a selection from Castiglione’s vernacular and Latin poetry. It also includes a complete text of the Tirsi and some letters. Noteworthy is the epistolary exchange between Castiglione and Alfonso de Valdés.
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  169. Quondam, Amedeo, ed. Il libro del cortegiano. Milan: Garzanti, 1981.
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  171. The introduction is a concise overview of the Courtier seen as a fractured and contradictory text. The edition presents a reliable text in a compact format. An electronic version (but without the substantial introduction and notes) is also availableonline.
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  173. Textual Bibliography
  174.  
  175. The Courtier evolved slowly and painfully over a long period, as revealed in the five manuscripts. Early fragments gave way to autonomous versions of the dialogues before the printed edition of 1528 (Bertolo 1992). Comparison of the manuscripts allows scholars to examine Castiglione’s thought at different stages in his life and to define the characteristics of the various manuscripts. Thus, the long journey to the printed edition can be minutely documented and the final version related back to the manuscripts (and vice versa). Pugliese and her team (Pugliese 2012) have made available their transcriptions of the manuscripts, allowing electronic searching of the material. The work of Ghinassi 1962 and Ghinassi 1967–1968 on the composition of the Courtier is fundamental, and all scholars in this field have built on Ghinassi’s research. A massive study by Quondam 2000 documents the changes in Castiglione’s thinking, and his reactions to the evolving political circumstances. Pugliese 2008 carries out minute comparative analyses of the manuscripts and printed edition according to major themes. Floriani 1976 looks at the general drivers of evolution from the second to final redactions. Paternoster 2002 examines a particular theme (that of politeness) to see how this was gradually incorporated into the final text. English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are not available as of the early 21st century.
  176.  
  177. Bertolo, Fabio Massimo. “Nuovi documenti sull’edizione principe del Cortegiano.” Schifanoia 13–14 (1992): 133–144.
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  179. A careful reading of Castiglione’s correspondence on the publication of the Courtier, combined with new material. The article offers a convincing picture of the problems and issues surrounding the printing of the text.
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  181. Floriani, Piero. “Esperienza e cultura nella genesi del Cortegiano.” In Bembo e Castiglione: Studi sul classicismo del Cinquecento. By Piero Floriani, 117–151. Rome: Bulzoni, 1976.
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  183. The essay focuses on the changes to the text from the Seconda redazione (second redaction) to the printed version. Floriani also engages with issues such as the relationship of the text to vernacular humanism and classical sources.
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  185. Ghinassi, Ghino. “L’ultimo revisore del Cortegiano.” Studi di filologia italiana 20 (1962): 217–264.
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  187. A close examination of the profound linguistic changes made to the final manuscript redaction of the Courtier, identifying the author of the changes as Giovan Francesco Valerio.
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  189. Ghinassi, Ghino. “Fasi dell’elaborazione del Cortegiano.” Studi di filologia italiana 25–26 (1967–1968): 155–196.
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  191. A detailed description of the manuscript redactions of the Courtier. Some extracts from these earlier versions are included, including a semiautonomous treatise on women. Ghinassi focuses on the successive drafts of Book IV. A groundbreaking work of scholarship, which furthers our understanding of the composition of the Courtier.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Paternoster, Annick. “L’iterazione scortese nella Seconda redazione del Cortegiano di Baldassar Castiglione.” Italian Studies 57 (2002): 37–60.
  194. DOI: 10.1179/007516302790508683Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  195. Paternoster contends that the Seconda redazione is more openly aggressive or “impolite” in its dialogic encounters than the final version. The article analyzes the various rhetorical strategies whereby Castiglione creates this impression and points out the greater degree of decorum in the printed text.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Pugliese, Zorzi Olga. Castiglione’s “The Book of the Courtier” (“Il libro del cortegiano”): A Classic in the Making. Naples, Italy: Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 2008.
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  199. A meticulous analysis of the variants across all surviving manuscripts of the Courtier. Particular attention is paid to the structure of the dialogues, Italian culture in relationship to other cultures, humor, and women.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Pugliese, Zorzi Olga, in collaboration with Lorenzo Bartoli, Filomena Calabrese, Adriana Grimaldi, Ian Martin, Laura Prelipcean, and Antonio Ricci, trans. The Early Extant Manuscripts of Baldassar Castiglione’s “Il libro del cortegiano.” Toronto: University of Toronto Faculty, 2012.
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  203. This digitized volume provides transcriptions of all known manuscripts of the Courtier before it was first printed in 1528. It includes the earliest fragments, which unlike the other manuscripts are entirely autograph. The volume makes the transcripts accessible to students and scholars alike for whom direct access to the manuscripts would be otherwise impossible.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Quondam, Amedeo. “Questo povero ‘Cortegiano’”: Castiglione, il libro, la storia. Rome: Bulzoni, 2000.
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  207. This highly detailed study of the manuscript redactions of the Courtier investigates the characteristics of each of the manuscripts prior to the printed edition. The author magisterially combines close analysis and reading of the individual variants with overviews of the political and aesthetic contexts in which each redaction appeared.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. English Translations of the Courtier
  210.  
  211. English readers of the Courtier are well served by the translations of this linguistically challenging text (Castiglione 1976, Castiglione 2002). The Elizabethan translation by Sir Thomas Hoby (Castiglione 1994) is of historical and cultural interest.
  212.  
  213. Castiglione, Baldesar. The Book of the Courtier. Translated by George Bull. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976.
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  215. This readily available translation renders the Courtier into an accessible idiom that does not falsify the original. It has some notes and a short biographical dictionary of the characters, but these will need to be supplemented from other sources for some readers.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Castiglione, Count Baldassar. The Book of the Courtier. Edited by Virginia Cox and translated by Thomas Hoby. London: Everyman, J. M. Dent, 1994.
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  219. The Elizabethan translation of the Courtier by Sir Thomas Hoby (1561) ensured its place in English Renaissance culture. This edition has helpful notes to the text and a brief essay on the critical responses to the dialogues (“Castiglione and His Critics”).
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Castiglione, Baldesar. The Book of the Courtier: The Singleton Translation: An Authoritative Text Criticism. Edited by Daniel Javitch. New York: Norton, 2002.
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  223. The classic translation of the Courtier into English. Even though it has a paucity of notes, students are assisted by a generous “Index of Persons and Items.” The edition includes a number of essays by leading experts on Castiglione, mostly previously published.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Essay Collections
  226.  
  227. A small collection of three essays (authored respectively in Borsetto, et al. 1978) makes links between Castiglione and his historical and cultural contexts. The essays were stimulated by the fifth centenary of Castiglione’s birth. The single-authored collections cited here bring together articles previously published in scattered journals. They therefore form coherent collections that allow readers to assess these contributions in a single volume. Clough 1981 contributes to our historical understanding of the Courtier. Floriani 1976 probes the changing intellectual conditions that affected Castiglione’s work. The previously published essays of Kolsky 2003 and Stäuble 1996 provide a series of close readings on various aspects of the text. Saccone 1992 brings together essays that constitute an important reference point in Castiglione criticism because of their emphasis on the realpolitik required by the courtier to survive and flourish in contrast to the earlier critical insistence on his perfectibility. Apart from Saccone’s essays (which are available elsewhere in slightly modified form), no English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  228.  
