The grammar guide that nobody wanted and nobody asked for.



Q: Something here is wrong. Where do I tell you?
A: Just fix it.

Q: I found a typo, can you just fix it?
A: Oh good god no I wrote this thing in like two days there's no way in hell I'm going to bother to proofread it myself.



~ The example sentences here are ripped from visual novels so they demand context to have a literal understanding of them. ~
~ It's not possible to give unambiguous translations of most Japanese sentences without context. ~
~ Because they're ripped from visual novels, they might have writing style problems or typos. ~
~ Don't make flashcards out of anything written here. ~
~ Mixing flashcards with grammar is bad for you. ~
~ Especially example sentence flashcards. ~
~ Do you get it yet? ~
~ Just read more. ~



Compound words in Japanese work the same way as English.

会議 meeting/conference
会議室 meeting room/conference hall

科学 science
科学者 scientist

可能 possible
不可能 impossible

Japanese nouns do not have grammatical number or grammatical gender.



N - noun or noun-like object
V - verb
A - i-adjective
Na - Na-adjective
X - Something arbitrary, like a phrase or word (one that fits)
... - An arbitrary phrase (one that fits)



> Nだ, Nです
someone/something is N

> Nだった, Nでした
someone/something was N

> Nじゃない
someone/something isn't N

> Nじゃなかった
someone/something wasn't N

This is called "state of being".

Na-adjectives are also allowed to be used in these patterns.



> Nが...
N is the subject of an action or state of being (e.g. the "I" in "I killed him")

> Nを...
N is the direct object of an action; something caused to change by an action, or inherent to an action (e.g. the "him" in "I killed him", "the lever" in "I pulled the lever")

> Nは...
a statement or situation is predicated on the topic of N (e.g. the "Computers" in "Computers, they suck", "Today" in "Today, I lost my coat")

> Nに...
1) N is the indirect object of an action; the recipient of the effects of a complete action (e.g. "to him" in "I sent a letter to him")
2) N is the general location of an event or action; "at", "on", "in"
3) N is the precise destination of a change in location; "on", "onto", "in", "into", "to"

今度は俺がお前に力を貸す！
今度は (this time, topic) 俺が (I, subject) お前に (you, indirect object) 力を (strength, direct object) 貸す！ (lend, present/future tense action)
This time, I lend my strength to you!



The neutral sentence structure in Japanese is <Topic> <Subject> <Indirect object> <Direct object> <Adverbs> <Verb>. If it doesn't add ambiguities, most parts of a sentence can be moved around without changing what it means.

The subject and object can both be dropped completely, unlike English. Dropping the subject or object is like using pronouns, even if they would be a pronoun if they were stated.

Japanese can mark the subject or object as a topic (は) instead of subject (が) or object (を) if it makes sense and isn't misleading.

Verbs do not change form for the gender (he/she), number (I/we), or perspective (I/you/he) of their subject.



> NaのN
N is described by the na-adjective Na

大切な日
大切な (precious, adjectival) 日 (day, days) [日 can also mean "sun" but doesn't here]
"precious day" or "precious days"

Na-adjectives act like nouns if they don't have な attached to them. Sometimes, it's unnatural to use a specific na-adjective as a subject or object, especially if it's too abstract like "precious".

> N1のN2
1) N2 is owned by N1
2) N2 is described by N1, as though N1の is an adjective

俺の力
俺の (My, possesssive) 力 (strength)
"my strength" or "strength of mine"

夜の海
夜の (Night, adjectival) 海 (ocean, sea)



> Aです
> V-ます
Describes an action or event politely

While it's the です from Nです, the phrase Aです is irregular. です does not mean "is" here. It just adds politeness. Aです isn't a conjugation, but it replaces the nonexistent/impossible A-ます conjugation.

People also say Vです, which means ALMOST the same thing as V-ます. But it's not really a conjugation, it's just using です as a politeness word.

Japanese has two categories of regular verb conjugation.

In the first category, the final syllable is dropped from the verb, and the conjugation is appended to the new form.

[食べ]る -> [食べ]ます
[見]る -> [見]ます

In the second category, the last syllable changes depending on the conjugation.

[知る] -> [知り]ます (notice that 5-る verbs conjugate differently than 1-る verbs)
[話す] -> [話し]ます
[死ぬ] -> [死に]ます

The first category is called single-row (一段). The second category is called five-row (五段). The names come from traditional hiragana/katakana charts. With the last core syllable in a given single-row verb, it always stays on the same row. With the last core syllable in a given five-row verb, it can be a kana from any row, depending on the conjugation.

