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Technology (Victorian Literature)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Victorian era was a remarkably fertile period for the adoption, expansion, and transformation of technology. Photography, telegraphy, telephony, steamships, railways, electric lighting, and industrial control engineering are only a few of the many complex systems and processes developed during the era. While this technical ferment defies easy classification, historians have traditionally placed it in the overlap between the first and second Industrial Revolutions, defined respectively by the growth of steam power in the late 18th century and by emerging electrical and communications technology in the later 19th century. In recent decades, however, many critics have proposed multiple histories of Victorian technology that challenge triumphalist accounts of inevitable progress and modernization. These new approaches focus on forgotten innovations and on different models of cultural influence and transformation, based on reciprocal relations among science, technology, art, literature, and popular discourse. Moreover, the current Information Revolution has also prompted renewed attention to 19th-century media and information technology, sometimes through postmodern fantasies of alternate (or “neo-Victorian”) history. As these new approaches show, technology inspired and provoked Victorians both as a material reality and as a literary and cultural symbol. It provided artists and writers with absorbing models for narrative form, visual perception, human relations, spirituality, and scientific objectivity. At the same time, it fuelled energetic debate surrounding its role in culture, labor, aesthetics, labor, psychology, sexuality, and the natural world. This entry concentrates on technology in both Victorian literature and history, as a form of scientific practice supported through mechanical and artifactual systems, processes, and relations. Major forms of technology treated here include industrial, transport, engineering, electric, communication, visual, sound, military, medical, agricultural, and information, although considerable overlap exists among these categories.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. These overviews of Victorian technology fall into two categories: historical approaches and literary approaches, which treat technology more explicitly in relation to language, literary works, and cultural representation.
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  9. Historical
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  11. Descriptive overviews of Victorian technology have existed for over a century, but only in the later decades of the 20th century have these accounts substantially addressed the broader social and cultural meanings of systems and mechanisms. Derry 1960 provides a classic technical introduction, which Cardwell 1994 supplements with a lucid history of the relation between 19th-century science and technology. More recent cultural approaches seek to resist the temptations of technological determinism and triumphalist “Whig” history. Crary 1990 treats visual devices and the modernization of early-Victorian vision, Marvin 1988 uses a sociological approach toward late-Victorian electricity, and Marsden and Smith 2005 explores how large-scale technological systems both literally and figuratively supported empire. Jackson 2007 considers the strengths and weaknesses of such new cultural histories, whether focused on detailed case studies or devoted to broader historical narratives of technology. Finally, Wiener 1981 poses a highly influential account of anti-technological British history and identity, which Edgerton 1996 attacks for its exclusively cultural emphasis and counters with quantitative evidence of late-Victorian technological productivity.
  12.  
  13. Cardwell, Donald. The Fontana History of Technology. London: Fontana, 1994.
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  15. Offers a helpful technical overview and intellectual history of the first and second Industrial Revolutions, the growth of autonomous technology, and transformations in water power, telegraphy, engineering (structural, medical, chemical), electricity, thermodynamics. See especially pp. 178–363. Insightfully discusses the relation between scientific theory and applied technology.
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  17. Crary, Jonathan. Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.
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  19. A seminal cultural history of vision and visual technology before the appearance of photography. Argues for a fundamental “reorganization of the observer” (p. 14) through popular Victorian optical devices such as the stereoscope, which operated directly upon the body of the individual. Challenges technological determinism and received histories of modernist art.
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  21. Derry, T. K., and Trevor Williams. A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.
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  23. Part 2 provides an accessible technical description of the development of mechanical innovations in the 18th and 19th centuries. Includes a detailed account of the steam engine (stationary, locomotive, and marine), the chemical industry, electrical industry, printing, photography, and agriculture.
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  25. Edgerton, David. Science, Technology, and the British Industrial “Decline,” 1870–1970. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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  27. A revisionist history of science, technology, and British economic performance, which challenges popular “pessimistic” views of late-Victorian industrial decline. Contests the received “cultural history of anti-technology” (p. 7) with detailed statistical and economic analysis. Argues that historians have overvalued technical novelty, falsely conflating it with economic performance.
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  29. Jackson, Myles W. “A Cultural History of Victorian Physical Science and Technology.” Historical Journal 50.1 (March 2007): 253–264.