  229. Borsetto, Luciana, Giovanni Rodella, and Paolo Carpeggiani. Baldassarre Castiglione. V centenario della nascita. Viadana, Italy: Comune di Marcaria, 1978.
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  231. This not-so-easy-to-find volume consists of three essays that merit attention. Borsetto links Castiglione’s diplomatic experiences with his literary output. Rodella provides detail about the careers and political activities of Castiglione’s family, particularly his grandfather and father. Carpeggiani discusses Castiglione in relation to art and artists.
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Clough, Cecil H. The Duchy of Urbino in the Renaissance. London: Variorum Reprints, 1981.
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  235. A collection of previously published articles that provides information on the historical background to the Courtier. Particularly pertinent are “The Relations between the English and Urbino Courts, 1474–1508” and “Francis I and the Courtiers of Castiglione’s Courtier.”
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Floriani, Piero. Bembo e Castiglione: Studi sul classicismo del Cinquecento. Rome: Bulzoni, 1976.
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  239. The collection of essays on Castiglione forms a coherent whole, even though most of them appeared in different journals. They examine the evolution of the text from the second to the third redaction, placing the work in its relevant intellectual context.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Kolsky, Stephen. Courts and Courtiers in Renaissance Northern Italy. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2003.
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  243. A collection of previously published articles, including several on aspects of Castiglione’s biography and the Courtier (gender, conduct books, dance, characters, and the problem of Book IV).
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Saccone, Eduardo. Le buone e le cattive maniere: Letteratura e galateo nel Cinquecento. Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino, 1992.
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  247. Saccone brings together a series of essays, some of which appeared elsewhere but have been re-elaborated for this collection (see also Saccone 1987, cited under General Interpretations of the Courtier, and Saccone 1983, cited under Key Concepts in the Courtier). These essays constitute essential reading on the crucial areas of interpretation of the Courtier.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Stäuble, Antonio. Le sirene eterne: Studi sull’eredità classica e biblica nella letteratura italiana. Ravenna, Italy: Longo, 1996.
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  251. Includes four articles (previously published elsewhere) on central aspects of the Courtier. These include the presentation of Urbino; issues of rhetoric, especially in the section on jokes; and a detailed analysis of the hymn to love in Book IV.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Conference Proceedings
  254.  
  255. Two conferences held in 1978 (to celebrate the fifth centenary of Castiglione’s birth) provided added impetus to studies of his life and cultural output. The proceedings in a sense renewed and “modernized” studies on this author (Hanning and Rosand 1983, Ossola 1980, Prosperi 1980). The published papers cover a full range of topics and are essential reading in the field. The conference papers edited by Bonora 1980, from a conference also held in 1978, are less ambitious but useful nevertheless. More limited in scope (Book IV) are the conference proceedings edited by Grossi and D’Amico 2001, which contain a number of papers that certainly increase our understanding of Book IV of the Courtier. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  256.  
  257. Bonora, Ettore, ed. Convegno di studio su Baldassarre Castiglione nel quinto centenario della nascita (Mantova 7–8 ottobre 1978): Atti. Mantua, Italy: Accademia Virgiliana di Mantova, 1980.
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  259. Bonora gathers together seven conference papers on miscellaneous topics. Most noteworthy of the essays not published elsewhere are Guido La Rocca’s analysis of Castiglione as a diplomat, José Guidi’s insistence on a diachronic reading of the Courtier, and Emilio Faccioli’s contribution on Castiglione and the theater.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Grossi, Paolo, and Juan Carlos D’Amico, eds. De la politesse la politique: Recherches sur les langages du “Livre du Courtisan”: Actes du colloque international de l’Université de Caen Basse-Normandie (18 février 2000). Caen Cedex, France: Presses Universitaires de Caen, 2001.
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  263. This collection of conference papers obviously includes an essay on Book IV (analysis of the figure of Alexander the Great and utopian myths) and the textual relations between Machiavelli and Castiglione. Other essays deal with the redactions of the Courtier, the dialogue as game, and classical sources.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Hanning, Robert W., and David Rosand, eds. Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983.
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  267. These papers are a fundamental starting point for students seeking critical insight into the Courtier in English. Essays by Thomas M. Greene, Daniel Javitch, and Eduardo Saccone, among others, have become “compulsory” reading for modern interpretations of the Courtier.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Ossola, Carlo, ed. La corte e il “Cortegiano”. Vol. I, La scena del testo. Rome: Bulzoni, 1980.
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  271. The proceedings cover a range of topics that concern some of the fundamental themes of the Courtier. These include women, sprezzatura (nonchalance), the courtly ethos, and the myth of Urbino.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Prosperi, Adriano, ed. La corte e il “Cortegiano.” Vol. II, Un modello europeo. Rome: Bulzoni, 1980.
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  275. The volume places the Courtier into a number of contexts: literary, intellectual, and historical. The essays concentrate on the court environment both from a historical and a literary perspective after the publication of the Courtier.
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  277. Contexts
  278.  
  279. The Courtier refers to numerous debates that were taking place in court and humanistic circles in the Renaissance. Castiglione’s knowledge of such developments is utilized in the dialogues to ground the discussions more firmly and realistically in the concerns of an evolving court culture. The wide-ranging references are in part a means by which Castiglione seeks to legitimize the courtier’s behavior and actions. Thus sprezzatura (nonchalance) requires many sources of knowledge in order to create the appearance of a courtier who can potentially master all forms of learning and transform them into the essential components of “courtiership.” The Courtier refers to several disciplines for which scholars have attempted to trace connections with other texts. Important aspects of Castiglione’s court come in for contextual analysis, not least being the classicizing form of the game structure in the Courtier which, according to Greene 1983, moves away from the formulaic routines of the medieval court. Langer 1988 introduces theological concepts of merit in order to understand better the courtier’s ultimately subordinate role at court. Medicine provides a fertile ground for understanding the courtier’s role as a potential healer of the political woes that afflicted Italy in the Renaissance (Albury 2008). The significance of music to the Courtier is underlined by Haar 1983 as well as the intellectual traditions and practices on which Castiglione was drawing. Menut 1943 demonstrates that Castiglione was no superficial reader of Aristotle and that the Nicomachean Ethics, in particular, play a fundamental role for the figure of the courtier.
  280.  
  281. Albury, W. R. “Medicine and Statecraft in The Book of the Courtier.” Intellectual History Review 18.1 (2008): 75–89.
  282. DOI: 10.1080/17496970701819384Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Albury reassesses the significance of medicine in the Courtier and reaches the conclusion that previous critics have underestimated its significance. The article argues for a view of the courtier as a physician-counselor, especially relevant to the author’s interpretation of Book IV.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Greene, Thomas M. “Il Cortegiano and the Choice of a Game.” In Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture. Edited by Robert W. Hanning and David Rosand, 1–15. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983.
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  287. In this classic study of how the concept of the game permeates the Courtier, Greene notes that medieval games that almost solely involved questions concerning love have been replaced by classicising dialogue with broad-ranging topics.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Haar, James. “The Courtier as Musician: Castiglione’s View of the Science and Art of Music.” In Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture. Edited by Robert W. Hanning and David Rosand, 165–189. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983.