The rule/pattern for a given conjugation depends on which category the verb is from. It's not always as simple as deleting the る from single-row verbs or respelling the last syllable for five-row verbs.

The last core syllaboe of a verb in the dictionary form/present tense always ends in the vowel "u".

Irregular verbs: する "do", くる "come"
する -> します
くる -> きます



> Nである
> Nであった
> Nではない
> Nではなかった

These are essentially the formal versions of だ, だった, じゃない, and じゃなかった. In this case, the formal versions are the older versions. That means that である (actually it was であり at the time) turned into today's だ, etc. Also, the ある in である is a verb, and conjugates like one.



> V-ない
the subject doesn't V / isn't V-ing (i.e. negative form) (e.g. "I'm not studying", "he doesn't open the door")

[食べ]る -> [食べ]ない
[見]る -> [見]ない
[知る] -> [知ら]ない
[話す] -> [話さ]ない
[死ぬ] -> [死な]ない

The very common five-row verb ある, "to be", takes the negative form ない, not あらない.

Irregular verbs:
する -> しない
くる -> こない

> A-ない
the subject isn't A (i.e. negative form) (e.g. "he's not red")

[熱い] -> [熱く]ない

In Japanese, い-adjectives conjugate too, not just verbs. Just not the same way as verbs. Surprised? い-adjective conjugations are based on the consonant "k", rather than the syllable い.



> V-た
the subject did V (past tense)

[食べ]る -> [食べ]た
[見]る -> [見]た

A little explanation for the past tense of five-row verbs is in order. The final core syllable switches to an "i" syllable, just like for the ます form. But when the た is attached, the conjugation gets slurred together. This isn't a slang thing. This conjugation slurs together absolutely everywhere except for archaic-sounding writing or speeches.

[話す] -> [話し]た (pronounced without the "i" from the し, so it sounds like "hanashta")
[知る] -> [知っ]た
[待つ] -> [持っ]た
[買う] -> [買っ]た
[問う] -> [問い]た (there are only like three う verbs that conjugate this way)
[聞く] -> [聞い]た
[急ぐ] -> [急い]だ (notice that it's いだ, not いた or んだ)
[死ぬ] -> [死ん]だ
[学ぶ] -> [学ん]だ
[飲む] -> [飲ん]だ

Be careful: there's a sentence-ender, んだ, that looks a lot like the past tense of ぬ/ぶ/む verbs, but is actually something completely different.

Irregular verbs:
する -> した
くる -> きた



> A-た
the subject was A (past tense)

[熱い] -> [暑か]った

The past tense of い-adjectives is irregular for unintuitive etymological reasons. Just learn it.

Most verb conjugations from here on out will not have equivalents for い-adjectives.

> V-なかった
the subject did not V (negative past tense)

[食べ]る -> [食べ]ない -> [食べ]なかった

ない is, itself, an い-adjective. You just can't conjugate it to itself (i.e. no 食べなくない).

Irregular verbs:
する -> した
くる -> きた

> V-ません
> V-ました
> V-ませんでした

These are the negative, past tense, and negative past tense forms of the V-ます conjugation, because the past tense doesn't conjugate and V-ない doesn't have a ます form.

> V-ないです
> V-なかったです

These are alternative polite negatives. Like Vです, they're not considered conjugations, they're just using です as a politeness word.



> Nへ
1) N is the destination or direction of something; "to" "towards"
2) The idea of "towards N"-ness

The choice between に and へ for destination depends on the specific kind of movement or travel. に focuses on the destination or specific direction, へ focuses on the motion or travel.

> Nから
From N, for almost all meanings of "from", including both physical and metaphorical meanings of "from"

> Nで
1) N is the tool or means by which something is realized (like the "with a sword" in "I killed the monster with a sword")
2) N is the general location of a situation

The choice between に and で for location depends on the specific combination of situation and location. If it helps, で is more like "at" or "by", and に is more like "in" or "on".



A-さ
turns an い-adjective into a noun representing a reflection on the quantity or magnitude of that い-adjective

[暑]さ
hotness / heat (as an amount, not a concept)

Unlike most other い-adjective conjugations, this one drops the last core syllable (the い) entirely, instead of replacing it with a "k" syllable.



> V-て
1) A simple request to do V
2) If ください is attached, becomes a polite request
3) Connects verbs into compound verbs
4) Connects related statements

Conjugates exactly the same way as the past tense, but with て/で instead of た/だ.

見て！ (simple request)
Look!