  30. DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X06006005Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  31. Recent book review essay on new and more broadly focused cultural histories of science and technology. Emphasis on measurement, education, standardization, imperialism, credibility, trustworthiness. A specialized review of the field.
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  33. Marsden, Ben, and Crosbie Smith. Engineering Empires: A Cultural History of Technology in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
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  35. A history of the “cultural construction of large-scale technologies of empire”—both “personal and business” and “geopolitical” (p. 226). Treats 19th-century technologies of steam power, iron steamships, railways, and telegraphy, while examining broader cultural discourses and strategies for supporting empire at home. An accessible and wide-ranging cultural study.
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  37. Marvin, Carolyn. When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  39. A significant sociological approach to new electric media in the last quarter of the 19th century. Places special emphasis on electric light and the telephone in the social construction of 20th-century mass media. Studies the negotiations of social and discursive groups for power.
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  41. Wiener, Martin J. English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
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  43. A hugely influential history of the anti-technological construction of English culture and character, especially in the years following the Great Exhibition (1851). Treats the continuing cultural hegemony of the rentier aristocracy, anti-industrial bias of British education, and the idealized pastoral and artisanal aspects of British literary and political culture.
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  45. Literary
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  47. In his first book-length study of Victorian machines as objects of literary representation (Sussman 1968), Herbert Sussman stresses the ambivalent and largely negative attitude of writers toward technology and its “dulling” emotional effects. In later writings, such as Sussman 1999, the author even more emphatically opposes Victorian literary culture and industrial technology, as does Manlove 1993, a brief article on the machine in fiction. More recently, however, literary critics have explored alternate and more positive paths of technological literary and cultural influence. Clayton 2003 argues for productive interdisciplinary forms of Victorian “technoculture,” Rudy 2009 and Keep 2002 explore how literature itself emulates electric and information systems, and Daly 2004 traces an analogous mechanical intensity of feeling in sensation fiction and drama portraying railways and speed. In an essay especially accessible to students, Briggs 1991 explores portraits of the railway as an early model for later Victorian responses to other new technologies.
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  49. Briggs, Asa. “The Imaginative Response of the Victorians to New Technology: The Case of the Railway.” In On the Move: Essays on Labour and Transportation History Presented to Philip Bagwell. Edited by Chris Wrigley and John Shepherd, 58–75. London: Hambledon, 1991.
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  51. An accessible essay on the railway locomotive as a mechanical prototype for later complex human reactions to technology. Provides an informative survey of popular metaphors used for machinery, accidents, speed, and mechanical embodiment. Assesses the goals of cultural histories of technology.
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  53. Clayton, Jay. Charles Dickens in Cyberspace: The Afterlife of the Nineteenth Century in Postmodern Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  55. A pathbreaking study of Victorian technoculture, which seeks to heal the rift between high literary culture and technology. Questions traditional modes of disciplinarity and periodization in analyses of Dickens. Hardy, James, Babbage, recent neo-Victorian literature, and both information and communications technology are explored.
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  57. Daly, Nicholas. Literature, Technology, and Modernity, 1860–2000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  59. An engaging literary and cultural study of the “mechanization of everyday life” (p. 3), with an emphasis on encounters between people and steam locomotives in railway melodramas and sensation fiction from the 1860s onward. Explores industrial ideas of time and space and the production of the modern nervous body.
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  61. Keep, Christopher. “Technology and Information: Accelerating Developments.” In A Companion to the Victorian Novel. Edited by Patrick Brantlinger and William B. Thesing, 137–154. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2002.
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  63. A fine survey of Victorian communications and transportation technologies and their presence in period fiction. Treats the social, temporal, and sensorial transformations associated with the train, steamship, and telegraph; the ambivalent symbolic role of railways; and associated revolutions in gender and media, allied with typewriting and telegraphy.
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  65. Manlove, Colin. “Charles Kingsley, H. G. Wells, and the Machine in Victorian Fiction.” Nineteenth-Century Literature 48.2 (September 1993): 212–239.
  66. DOI: 10.1525/ncl.1993.48.2.99p0005xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67. An excellent overview of the brief or otherwise negative attention granted to machines in most Victorian fiction. Finds exceptions only in Charles Kingsley’s Water-Babies and in the new genre of scientific romance, exemplified by Wells’s positive and sustained emphasis on machinery.