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  291. Examines Castiglione’s treatment of music in the Courtier in relation to classical and humanistic thought on the subject. However, Haar persuasively contends that a fundamental innovation in the discussion is the emphasis on contemporary musical practice. The Courtier served as a vehicle for modernizing musical thought throughout Europe.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Langer, Ulrich. “Merit in Courtly Literature: Castiglione, Rabelais, and Marguerite de Navarre, and Le Caron.” Renaissance Quarterly 41.2 (1988): 218–241.
  294. DOI: 10.2307/2862204Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Through the discussion of two types of theological merit—condign and congruous—Langer convincingly argues that they illuminate our interpretation of the Courtier. Hovering between condign merit (contractual grace) and congruous merit (whereby the courtier almost entirely depends on the favor of the prince), the representation of the Urbino court sits ambiguously between the two formulations.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Menut, Alfred D. “Castiglione and the Nicomachean Ethics.” PMLA 58.2 (1943): 309–321.
  298. DOI: 10.2307/459046Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. Menut demonstrates that, despite the Platonic overlay of the dialogue, Castiglione had carefully read the Nicomachean Ethics and introduced discussion of the twelve principal virtues analyzed by Aristotle.
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  301. General Interpretations of the Courtier
  302.  
  303. In the wake of the fifth centenary of Castiglione’s birth, several attempts were made to break away from the paradigms that had generally held sway over interpretations of the Courtier. Different approaches were tried in order to open up the text, and these were developed in subsequent years. One can now confidently state that, in general, the book is no longer being presented as idealistic and separated from reality (as some earlier critics had done). The innovative work of Rebhorn 1978 emphasizes a sociological and anthropological approach at the expense of historical contextualization. Saccone 1987 is perhaps the most forceful of those critics to have taken this anti-idealist approach. Falvo 1992 sees the text as playing out the consequences of power politics; Gagliardi 1989 views it as being marked by conflict. Kolsky 2011 sees the Courtier as an attempt to sublimate conflict, or at least to keep it within defined boundaries, by making an appeal to universal peace in Book IV, even though this would involve a renewed effort for a crusade. An earlier study, Trafton 1972, had emphasized the political aspects of sprezzatura (nonchalance). Ossola 1987 tackles the Courtier in terms of its interpretations later in the 16th century. In contrast, Motta 2003 renews the kind of criticism favored by earlier positivist critics but draws in external textual elements to construct new understandings of the Courtier. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  304.  
  305. Falvo, Joseph D. The Economy of Human Relations. Castiglione’s “Libro del Cortegiano.” New York: Lang, 1992.
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  307. An introduction to the major themes of the Courtier, with an insistence on the priority of power relations and their representation in the court environment.
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  309. Gagliardi, Antonio. La misura e la grazia: Sul “Libro del Cortegiano.” Turin, Italy: Tirrenia Stampatori, 1989.
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  311. A complex philosophical reading of the Courtier. The characters are viewed as masks for conflicting philosophies that are resolved by Bembo’s discourse on love.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Kolsky, Stephen. “Peace and War in Castiglione’s Courtier.” Explorations in Renaissance Culture 37.2 (2011): 17–38.
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  315. The claim that the courtier is first and foremost a soldier is undermined in Book IV in which the role of magnificence is questioned as a stimulus to conflict. The dialogue concludes with a call to the crusade and universal peace.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Motta, Uberto. Castiglione e il mito di Urbino. Milan: Vita e Pensiero, 2003.
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  319. An exhaustive study of the prefaces to each of the four books of the Courtier and the dedication in a historical and intellectual context. They are analyzed through the manuscript tradition and in the light of contemporary humanism. Although seemingly limited in scope, the book is far-reaching in its interpretation.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Ossola, Carlo. Dal “Cortegiano” all “uomo di mondo”: Storia di un libro e di un modello sociale. Turin, Italy: Einaudi, 1987.
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  323. Through an analysis of the Courtier’s reception in 16th-century Italy, the key features of the text are distinguished as paradoxical and self-reflective. This is not the “classical” text as it is so often portrayed.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Rebhorn, Wayne A. Courtly Performances: Masking and Festivity in Castiglione’s “Book of the Courtier.” Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1978.
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  327. An in-depth analysis of the Courtier that scrutinizes the text from an anthropological perspective. Rebhorn argues that the courtier is socially engaged in his environment in which success is bought by his flexibility. It is extremely readable and a provocative introduction to the Courtier.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Saccone, Eduardo. “The Portrait of the Courtier in Castiglione.” Italica 64 (1987): 1–18.
  330. DOI: 10.2307/478508Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Saccone argues that the Courtier should be regarded as a manual for the combative courtier rather than as a beautiful picture of an idealized court society (Urbino). The historical court speaks in a collective voice, for which the aesthetic elements are present to render the message more acute and palatable.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Trafton, Dain A. “Structure and Meaning in The Courtier.” English Literary Renaissance 2 (1972): 283–297.
  334. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-6757.1972.tb00996.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Trafton suggests that the discussions revolve around the central issue of the kind of service that is acceptable to the courtier and the competing demands of favor and praise. This is achieved through sprezzatura (nonchalance). In this context, Bembo’s concluding speech confirms the structural integrity of the text.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Key Concepts in the Courtier
  338.  
  339. Critics have expended much critical effort in the attempt to elucidate certain keywords that are central to Castiglione’s construction of the perfect courtier. It would be difficult to underestimate the significance of words like grazia (grace) and, particularly, the neologism sprezzatura (nonchalance). Indeed, no discussion of the Courtier would be complete without some focus on these keywords. Ricci 2003 provides a good overview, with an interpretation of grazia as a political tool in the hands of the courtier. Mercuri 1975 is at pains to stress the theoretical basis of the Courtier, distancing it from Castiglione’s lived experience. The author usefully compares this approach to that taken by later, early modern writers who reformulate Castiglione’s terminology. Saccone 1983 performs a textual analysis of these key concepts, based on a close reading of the Courtier and classical sources. This exemplary reading contrasts with another line of inquiry, especially into the semantic field generated by the word grazia (grace), which resonates with Renaissance artistic practices (Mac Carthy 2009). One of the most subtle and complex readings of this constellation of concepts is Berger 2000. The author constructs a dense argument about the consequences of such an aesthetic of appearances. Sprezzatura (nonchalance) is seen to contribute to a culture of suspicion, whereas for Colie 1965 it is originally placed in the context of the pastoral. Magli 1992 emphasizes the importance of mediocrità (moderation). No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  340.  
  341. Berger, Harry. The Absence of Grace: Sprezzatura and Suspicion in Two Renaissance Courtesy Books. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2000.
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  343. Berger suggests that the Courtier supplies the behavioral norms for a new type of courtier who lives in a culture of suspicion, replacing more traditional value systems. By juxtaposing it with Della Casa’s Galateo, first published in 1558, he is able to emphasize these characteristics of the text.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Colie, Rosalie. “Castiglione’s Urban Pastoral.” Greyfriar 8 (1965): 5–13.