食べてください (polite request)
Eat, please.

FIXME
戦ってもらう (compound verb)
someone fights for me / is fighting for me / will fight for me (can also be used when an opponent gives you a second chance or something)

失いたくねえ。だから戦って、守るんだよ
I don't wanna lose anyone. That's why I fight, I protect.

Usage 3 can change the nature of the verb so much that the meaning of the subject and/or object can change. 4 can't, it just strings statements together, like a comma or semicolon.



> V1-ろ, V5-え
Proper imperative. Usually overbearing.

見ろよこれ！！
Take a look at this!!!

……舞台を見ろ。俺を見るな。
...Look at the stage, not me.

The form for five-row verbs replaces the "u" from the last core syllable with an "e".

Irregular verbs:
する -> しろ
する -> せよ (less common)
くる -> こい



> A-くて
1) Lists adjectives that all apply to the same thing
2) Connects related statements

熱くて、硬くって、おっきくて
Hot, hard, and big.

朝食を食べて、すぐに家を出た。
I ate breakfast, then left (departed from home) right away.



> V N
> A N
1) N is described by the verb/adjective V/A
2) N is described by the statement ending in the verb/adjective V/A

Surprise! You can use entire statements as adjectives! As long as they don't end in だ or です or ます or a bunch of other exceptions. These are called adjectival clauses. Except in the case of lone adjectives, in which case they're just adjectives.

自分も考える時間が欲しい。
I want time to think alone.

どうせいずれは殺す人々。
At any rate, they're all people who kill.

今日も暑い日になりそうだ。
Looks like it's going to be hot today too.

> Vこと
> Vもの
> Vの
These are basically ways of using a verb like a noun. Vaguely similar to English's "~ing". こと and もの act like nouns being modified by a relative clause consisting of V or V's statement. But の acts less like a noun being modified and more like some kind of indescribable conjugation-that-isn't-a-conjugation particle-that-isn't-a-particle thing.

> Vこと。
Some kind of extremely indirect instruction that something must be done (or if V is negative, not be done). Not always an instruction, can also just be a way of framing a statement as a description of itself.

入室の際にはノックすること。
That you knock when entering a room.

カレンに見つめられること、カレンがそんな目をすること。
To be stared at by Karen. For Karen to look at me with such eyes.



> NとV
To do V with N

彼と一緒に今日の進め方を考えているから。
Because I'm thinking about how to spend the day with him.

そう、好きな人と一緒に
Right, (do something/be somewhere) with someone I like.

と can also come at the end of certain adverbs like ちゃんと, ずっと, and きっと, so be careful about that.

> Vと
> Aと
> って
These are ways of creating a relative clause from nothing, without it needing to modify a noun, not even weak nouns like こと or もの or a dummy noun like の. Yes, と here can be pretty confusing.

何か、大変なことがあったと聞いたけど――？
I heard that there was some kind of, big thing that happened, though...?

> という
> っていう
These convey that a notion is described by a given phrase or that a given phrase is how something is viewed. They can also be used to modify nouns with phrases that would be very difficult to attach to nouns otherwise, like phrases ending in another noun.



> A?
> V?
> N?
> Nか
> Nですか
> Nなの?
> Aか
> Vか
> Vの?
> Vのか?
> Aの?
> V/Aですか
> (etc)

These are ways of asking questions. Questions made with か or tone of voice focus on learning new information, questions made with の or のか focus on exchanging ideas or notions. That said, they can both be used both ways.

Note that Nだか is ungrammatical, and that の questions are asked differently with nouns than they are with verbs and adjectives.

の can be slurred sometimes.

The の here is the の that can turn verbs into nouns.

こんちは……何故、もういるですか？
Hello... Why are you still here.

ちょっと、どこ行くの？
Wait, where are you going?

まだ食べるか？
Still eating?

さて、食べるか。
Now, how about I eat.

う、ううっ、どっちが年上だ？　どっちが先輩だ？
Eh, uhh, who's older? Who's the senior?

いいですか?
Is it fine? / Can I?

It's pretty common for の/のか questions to be answered with のだ/のです/んだ/んです statements. のだ statements carry the mood of conveying explanatory information or giving an answer to an idea/notion, rather than just any kind of information or an answer to a desire for information.



> じゃない?
> じゃん
> け, っけ

さっき自分で言ったじゃん。
It's like you just said, isn't it.

なんだっけ、それ
What was that again?

These are ways of asking for confirmation about something. じゃない and じゃん are also used for expressing surprise by pretending to ask a question (like "Well well, isn't it the boss himself?")

Yes, じゃない really can mean both "it isn't" and "isn't it". You just have to get used to it.



> V-ないで
1) A simple request not to do V
2) If ください is attached, becomes a polite request

食べないでください
Don't eat, please.



> V-ては
1) An action as a topic
2) A weak, nonliteral condition

Most of the time, the two meanings are basically indistinguishable without context, unless it's part of a fixed phrase where only a topic or only a condition makes sense.

あなたは戦っては駄目ッ
It's bad for you to fight! / It's bad if you fight.

> V-ちゃ
Contraction of ては. V-ちゃう is a different contraction.

> A-くては
For adjectives.

> A-きゃ
Contraction of A-くては.



> Nも
1) Inclusive topic
2) Non-contrastive topic

も includes one topic among a group of other implied valid possible topics. In other words, it usually means that the statement is true of other topics (like "other people are leaving"), and is additionally true of the given topic (like "I'm leaving too").

僕も行くよ
I'm going too! (inclusive example)

The ability to choose between も and は for topics means that, by choosing one when you don't need to state the topic at all, you're either playing up the topic being special (with は), or playing up that the topic is like other topics (with も).

……昨夜も、そんなに痛かったですか？
...Did it hurt that much last night, too? (non-contrastive example) (as opposed to only last night and not today or two days ago, if は were used)

Saying that something is "including" among other options affects logical entailment. Non-neutral logical entailment can trigger linguistic polarity weirdness when part of questions, conditions, or negative statements.

It's 100% okay if you have no idea what the fuck you just read. Just take the following example for granted.

誰もいないな
Looks like there's nobody here. (negative polarity example)



> Nでは, Nじゃ
1) Circumstantial location as a topic
2) Implement/means of an action, as a topic

あんな短い剣では槍を受け流す事しかできない。
With such a short sword, you can't do anything but deflect spears. (about short swords against spears in particular)

今部屋の外では女の子達がドアに耳をつけて聞いているに違いなかった。
No way around it, the girls had their ears against the door listening in from outside the room just now.

> Nでも
1) Ahahahahaha good luck trying to learn this from a grammar guide
2) Basically it means "even"
3) Or the inclusive/noncontrastive version of Nでは
3.5) This is often realized in polite requests to do something while implying that other options are okay
4) It can also be an interjection or conjunction that basically means "but". There are other ways to say but, this is just one of them.

この世で絶対の理屈や論理は、子供でも分かる数の大小、算数だ。
The logic and reason absolute in this world are what even children understand: comparing the sizes of numbers, elementary mathematics.

女でも子供でも殺してきたって
That they came to kill

お暇なら、一緒に探検でも行きませんかっ？
If you have time, why don't we go exploring (or something) together?

>だって
1) Ahahahahaha good luck trying to learn this from a grammar guide
2) Most of its meanings overlap directly with でも's meanings, but they have different levels of commonness.
3) When it's used as an interjection, its attitude is more contradictory and explanatory than than でも, and it can mean slightly different things as a result.
4) Sometimes it's just a (possibly very short) statement ending in だ with the って relative clause particle attached. In those cases, none of the complications above apply.



> なぜ
> なんで
> どうして
These mean "why", with varying degrees of attitude.

> Nだから, Nですから
> Vから, Vのだから, Vのですから
> Aから, Aのだから, Aのですから
Because of an event or situation described by the statement V, A, or Nだ. There are many other ways to say this, this is just one of them. だから and ですから can also be interjections, without a noun.

> ので, そして, etc
There are many more ways to express "because/since/due to".

それに、まだパンツを履いていないので……あの、履いてきてもいいですか？
Oh, and I haven't put on my panties yet, so... hey, is it okay if I go without wearing any?



> いる
> ある
These mean "be" or "exist". Not as in one thing being another, but as in something being real, having a location, or in general just existing. ある is for subjects that are unlike life, いる is for subjects that are like life. This ある is the same ある from である.

> V-ている
1) In the process of doing the continuous action V
2) In the state resulting from doing the non-continuous action V
3) In a long-term situation described by V

焼き餅を焼いているらしい。
Looks like they're cooking yakimochi*.
* food based on baked/roasted/non-sticky rice cakes

テメェはもう……死んでいる
You're already dead, fucker.

> Vてある
Turns transitive verbs into transitive verbs expressing that something has had an action done do it. Expresses the state resulting from the action, not the event of the action being done to it.

お茶は淹れてある。
Tea's done (being steeped).