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  347. Colie argues that there are some important points of contact between the pastoral and the Courtier. The artfully constructed world of the pastoral, with shepherds as poets, is compared to the courtier’s sprezzatura (nonchalance). This transforms the courtier into a work of art.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Mac Carthy, Ita. “Grace and the ‘Reach of Art’ in Castiglione and Raphael.” Word & Image: A Journal of Verbal/Visual Enquiry 25.1 (2009): 33–45.
  350. DOI: 10.1080/02666280801915942Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Mac Carthy explores the concept of grace by connecting the literary discussion on this topic in the Courtier with Raphael’s portrait of Castiglione.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Magli, Patrizia. “Mediocrità e bon ton passionale.” In Etiquette et politesse. Actes du colloque international d’Urbino. Edited by Alain Montandon, 43–55. Clermont-Ferrand, France: Publications de la Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines de Clermont II, 1992.
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  355. This article argues that passion is not totally suppressed by the courtier. Rather, passion is brought under control through adherence to the principle of mediocrità (moderation). For Magli, it is a rhetorical strategy that communicates the courtier’s moral value to others.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Mercuri, Roberto. “Sprezzatura e affettazione nel Cortegiano.” In Letteratura e critica: Studi in onore di Natalino Sapegno. Vol. 2. Edited by Walter Binni, et al., 227–274. Rome: Bulzoni, 1975.
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  359. This essay focuses on the Courtier as a technical, scientific treatise, not as a practical guide to manners, and analyzes keywords from this perspective. Mercuri makes his point by comparing the moralizing approach to such terminology taken by later Counter-Reformation writers from France, Italy, and Spain.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Ricci, Maria Teresa. “La grazia in Baldassar Castiglione: Un’arte senz’arte.” Italianistica: Rivista di letteratura italiana 32.2 (2003): 235–245.
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  363. An examination of the various contexts and meanings of the term grazia (grace) in the Courtier. Ricci argues that it serves to cement the courtier’s position as a nobleman who manipulates the concept to ensure his superiority at court.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Saccone, Eduardo. “Grazia, Sprezzatura, Affettazione in the Courtier.” In Castiglione: The Ideal and the Real in Renaissance Culture. Edited by Robert W. Hanning and David Rosand, 45–67. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983.
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  367. A close textual reading of three key concepts that underline the classical origins of the terms, in particular, sprezzatura (nonchalance). A crucial contribution to the study of these keywords.
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  369. Jokes in the Courtier
  370.  
  371. Scholarly interest in the section on jokes and joking continues unabated in contemporary criticism of the Courtier. It forms a discrete section of Book II and seems to convey the essence of court life as theorized by Castiglione: lively, superficial banter that may conceal deep antagonisms, rivalries, and differences. Accordingly, this section has attracted the attention of critics who approach jokes and joking from different perspectives. Scholarship has increasingly focused on the courtier as a person involved in the power structures of the court, one who is struggling for advancement in a sometimes hostile environment. As a consequence, Castiglione’s jokes have taken on diverse tonalities in the criticism. Humanist and classical precedents have been examined by Ferroni 1980 and Soletti 1990. In a recent trend, the jokes have been seen as a regulated outlet for political rivalries. Cavallo 2000 views joking as a form of expressing regional differences. Other critics perceive the joking in terms of the interpersonal politics of the court (Dombroski 2000, Falvo 1991, Guidi 1975). Korda 1994 has carried out a careful analysis of a relatively minor episode of practical joking in the text, the ramifications of which involve the role of deceptive appearances. Shapiro 1975 also uses the pun to show how the play of language is central to the Courtier. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  372.  
  373. Cavallo, JoAnne. “Joking Matters. Politics and Dissimulation in Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier.” Renaissance Quarterly 53.2 (2000): 402–424.
  374. DOI: 10.2307/2901873Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. An insightful study of jokes as the ground on which regional rivalries are played out in the dialogue. The open hostilities between “representatives” of Venice and Florence are transformed into more subtle and careful forms of discourse.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Dombroski, Robert S. “A Note on Jokes and Their Relation to the Perfect Courtier.” Italiana 9 (2000): 132–137.
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  379. Dombroski argues that jokes perform a paradoxical role in the Courtier. They provide a momentary outlet for spontaneous behavior, while at the same time recognizing the oppressive hierarchies of the court.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Falvo, Giuseppe. “The Art of ‘Facezie’ in Castiglione’s Cortegiano.” In Interpreting the Italian Renaissance: Literary Perspectives. Edited by Antonio Toscano, 127–137. Stony Brook, NY: Forum Italicum, 1991.
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  383. Emphasizes the social aspect of joking as analyzed by Castiglione in Book II of the Courtier. Falvo suggests that joking is a kind of performative discourse over which the rules of sprezzatura (nonchalance) and decorum dominate.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Ferroni, Giulio. “La teoria classicistica della facezia da Pontano a Castiglione.” Sigma 13 (1980): 69–96.
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  387. A thorough analysis of the section on jokes. Ferroni stresses the features that distinguish Castiglione from Pontano and the complex relations with Cicero’s discussion of the same topic in De oratore (On oratory).
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Guidi, José. “Festive narrazioni, motti et burle (beffe). L’art des facéties dans Le courtesan.” In Formes et significations de la ‘beffa’ dans la littérature de la Renaissance. Edited by André Rochon, 171–210. Paris: Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, 1975.
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  391. Finds that the discussion of jokes acts as a further support to the arching ideologies of the work, especially the conservative values that underpin the creation of the courtier.
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  393. Korda, Natasha. “Mistaken Identities: Castiglione’s Practical Joke.” In Desire in the Renaissance: Psychoanalysis and Literature. Edited by Valeria Finucci and Regina Schwartz, 39–60. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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  395. Discusses the social significance of the practical joke in terms of the courtier’s identity and his precarious position at court.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Shapiro, Marianne. “Mirror and Portrait: The Structure of Il libro del cortegiano.” Journal of Medieval and Renaissance Studies 5.1 (1975): 37–61.
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  399. Shapiro emphasizes the Courtier as a play of mirroring, or a linguistic fiction. She concentrates on the pun, as described in Book II, as an example of the way in which language itself acts as a cross-reflecting mirror in the text.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Soletti, Elisabetta. Parole ghiacciate, parole liquefatte: Il secondo libro del “Cortegiano.” Alessandria, Italy: Edizioni dell’Orso, 1990.
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  403. Despite the title, this book concentrates specifically on jokes. The author examines the evolution of this section in the Cortegiano and its relation to humanist and classical precedents. She places the jokes within the framework of paradox and irony, which she considers to be fundamental characteristics of the text.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Characters in the Courtier
  406.  