> V-ておく
To do V for now ("let's leave for now"), either to prepare for something or to resume doing something later.

> V-ていく
Can either mean "go and V"/"V and go", mean "V is happening now and will continue into the future", or work as a ghetto future tense because Japanese doesn't have a future tense.

> V-てくる
Can either mean "come and V"/"V and come" or mean that V started in the past and has continued to the present moment.

> V-てしまう
Can mean "finish doing V", "do V and live with the consequences of doing so", or "have done V now".

> V-ておる
This is a humble or dialectal version of ている.



> V-てる, V-とく, V-てく, V-とる
Contractions of V-ている, V-ておく, V-ていく, and V-ておる. Less likely to mean "... and V". More likely to have to do with how the verb progresses over time. The て or と can be voiced like で or ど for verbs like 死ぬ that conjugate to 死んで for the て form.

> V-ちゃう, V-ちまう
Contractions of てしまう. Less likely to mean "finish doing V". The ち starts where the て. Can also be じゃう or じまう for verbs like 死ぬ that conjugate to 死んで for the て form.



> これ, それ, あれ, どれ
Express an unnamed noun. これ means "this thing". それ and あれ mean "that thing", with the difference being that それ is for things the other person would say "this" for but not the speaker, and あれ being for things that both people would say "that" for. どれ means "which one".

> このN, そのN, あのN, どのN
These determine which N is being mentioned.

しかし……この本は、さすがに……。
But... This book is, quite, how do I put it...

> ここ, そこ, あそこ, どこ
Here, there, there, where

> こう, そう, ああ, どう
Like this, like that, like that, in what way

There are more words of this kind, like こちら/こっち/etc, but once you know how they work they're very easy to figure out.

> 誰/だれ
Means "who", as in "who's there", not "someone who I know".

> 何/なに
Means "what", as in "What do you want?", not "I mean what I say".

> 何時/いつ
Means "when", as in "When did you go?", not "he left when I came in".

> はい, ええ, うん, etc
These are all ways of saying yes or expressing confirmation.

> いいえ, いや, ううん, etc
These are all ways of saying no or expressing refusal.

In actual speech, うん/ううん are pronounced completely differently.



> V1-られる, V5-(a)れる
1) Passive. Means that the subject is having the action done to it. Turns the direct object into the subject, marked with が. The old subject is marked with に instead of が, if it's stated.
2) One-row verbs only: can also be the potential (can V / is able to V) instead.

The conjugation for five-row verbs turns the vowel of the last core syllable into an "a", then adds れる.

この子、パンツ見られると凶暴化するんだろうか。
This girl would probably go savage if her panties got seen.

下着を見られるチャンスが増えますからね
Because there'll be more chances to (get to/be able to) see underwear, yeah?

ゆえに、どうせ殺されるなら戦って、その果てに。
Thus, if you will be killed anyhow, fight, fight to the very end.

する -> される
くる -> こられる

> V1-られる, V1-れる, V5-(e)る
Potential form (can V / is able to V).

The passive form of single-row verbs doubles as a potential form. There's a short potential for single-row verbs too, if you see it, you can be 99% sure that it's a potential (can X), not a passive (Xed) or a potential-passive (Xable / can be Xed).

The conjugation for five-row verbs turns the vowel of the last core syllable into an "e", then adds る.

あの娘の為なら俺は死ねる!!
If it's for the sake of that girl, I could die!

Irregular verbs:
する -> できる
くる -> こられる
くる -> これる



> V1-させる, V5-(a)せる
Causative. The subject is causing someone/something else to perform an action or experience an event. This can be like "makes him eat", "lets him eat", or anywhere in between.

> NをV-<causative>
1) The subject is causing someone to experience "NをV".
2) The subject is causing N to do V.

服を脱がせるから、後は私とミアに任せて
I'm taking off her clothes, so leave the rest to me and Mia. (i.e. go somewhere that you won't see her naked)

君を死なせたくなかった
I didn't want to make you die.

Sometimes both the direct object of the original verb and the direct object of the causative verb (so, the person being made to do something) are included. In this case, the original direct object is probably going to use を or go unmarked, and the causative direct object is probably going to be marked with に or something.

そうすればセイバーに人を殺させる必要なんてない。
If I do things that way, I won't "need" to make Saber kill people.

> V1-さす, V5-(a)す
Short version.

Prescriptivists consider it wrong for five-row verbs ending in す, and for single-row verbs, but those kinds of verbs still use it once in a blue moon.