  407. The characters in the Courtier are all historical figures, often based on people who were close to Castiglione. It is of critical importance to observe how the historical personage becomes a character in the dialogues. Cian 1947 is essential reading for the wealth of information contained in his biographies. The representation of the characters in the Courtier is in part a question of negotiating with their actuality beyond the text. Thus, for Castiglione, a character can undergo substantial change, or even be eliminated, in the course of the work’s composition. Floriani 1981 examines the reasons for modifications to some of the principal interlocutors. With regard to the studies of individual characters, note the incisive study on Elisabetta Gonzaga by Motta 2004; the iconoclastic analysis of Gaspare Pallavicino in Connell 2002; and the study of the peripheral character of Pietro del Monte in Fontaine 1993. The controversial figure of Bembo has come in for much analysis because of his pivotal role in Book IV and also because Castiglione did not share his linguistic theories. Arbizzoni 1983 and Motta 2000 make fundamental contributions to Bembo’s ambiguous function in the Courtier. Van den Bossche 2006 concentrates on Bembo’s philosophical contribution to the text. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  408.  
  409. Arbizzoni, Guido. L’ordine e la persuasione: Pietro Bembo personaggio nel “Cortegiano.” Urbino, Italy: QuattroVenti, 1983.
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  411. An examination of the changes made to the character of Bembo from the second to the third redaction. Particular emphasis is placed on the fact that the Bembo of Castiglione’s work deviates from his own theories of love and becomes more of a philosopher.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Cian, Vittorio, ed. Il libro del cortegiano. 4th ed. Florence: Sansoni, 1947.
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  415. Although dated, the “Dizionarietto biografico” (biographical dictionary) included in this work provides much information on the characters. It has been reprinted in L’arte della conversazione nelle corti del Rinascimento (The art of conversation in the courts of the Renaissance) by Floriana Calitti (Rome: Istituto Poligrafo e Zecca dello Stato, 2003), pp. 727–756.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Connell, William J. “Gasparo and the Ladies: Coming of Age in Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier.” Quaderni d’italianistica 23.1 (2002): 5–23.
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  419. Connell offers a revision of the standard view of the antifeminist character, Gaspare Pallavicino. The article has also appeared in an earlier Italian version, “Un rito iniziatico nel Libro del Cortegiano di Baldassar Castiglione.” Annali della Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa 4.2 (1999): 473–502.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Floriani, Piero. “I personaggi del Cortegiano.” In I gentiluomini letterati: Studi sul dibattito culturale nel primo Cinquecento. By Piero Floriani, 50–67. Naples, Italy: Liguori, 1981.
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  423. Floriani elucidates the reasons for the disappearance of some characters, and for changes in the roles and prominence of others, from the Seconda redazione (Second redaction) to the printed text.
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  425. Fontaine, Marie Madeleine. “Pietro del Monte et Baldassar Castiglione. Capitaines et courtisans.” In Parcours et rencontres: Mélanges de langue, d’histoire et de littérature françaises offerts à Enea Balmas. Edited by Paolo Carile, Giovanni Dotoli, Anna Maria Rangei, Michel Simonin, and Luigi Zilli, 281–298. Paris: Klincksieck, 1993.
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  427. Fontaine claims that the influence of Pietro del Monte in the Courtier is far greater than his actual appearances in the dialogues. She argues that the writings of the condottiere (military captain) played a formative role in Castiglione’s discussion of physical exercise, relations between prince and courtier, and the possibility of a crusade.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Motta, Uberto. “Bembo e Castiglione: Dagli abbozzi del Cortegiano al Petrarca aldino del 1533.” In “Prose della volgar lingua” di Pietro Bembo: Gargnano del Garda (4–7 ottobre 2000). Edited by S. Morgana, M. Piotta, and M. Prada, 449–491. Milan: Cisalpino 2000.
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  431. Motta makes pertinent observations that build on previous studies, particularly in the analysis of the changes wrought between the second and final redactions. Consequently, he constructs a nuanced view of Bembo both inside and outside the Courtier.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Motta, Uberto. “Per Elisabetta. Il ritratto della duchessa di Urbino nel Cortegiano di Castiglione.” Lettere italiane 56.3 (2004): 442–461.
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  435. For this critic, Elisabetta Gonzaga is the model princess. Her qualities represent not only the values inherent in the court of Urbino, but also those of any dignified European court.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Van den Bossche, Bart. “‘Quegli amori che son dolci senza amaritudine’: The Petrarchist Bembo in The Book of the Courtier.” In Petrarch and His Readers in the Renaissance. Edited by Karl A. E. Enenkel and Jan Papy, 193–208. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
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  439. This study of the role of Bembo in the Courtier underlines the point that his “Neoplatonic Petrarchism” endows the courtier’s materialist aspirations with a spiritual dimension.
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  441. The Courtier and Gender
  442.  
  443. Gender is an area of the Courtier that has received increasingly sophisticated attention. Older studies tend to focus solely on the role of women in the book and the associated question of whether Castiglione was “pro-female.” However, with the rise of masculinity studies, the courtier’s own gender characteristics, as well as the interaction between the sexes, has become more significant. Of the older-style studies, Guidi 1980 traces the evolution of the donna di palazzo (the court lady; the female counterpart of the courtier). The author suggests that, despite appearances, the court lady still remains subordinate to the male. Sole 1992 offers a more optimistic reading of women in the text. Scarpati 1992 presents an analysis of some of the key anecdotes concerning women in order to bring out their political importance. The tendency, however, has been to emphasize the ways in which the female characters in the Courtier eventually support the male courtiers while effacing their own identity. Both Finucci 1992 and Zancan 1983 argue persuasively along these lines. More recently, the masculinity of the courtier himself has become a topic of interest, particularly whether the courtier is essentially effeminate (Milligan 2006, Richards 2000). In contrast to this line of thought, Quint 2000 suggests that the courtier is emasculated by court life because the court lady stands in for the prince to whom the courtier must defer. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  444.  
  445. Finucci, Valeria. The Lady Vanishes: Subjectivity and Representation in Castiglione and Ariosto. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
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  447. Finucci puts the case that the presence of women in the Courtier is only superficially “feminist.” She argues that their silence signals the effacement of women from the process of creating their own individual identity and serves instead to bolster male solidarity. A chapter on the problematic of women as the subject of jokes is included (pp. 77–103).
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Guidi, José. “De l’amour courtois à l’amour sacré: La condition de la femme dans l’oeuvre de B. Castiglione.” In Images de la femme dans la littérature italienne de la Renaissance: Préjugés misogynes et aspirations nouvelles: Castiglione, Piccolomini, Bandello. Edited by André Rochon, 9–80. Paris: Université de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, 1980.
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  451. The strength of the essay lies in its detailed study of the role of love and women in the Courtier, in each of its separate redactions. It relates the subject matter to the precise historical circumstances in which Castiglione was writing.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Milligan, Gerry. “The Politics of Effeminacy in Il cortegiano.” Italica 83.3–4 (2006): 345–366.
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  455. Milligan takes issue with the concept of the courtier as effeminate. He argues that women are the instruments for the confirmation of the courtier’s masculinity. The article addresses the particular areas of music and dance, the male body, and dress.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Quint, David. “Courtier, Prince, Lady: The Design of the Book of the Courtier.” Italian Quarterly 143–46 (2000): 185–196.
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  459. Quint argues that the courtier has been emasculated by court life, which is characterized by the presence of women and their domination of that space. In this interpretation, the courtier is the servant of both the prince and the court lady.