Some verbs have fixed special versions that are used way, way more than their causative conjugation, like 見せる (so in 見せる's case, it's almost always used instead of 見る's 見させる).

Irregular verbs:
する -> させる
くる -> 来させる

> V1-させられる, V5-(a)せられる
Causative passive. To be made to do something.



> Xより...
Something is more ... than X.

俺より強い
Stronger than me.

あの子、みんなが思っているより強い子じゃないの
That girl's stronger than everyone thought, isn't she?

> Xほど...
Means ... on the level of/as much as X.

> Xほど...ない
Means ... not on the level of/not as much as X.

> XからXまで
Means "from X to X". Either of the two parts can be left out.



> V1-よう, V5-(o)う
Let's X / how about I X

行こうか
Let's go

> V-てみる
Try to V / try out doing X - uses the て form

考えてみる
I'll try to think about it.

> V-てほしい
Want someone to V

教えてほしい。ここは本当に学園の中なのか？
I want to know. (I want you to tell me.) Is this place really on campus?

> NがV-たい
Want to do V to N

ラーメンが食べたい。
I want to eat ramen.

何が食べたい？
What do you want to eat?



> V1-れば, V5-(e)ば
If.

Expresses that if one thing happens, another thing is or will be true. Usually focuses on the condition, not the result.

解けば死ぬ。
If I untie it I'll die.

下着をずらせば、天音の秘部がしっかりと見える。
If you shift her underwear, Amane's privates are completely visible.

見れば分かる
This is almost a fixed expression. It means "it's obvious", "you can understand it just by looking at it".

どうすればいい？
This is a fixed expression. It means "What should I do?". There are many, many fixed expressions consisting of conditions and words for "good" (いい, いける, etc) or "bad" (ダメ, ならない, etc).

Irregular verbs:

する -> すれば
くる -> くれば

> A-ければ
For adjectives.

> A-けりゃ
contraction.

歩けなければ走れない。
If you can't walk, you can't run.



> Xなら...
If X / given X.

Means that if one thing is true, so is the other. Doesn't describe cause and effect. Focuses on the result. Not anywhere near as much of a condition as ～ば is. Sometimes it's basically used like a topic marker, but even more contrastive than は.

喩えるなら、戦闘の専門家と戦争の専門家だ。
Metaphorically speaking, they specialize in combat and war, respectively.

キミならできるよ！
You can do it!

> Xならば...
Same as なら but emphasized so much that it turns into a "real" condition.

> なぜなら...
Fixed phrase that basically means "as for why", meaning that the following statement is going to explain something.



> V-たら
If/when.

Doesn't describe cause and effect. Can be used for things like "If you're free tomorrow, come see me", which ～ば can't.

> ...と
If/when.

Attaches to statements, not nouns or whatever. Usually has a comma after it. Describes cause and effect. Used for things that are generally true, not specific situations or coincidences. Attaches like 行くと for verbs, Nだと for nouns, etc.



> ...ながら, ...あいだ(に), ...うちに, ...つつ
These are all different ways of saying "while/as/during/at the same time as ...". They're all used in different situations and have different meanings.

鼻で息をしながら、がくがくと首を縦に揺らす
Breathing through her nose, she rocked her shaking head front-to-back.



> けど, でも/V-ても, しかし, Vが/Aが, Nだが
These all mean but/despite/however/etc. They're more similar to eachother than the ways of saying "while" are, but they're still different.

けど can also be けれど, けども, or けれども, which all have different levels of formality and politeness.

You've already seen でも as a conjunction here before.

しかし is just an interjection and can't be placed between two statements in the same sentence.

しかし事実だ
However, it's the truth.

The が here is not the subject marker, it doesn't attach directly to nouns.

声もかけてみるが、返事はない。
I try to raise my voice, but there's no reponse.



> ちょっと, きっと, ずっと
These are fixed adjectives that happen to end in っと. There are lots of them.

> しっかり, きっかり, しゃっきり, はっきり, etc
These are onomatopoetic adverbs that happen to end in っかり and っきり. They're endless. Many of them can take と to emphasize their adverbialness, or する to turn them into actions about behaving that way.

> どんどん, そろそろ, めちゃくちゃ, びりびり
These are onomatopoetic adverbs that happen to repeating two syllables, maybe with some variation in one of the syllables. Many of these can also take と to emphaasize their adverbialness or する to make them actions.

> Naに
This makes na-adjectives act as adverbs. Some non-na-adjectives can also turn into adverbs this way.

自然に
Naturally/spontaneously

> Naと
Many na-adjectives can also take と to act as adverbs.