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  461. Richards, Jennifer. “‘A Wanton Trade of Living?’ Rhetoric, Effeminacy, and the Early Modern Courtier.” Criticism 42.2 (2000): 185–206.
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  463. Through a study of one of Castiglione’s sources—Cicero’s De officiis (On duties)—Richards rejects the idea that Castiglione represents the emasculation of the courtier. She concludes that the adoption of self-restraint by the courtier is a critical stance that enables him to restrain the prince through the value of decorum.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Scarpati, Claudio. “Osservazioni sul terzo libro del Cortegiano.” Aevum 66.3 (1992): 519–537.
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  467. Scarpati focuses on the discussion of women from a number of unexpected angles. He contends that the denunciation of the clergy in Book III can be related to their misogynous attitudes. The article has useful annotations concerning some key examples of the women deployed in this book.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Sole, Antonino. “L’amore e la corte: La concezione dell’amore nel Cortegiano fra esemplarità petrarchesca e attualità cortigiana.” In Il gentiluomo cortigiano nel segno del Petrarca. By Antonino Sole, 7–39. Palermo, Italy: Palumbo, 1992.
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  471. Sole interprets the discussion on women in a more positive way than do most recent critics. However, he concedes that in Book IV women are marginalized through a non-Petrarchan, Neoplatonic concept of love.
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  473. Zancan, Marina. “La donna nel “Cortegiano” di B. Castiglione. Le funzioni del femminile nell’immagine di corte.” In Nel cerchio della luna. Figure di donna in alcuni testi del XVI secolo. Edited by Marina Zancan, 13–56. Venice: Marsilio Editori, 1983.
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  475. A suggestive reading in which Zancan argues that the female characters and the debate on women legitimize male intellectual discourse in the Courtier.
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  477. Book IV of the Courtier
  478.  
  479. Book IV has always been the subject of controversy and is therefore central to any interpretation of the Courtier. In broad terms, this final book can be approached in two ways. The first is to see it as part of a continuum; that is, as firmly connected to the first three books despite the differences in both tone and subject matter. In this interpretation, Book IV is the culmination of the discussions in the previous books (Ryan 1972). The second approach sees a break between the last book and the rest or, if not exactly a break, at least a tension between the “trivial” topics of conversation in the first three books and the profound discussions of politics and love in the last (Rebhorn 1972). Critics have analyzed the contents of Book IV in depth, principally because of the book’s general import and significance to the reader’s final view of the courtier. Hankins 2002, in particular, is illuminating about the philosophical directions in which the book moves. Moulton 2010 takes an original approach to Bembo’s discourse on love by suggesting that its idealization is a way of asserting the courtier’s masculinity. Gaylard 2009 sees Book IV as essential to developing a positive model of courtiership. Stäuble 1999 concentrates on the metamorphosis, in the final version, of the courtier into an advisor to the prince. This is indicative of Castiglione’s more aspirational ambitions for the Courtier with respect to its earlier redactions.
  480.  
  481. Gaylard, Susan. “Castiglione vs. Cicero: Political Engagement, or Effeminate Chatter?” Italian Culture 27.2 (2009): 81–98.
  482. DOI: 10.1179/155909009X445513Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Gaylard submits the theory that the Courtier is a critique of Cicero’s De oratore (On oratory). She contends that Castiglione’s model of the courtier as opportunistic, deceptive, and influential over the prince stands in opposition to Cicero’s republican idealism. Book IV demonstrates the success of this model over the moral rigidity of Ciceronian politics.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Hankins, James. “Renaissance Philosophy and Book IV of Il Cortegiano.” In The Book of the Courtier. The Singleton Translation. An Authoritative Text. Criticism. By Baldesar Castiglione. Edited by Daniel Javitch, 377–388. New York: Norton, 2002.
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  487. Hankins clarifies the philosophical issues of Book IV. In particular, he examines the ways in which Ficino’s Neoplatonic philosophy is adapted to the courtier’s situation.
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  489. Moulton, Ian Frederick. “Castiglione: Love, Power, and Masculinity.” In The Poetics of Masculinity in Early Modern Italy and Spain. Edited by Gerry Milligan and Jane Tylus, 119–142. Toronto: Center for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2010.
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  491. Places Bembo’s speech on love, the centerpiece of Book IV, in the context of gender politics in the Courtier. Moulton argues that it attempts to masculinize love by removing it from the court environment in which the courtier plays a subordinate role. In this interpretation, Bembo purifies love since it is no longer subject to women or the passions.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Rebhorn, Wayne A. “Ottaviano’s Interruption: Book IV and the Problem of Unity in Il libro del Cortegiano.” MLN 87.1 (1972): 37–59.
  494. DOI: 10.2307/2907714Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Rebhorn considers that Book IV marks a profound break with the previous three books and that Castiglione moves to end the work on a serious note (politics and Neoplatonic love). Paradoxically (due to the complex dialectics of the dialogue), he does not see this as impinging on the unity of the text.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Ryan, Lawrence V. “Book Four of Castiglione’s Courtier: Climax or Afterthought?” Studies in the Renaissance 19 (1972): 156–179.
  498. DOI: 10.2307/2857091Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Ryan makes a forceful case for considering Book IV to be the culmination of the text. He argues that it provides a moral purpose for the courtier, lacking in the previous three books.
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  501. Stäuble, Antonio. “Principe e cortigiano dalla seconda alla terza redazione del Cortegiano: Criteri e ragioni di una riscrittura (IV, IV—XLVIII).” Bibliothèque d’Humanisme et Renaissance 61.3 (1999): 641–668.
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  503. A systematic examination of Castiglione’s modifications to the section on the political role of the courtier. In general terms, the courtier rises from the role of subordinate in the courtly hierarchy to acting as the prince’s counselor and collaborator. No English translation is available as of the early 21st century.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Language, Rhetoric, and Society in the Courtier
  506.  
  507. The Courtier has been the focus of scholarly debate on the questione della lingua (the debate on linguistic usage), particularly by Italian scholars. It offers a different and contrasting solution to that presented by the historical Bembo, proposing instead a courtly language that personifies the essential qualities of court life. The contributions of Mazzacurati 1967 and Mazzacurati 1985 on the topic remain fundamental and are especially useful in that they place the language question in the broader context of the evolution of the courts in Italy. Pozzi 1979 points to Castiglione’s emphasis on language as communication. Motta 1998 analyzes Castiglione’s linguistic evolution through the various redactions. The style of the Courtier has not enjoyed the same scholarly focus. Dardano 1963 discusses the features of Castiglione’s syntax and demonstrates that the formulation of a rational argument is more important than stylistic embellishments. Lanham 1976 goes beyond traditional definitions of rhetoric and expresses the view that the self is a rhetorical construction that partakes of the game structure of the Courtier. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  508.  
  509. Dardano, Maurizio. “L’arte del periodo nel Cortegiano.” Rassegna della letteratura italiana 67 (1963): 441–462.
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  511. Dardano pinpoints the characteristics of Castiglione’s prose. He observes its analytical structures and the tendency toward an imitation of spoken speech.
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  513. Lanham, Richard A. “The Self as Middle Style: Cortegiano.” In The Motives of Eloquence. Literary Rhetoric in the Renaissance. By Richard A. Lanham, 144–164. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976.
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  515. Lanham densely argues that rhetorical complexities interact with the performance and process of court life. This produces an ideal of self that is approachable only from the outside, through self-consciousness. Ethics is style.
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  517. Mazzacurati, Giancarlo. “Baldassar Castiglione e l’apologia del presente.” In Misure del classicismo rinascimentale. By Giancrlo Mazzacurati, 7–131. Naples, Italy: Liguori, 1967.
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  519. This classic essay argues that Castiglione was committed to the political and cultural moment. It maintains that his linguistic and stylistic choices are all resonant with his enmeshment in contemporary issues and debates. Some undergraduates may find the range of cultural references and the complex academic Italian something of a challenge.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Mazzacurati, Giancarlo. “Baldassar Castiglione e la prosopopea della corte.” In Il Rinascimento dei moderni. La crisi culturale del XVI secolo e la negazione delle origini. By Giancarlo Mazzacurati, 149–207. Bologna, Italy: Il Mulino, 1985.
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  523. The Courtier is placed in the broad context of an evolving court culture that had moved away from the ideals and structures of communal society. Particular emphasis is placed on the linguistic debates in the early 16th century, both as a barometer of social change and of the role of the courtier-intellectual.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Motta, Uberto. “La ‘questione della lingua’ nel primo libro del Cortegiano: Dalla seconda alla terza redazione.” Aevum 72.3 (1998): 693–732.
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  527. Motta makes a sterling contribution to the scholarly discussion on the questione della lingua (the debate on linguistic usage) by setting Castiglione’s arguments precisely in the intellectual context of the early 16th century.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Pozzi, Mario. “Il pensiero linguistico di B. Castiglione.” Giornale storico della letteratura italiana 156 (1979): 179–202.
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  531. Pozzi shows how Castiglione’s linguistic theories evolved from the concept of courtly language to a more open category that could be defined as “Italian.”
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  533. Dialogue and Discourse in the Courtier
  534.  
  535. Recent criticism has become interested in the mechanics of the dialogue and the way in which it affects the reader’s comprehension of the debates recorded in the Courtier. Lipking 1966 argues that the Courtier does not display the basic elements of Platonic dialectic. This article reveals important, discursive mechanisms that underpin the dialogue. Cox 1992 presents a sustained analysis of the dialogue-form, seeing it as generating uncertainty in the reader. Carella 1992 also argues that the Courtier is an unstable dialogue. Kolsky 2008 views the text as an example of dialogue being used as a vehicle for a skeptical view of the world. Bernard 2000 takes an innovative reader-focused interpretation of the text that posits meaning and final judgments with the reader. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  536.  
  537. Bernard, John. “‘Formiamo un cortegiano’: Castiglione and the Aims of Writing.” MLN 115.1 (2000): 34–63.
  538. DOI: 10.1353/mln.2000.0002Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. A reading of the Courtier through the prism of the implied reader. In this suggestive interpretation, it is proposed that it is the reader who finally judges the discourses in the text. Reading and writing are the problems at the center of the dialogue.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Carella, Angela. “Il libro del Cortegiano di Baldassarre Castiglione.” In Letteratura italiana: Le opere. Vol. 1, Dalle origini al Cinquecento. Edited by Alberto Asor Rosa, 1089–1126. Turin, Italy: Einaudi, 1992.
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  543. A useful introduction to the text for students with an advanced knowledge of Italian. The essay examines the major features of the dialogue from the perspective of ambiguity and paradox.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Cox, Virginia. “Castiglione’s Cortegiano: The Dialogue as a Drama of Doubt.” In The Renaissance Dialogue: Literary Dialogue in its Social and Political Contexts, Castiglione to Galileo. By Virginia Cox, 47–60. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
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  547. Emphasis is placed on the dialogue’s potential for dialectical thought. By taking the example of the courtier’s relationship with the prince, Cox demonstrates how questions remain suspended in the text.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Kolsky, Stephen. “The Limits of Knowledge: Scholasticism and Scepticism in The Book of the Courtier.” Parergon 25.2 (2008): 17–32.
  550. DOI: 10.1353/pgn.0.0054Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Kolsky argues that Castiglione rejects scholasticism as a means of acquiring knowledge at court. Instead, the courtier should look toward academic skepticism as being more adapted to the changeable circumstance of the court.
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  553. Lipking, Lawrence. “The Dialectic of Il Cortegiano.” PMLA 81.5 (1966): 355–362.
  554. DOI: 10.2307/460824Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Argues that there is only a superficial resemblance to Platonic dialectic in the Courtier. The text only has the appearance of a dialectical dispute presenting its arguments in linear fashion. The essence of Castiglione’s version of dialectic is the play between ideas and reality.
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  557. Castiglione and Raphael
  558.  
  559. The collaboration between Raphael and Castiglione on the Lettera a Leone X (Letter to Leo X) has been recognized as a crucial aspect of their interest in the archaeology of ancient Rome. Di Teodoro 2003 provides the most meticulous edition of the Lettera (but see the perspicacious comments of Vecce 1996). Rosand 2005 examines the basis of Castiglione’s appreciation of Raphael. Shearman 1994 probes the relationship between the two men and suggests that Castiglione is the author of a letter previously thought to have been composed by Raphael. Mac Carthy 2009 takes an interdisciplinary approach to the concept of grace, theorized in the Courtier, by reading the portrait of Castiglione as a visual incarnation of the verbal analysis of this idea outlined in the dialogues. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  560.  
  561. Di Teodoro, Francesco P. Raffaello, Baldassar Castiglione e la “Lettera a Leone X”: “. . . con lo aiutto tuo mi sforcerò vendicare dalla morte quel poco che resta . . .” Con l’aggiunta di due saggi raffaelleschi. Rev. ed. Bologna, Italy: Minerva Edizioni, 2003.
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  563. A detailed investigation into the collaboration between Castiglione and Raphael on the Lettera a Leone X (Letter to Leo X) concerning the preservation of ancient Roman architecture. Includes transcriptions of both manuscripts of the Letter together with photographic reproductions.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Mac Carthy, Ita. “Grace and the ‘Reach of Art’ in Castiglione and Raphael.” Word & Image: A Journal of Verbal/Visual Enquiry 25.1 (2009): 33–45.
  566. DOI: 10.1080/02666280801915942Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Traces the concept of grazia (grace) and sprezzatura (nonchalance) in the Courtier and in later theoretical works on art, often inspired by Castiglione. The author argues that Raphael’s portrait of the writer embodies the idea of grace that had been adumbrated in the Courtier.
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  569. Rosand, David. “Una linea non stentata. Castiglione, Raphael, and the Aesthetics of Grace.” In Reading Medieval Culture. Essays in Honor of Robert W. Hanning. Edited by Robert M. Stein and Sandra Pierson Prior, 454–479. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2005.
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  571. Rosand builds up a case for reading the Courtier as an articulate assessment of painting in the early 16th century, based on the writer’s appreciation of Raphael. The essay demonstrates that Castiglione’s views on painting deeply influenced Giorgio Vasari and other later theorists.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Shearman, John. “Castiglione’s Portrait of Raphael.” Mitteilungen des Kunsthistorischen Institutes in Florence 27.1 (1994): 69–97.