> N的
This makes nouns act like Na-adjectives meaning "N-ness".



> Xつ
Turns the number X into an amount.

Normal Japanese nouns are uncountable. You can't say "five stores" or "four stores" with the normal word for "store". This is just like how in English you can't say "five rices" when you're referring to pieces of food or grains of rice. You say "five pieces of food" or "five grains of rice" instead. But in Japanese, almost all nouns aren't countable, so almost every way of counting things is something like "pieces of food" or "grains of rice".

There are other counting words than つ, which are almost all nouns, but they're restricted to counting specific kinds of things.

あと、もう一つ
Then give me another.



> ただのN
A mere N / just a A

Means that the N is nothing more special than what is said about it by calling it an N.

> ただ<number>
Only a certain amount.

> ただだ, ただです
Free (of cost), no strings attached, etc.

Sometimes ただ takes the form たった, but たった can also just be a verb like 立った or something.



> ね, よ, ぜ, な, わ, etc
These are sentence-ending particles that convey the speaker's attitude towards what they're saying or how the person they're saying it to is going to take it. They can express things like assertion, agreement, free-willed-ness, caution, etc. か is technically one of these but serves more of a grammatical function.

> だね, だぜ, etc
Compound sentence ending particles don't follow the same rules their parts would follow on their own, so you can say things like いいだぜ just fine and it doesn't seem weird at all, even though "いいだ" is objectionable at best on its own.

> Vな
Expresses prohibition. This is not the same な from the list of sentence-ending particles above.

くるな！
Stay away!

Yes, Vな as in prohibition and な the sentence-ending particle are ambiguous. You just have to get used to how they're used so you can tell which is which.

> V-なさい
Polite order.

食べなさい。
Eat.

> V-な
Short version of V-なさい. Not ambiguous with the な sentence ending particle or prohibition, it's a conjugation, not a sentence ender.



> V-てもらう
For someone to do V for the sake of the first person. The subject is the first person.

> V-てくれる
For someone to do V for the sake of the first person. The subject is the doer.

> V-てあげる
For the speaker to do V for the sake of another person. The subject is the doer/first person.

> V-てやる
For someone to do V, with V affecting someone, regardless of whether that someone wanted it or not.



> 誰か, いつか, なにか, etc
These mean "someone", "some time", "something", etc. as in "Is someone there?", "I know someone who can deal with this", "something fell out of my bag", etc.

……誰かいるんですか？
...Is someone there?



> 誰も, いつも, なにも, etc
These mean "anyone", "any time", "anything", etc., as in for negative statements.

These aren't really used for "anyone" in positive statements. 誰も and いつも can be used for "everyone" or "all the time" in positive statements, but that's irregular behavior.

い、いいえ。何も言ってません
Ah, no. I didn't say anything.

It's not always possible to translate them into English as "anyone" etc, so some dictionaries define these words as "nobody", "never", "nothing", etc.

It's important to realize that the negative is not part of the Nも phrase, it's part of the statement as a whole.

誰も来ないよ
Nobody's coming.

> 誰でも, いつでも, なにでも/なんでも
These mean "any X" in the sense of a particular X. They can be used with positive phrases. In negative phrases they're like an emphatic version of the Xも phrases.

誰でもわかる
Anyone could understand.

そいつはあの火事の中、誰でもいいから誰かを助けようとやってきて、この俺を見つけたのだ。
That guy walked within those fires, looking to save someone, anyone was fine, and he found me like this.

助けを求めて、誰でもいいから助けてほしくて、脇目も振らずに歩き続けた。



> ～や～や, ～と～と, ～とか～とか, ～か～か
These are ways of making various kinds of lists of things.

This is like how "and", "or", "and/or", and commas are used in English. They do not, however, literally translate into just "and", "or", or "and/or". They also all mean slightly different things.

The listing particle is often ommitted from the last entry in a list. Some kinds of lists can work even if there's only one item.

寂しいとか、悲しいとか。
Like lonely, or sad.

> Xなど
Basically means "things like X" or even X and things like X".



> ～たり～たり
Lists past events to describe what kind of stuff happened.

たり is formed the same way as the past tense. Sometimes there's only one past event.



> Xだけ, Xのみ, Xばかり/Xばっかり
These are various ways of expressing "only", "just", etc. They have different nuances and are used in different situations.

だけ and のみ mean that the statement only applies to what they're attached to.

聞こえたのは僕だけかな？
Am I the only one who could hear it?