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  575. Shearman examines the literary relations between Raphael and Castiglione. Of particular concern are the references to Raphael in the Courtier and the letter from the artist to Castiglione published only in 1554. It is argued that Castiglione actually wrote the letter himself.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Vecce, Carlo. “La ‘Lettera a Leone X’ tra Raffaello e Castiglione.” Giornale storico della letteratura italiana 173 (1996): 533–543.
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  579. Vecce makes some important additional comments and corrections to Di Teodoro’s edition of the Letter.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Receptions
  582.  
  583. The Courtier is one of the most influential of all Italian Renaissance literary texts. Its influence extended across all Europe and was far-reaching in the early modern period. The book has been republished on innumerable occasions, commented on, translated, and adapted to changed historical circumstances. Burke 1995 provides the most accessible general account of this influence. Other scholars have studied the ways in which the Courtier was adapted to particular national cultures. Gosman 1997 discusses the Spanish connection in relation to Boscán in a comparative context. Hinz 2009 examines Castiglione and Boscán as the founding authors of European notions of civility. Ley 1990 provides a thorough survey of the German reception of Castiglione in the early modern period. Merolla 1994 and Salvadè 2006 trace the changes to the ways in which the Courtier was interpreted and rewritten in 17th- and 18th-century Italy. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  584.  
  585. Burke, Peter. The Fortunes of the “Courtier”: The European Reception of Castiglione’s “Cortegiano.” Cambridge, UK: Polity, 1995.
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  587. A lucid introductory account of the Courtier, particularly outside Italy (although its history inside the peninsula is not completely ignored). Burke covers translations into the major European languages, as well as adaptations of the text to different cultures throughout the early modern period.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Gosman, Martin. “Obedience and Social Identity: Some Treatises on the Perfect Courtier (ca. 1530–1630).” In The Propagation of Power in the Medieval West: Selected Proceedings of the International Conference, Groningen, 20–23 November 1996, 35–63. Groningen, The Netherlands: Egbert Forsten, 1997.
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  591. Gosman examines conduct books by Baldassarre Castiglione, Giovanni Della Casa, Nicolas Faret, and Baltasar Gracián. His study shows how these authors, each in his or her own fashion, cemented the position of the nobility. This was achieved through creating the criteria by which the elite could distinguish themselves from other social categories.
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  593. Hinz, Manfred. “Castiglione, Gracián, and the Foundations of Gentlemanly Manners in Early Modern Europe.” In Civilizing America. Manners and Civility in American Literature and Culture. Edited by Dietmar Schloss, 1–18. Heidelberg, Germany: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2009.
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  595. The author argues that the irony and ambiguity of the Courtier are erased in later works on manners (Della Casa, Gracián, and Matteo Peregrini).
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  597. Ley, Klaus. “Castiglione und die Höflichkeit. Zur Rezeption des Cortegiano im deutschen Sprachraum vom 16. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert (im Anhang: H. Turler: De perfecto aulico B. Castilionii, deque eius in latinam linguam versione narratio (1561)).” In Beiträge zur Aufnahme der italienischen und spanishchen Literatur in Deutschland im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert. Edited by Alberto Martino, 3–108. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990.
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  599. A fundamental and meticulous study of the German reception of the Courtier in the early modern period.
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  601. Merolla, Riccardo. “Dal cortegiano al servidore. Modelli primo-secenteschi di trattatistica sul comportamento.” Esperienze letterarie 19.3 (1994): 3–36.
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  603. Merolla analyzes several treatises (Matteo Peregrini, Battista Manzini, and others) on courtiers during the 1624–1634 period. The article demonstrates that the discussion on the court had moved far away from the counsels of the Courtier, principally because of the prince being an absolute ruler.
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  605. Salvadè, Anna Maria. “Sulla fortuna settecentesca del Castiglione.” In Imitar gli antichi. Appunti sul Castiglione. By Anna Maria Salvadè, 77–130. Milan: Edizioni Unicopli, 2006.
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  607. A thorough survey of the revitalized interest in Castiglione in 18th-century Italy.
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  609. The Courtier’s English Reception
  610.  
  611. In the wake of Thomas Hoby’s translation of the Courtier in 1561 (see Castiglione 1994, cited under English Translations of the Courtier), Castiglione’s book held a special place in Elizabethan culture. Vincent 1967 presents an overview of its presence in England. Other studies concentrate on Hoby’s translation: Molinaro 1959, along with other later English translations; the study by Nocera Avila 1992 of the linguistic choices made by the translator; and the wider historical context in which Partridge 2007 places it. Javitch 1978 examines the way in which English poetics were influenced by the courtly ideals expressed by Castiglione. Whigham 1984 makes the point that, in its English context, the Courtier had a precise purpose; namely, that of providing the rhetorical tools whereby the Elizabethan courtier would be able to dominate his rivals. No English translations of the foreign-language citations in this section are available as of the early 21st century.
  612.  
  613. Javitch, Daniel. Poetry and Courtliness in Renaissance England. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978.
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  615. The cultural presence of the Courtier in Elizabethan England provides a model for poetic endeavor. It is illustrated here by an analysis of Puttenham’s Arte of English Poesie (The art of English poetry) (1589). The author discusses the intertextual relations between the Courtier and Cicero’s De oratore (On oratory), as well as the crucial significance of mediocrità (moderation).
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Molinaro, Julius A. “Castiglione and His English Translators.” Italica 36.4 (1959): 262–278.
  618. DOI: 10.2307/477119Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. An evaluation of the methodologies and outcomes of four translations of the Courtier across the centuries. Starting with the Elizabethan translation by Hoby, it continues with Robert Samber’s 1724 version, followed by A. P. Castiglione’s version published in 1727, and finally with L. E. Opdycke’s 1901 translation.
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  621. Nocera Avila, Carmela. Tradurre il “Cortegiano”: “The Courtyer” di Sir Thomas Hoby. Bari: Italy: Adriatica Editrice, 1992.
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  623. An exhaustive study of Hoby’s translation of the Courtier. It analyzes his methodology, the type of English used, and the lexis.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Partridge, Mary. “Thomas Hoby’s English Translation of Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier.” Historical Journal 50.4 (2007): 769–786.
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  627. A historical and political account of the background to Hoby’s translation of the Courtier.
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  629. Vincent, Eric Reginald. “Il Cortegiano in Inghilterra.” In Rinascimento europeo e Rinascimento veneziano. Edited by Vittore Branca, 97–107. Florence: Sansoni, 1967.
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  631. Vincent discusses the popularity of the Courtier in England. He covers possible influences on Shakespeare and other English writers, as well as Hoby’s translation.
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  633. Whigham, Frank. Ambition and Privilege: The Social Tropes of Elizabethan Courtesy Theory. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
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  635. Examines the ways in which Castiglione’s Courtier, among other texts, functioned in Elizabethan court society. Whigham stresses the importance of self-depiction at court where ambition, rivalry, and the competition for power define the courtier.
  636. Find this resource:
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