なら、追いかけるのみだ。
Then there's only pursuit. (we can only chase after them)

ばかり expresses that there's so much of something, or so little of anything else, that you can't think of it any other way.

先輩の本能は、えっちなことばかりなんですね
Senpai's instincts are all about lewd stuff, it seems.

空模様は悪化するばかり。
The weather just gets worse and worse.

ばかり can work on the "time" something happened, like with さっき "recently/a short while ago", even if it's not directly attached.

でも、さっき恋人になったばっかりだ
But we just became lovers recently.



> Xしか
Used chiefly with negative statements, means "(nothing) but X"

This doesn't operate on question words like the other stuff here, but it's affected by polarity like they are.

今、ここには自分とセイバーしかいない。
Right now, there's nobody here but Saber and myself.

俺はもう、狂うしかないじゃないか
Isn't madness all that's left for me now?



> ...と思う, ...かも, ...かもしれない
These are ways of hedging a statement someone's not sure about so that it doesn't seem like an absolute.

> ...っぽい, ...らしい, V-そう
These mean that something seems some way. Can have a wide range of implications, everything from "someone is ...ish" to "I think I'm gonna ...".



> もう...
1) Already ...
2) Again/more/still (especially in fixed phrases)

もう行っちゃうの？　もっとお話ししたいのにな
Are you leaving already? I still have stuff to say, though.

もう一回やってみるか？
Want to try doing it again?

> もう！, もう..., etc
As an interjection, expresses exasperation. Comes from meaning 1 from above, like "もういい" "enough already".

もう大丈夫です
I'm okay now.

> もう...ない (or any negative expression)
Not/don't ... anymore

もうこわくない。
I'm not afraid anymore.

もう喋るな
Don't talk anymore.



> まだ...
Still ...

でもまだ眠いし……
But I'm still tired...

> まだ...ない
Not ... yet

そう、頭の中はまだ何も整理できていない。
That's right, I still can't sort anything out within my head yet.

> また
Again

またパンツ見えた。
I saw her panties again.

> または、
An interjection. "Otherwise", "or". There are many fixed phrases like this. They're allowed in different situations and mean slightly different things.



> V-ず, V-ずに
These mean "without doing V". Forms the same way as the negative, except that する's ず form is せず/せずに, not しず/しずに.

> V-なくてはならない, V-なければならない, V-なくちゃだめ, V-なけりゃいけない, etc
These mean "must V". Any phrase that goes "(negative condition) (expression of wrongness)" means "must", but they all have different nuances.



> V1-ようとする, V5-(o)うとする
Means "trying to V".

アンタたちが逃げようとするからでしょッ！！
Isn't it because you guys are trying to run away!!

躱そうとする試みは無意味だろう。
Attempting to try to dodge it would surely be meaningless.

> V1-まい, V1まい, V5まい
This is basically a negative version of the V1-よう/V5-(o)う form.

Normally comes after the full dictionary form of the verb, but for single-row verbs, the る can be dropped as well (i.e. V1-まい).

Not normally used as a way to say "let's not X". Almost always presents negative conjecture.

なるほど。それでは、そう簡単には終わるまい。
I see. In that case, there's no way it would end that easily.

> ...まいとする
Means "trying not to ...". Like a negative version of the V1-ようとする/V5-(o)うとする pattern.

> ではあるまい, じゃあるまい, ではあるまいし, じゃあるまいし
This is basically a negative version of だろう.



Most of these contractions apply to general situations.

> V-ねー
Common contraction of V-ない. "~ai" syllables can be contracted to "~ee" almost universally in rough or dialectal speech.

> すげー
Common contraction of すごい. Same deal as above.

> なにしてんの
Contraction of なにしてるの.

> しんない
> しらん
Contractions of しらない.

> いらん
Often a contraction of いらない "not needed/I don't need it".

> Nさんち
Contraction of Nさんのうち (N's house/N's place). Can happen with pretty much any honorific.

> Nっす
This is a contraction of です.

> おっす
This is almost always a contraction of おはようでございます. Yes, really.

> Nじゃ
> Nや
These are dialectal/regional versions of だ. This じゃ is not the じゃ from じゃない, it used to be spelled ぢゃ, the other one didn't.



> Nであります
> Nでありました
> Nではありません
> Nではありませんでした
> Nじゃありません
> Nじゃありませんでした
> Nでございます
> Nでごさいました
> etc

These exist. They mean exactly what they look like they mean. When you get to Nではありませんでした and Nじゃありませんでした they start to look like unintelligible hiragana stew, but you get used to it.