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  69. Rudy, Jason. Electric Meters: Victorian Physiological Poetics. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2009.
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  71. An incisive literary, cultural, and historical study, linking Victorian poetry to electric telegraphy, field theory, and the analysis of nerve impulses. Explores how electricity represents “a new, physiological mode of poetic transmission” (p. 13) in verse by Tennyson, Maxwell, Hopkins, E. B. Browning, and Swinburne.
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  73. Sussman, Herbert. Victorians and the Machine: The Literary Response to Technology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.
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  75. The first book-length study of Victorian literature specifically in relation to the machine. Explores the “ambivalent” views of authors who both admired technology and feared its alienating effects as a symbol for “mechanistic modes of thought” (p. 8). Significant exceptions include Kipling and Wells. A pioneering descriptive survey of literary attitudes.
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  77. Sussman, Herbert. “Industrial.” In A Companion to Victorian Literature and Culture. Edited by Herbert F. Tucker, 244–257. Oxford: Blackwell, 1999.
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  79. An introductory essay on the rejection of industrial perception and innovation by a majority of Victorian writers and artists. Argues for a dominant opposition between high culture and technology, and for the railway “as an absent presence, whose rejection shapes Victorian aesthetics and art” (p. 253). Accessible.
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  81. Introductory Works
  82.  
  83. Introductory accounts of Victorian technology range from economic histories and antiquarian approaches to increasingly influential sociocultural studies. Landes 2003 offers an important economic introduction, while Mumford 1934 contextualizes the “paleotechnic phase” of the British Industrial Revolution in a broader history of the machine beginning in the medieval period. Accessible cultural surveys of steam power and of technology as material culture may be found, respectively, in Briggs 1982 and Briggs 1989. In addition, revisionist histories of empire (Headrick 1981), visual culture (Nead 2000), and science and technology studies have exerted a significant impact on the field. Sussman 2009 offers a helpful broad cultural overview of Victorian technology, and both Headrick 2000 and Briggs 1989 treat early forms of information and communications technology.
  84.  
  85. Briggs, Asa. The Power of Steam: An Illustrated History of the World’s Steam Age. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
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  87. A classic popular introduction to the impact of steam on culture, art, and politics, with an emphasis largely on Britain. “The Gospel of Steam” (p. 70–93) provides a cultural history of Victorian mechanization. Contains extensive picture sections on various inventions, ranging from ocean liners to traction engines. Lacks a substantial bibliography.
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  89. Briggs, Asa. Victorian Things. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
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  91. An introductory overview of Victorian-era material objects and the social and technological developments that shaped them. Chapters 3 and 4 discuss visual technology: spectacles, cameras, visual showmanship, and photography. The last chapter provides a concise cultural history of electricity and later Victorian communications technology.
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  93. Headrick, Daniel R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.
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  95. An introductory history of European imperialism as supported and encouraged by 19th-century technology. Brief chapters focus primarily on the British use of transport, military, and communication technology, including steamboats in China, guns in Asia and Africa, the prophylactic use of quinine, the Suez Canal, submarine cable, and railroads in India. A wide-ranging volume.
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  97. Headrick, Daniel R. When Information Came of Age: Technologies of Knowledge in the Age of Reason and Revolution, 1700–1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
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  99. Introduces the concept of information systems before the computer or even the electric telegraph. Treats cartography, compendia (dictionaries, encyclopedias), communications information (postal service, semaphore telegraph), and statistics. An accessible cultural and technological history.
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  101. Landes, David S. The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  103. A broad economic history of industrialism, with emphasis on machinery, machine tools, and metallurgy. Chapter 2 discusses the distinctive features of Britain that supported mechanical innovation and increased productivity (see especially pp. 99–123). Originally published in 1969.
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  105. Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1934.
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  107. A pioneering and contested history of Western technological transformation, which replaces the steam engine with the medieval clock as a symbol of the modern industrial age. Stresses the alienating effects of “the machine,” defined broadly as an “entire technological complex” (p. 12). Wide-ranging and introductory.
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  109. Nead, Lynda. Victorian Babylon: People, Streets, and Images in Nineteenth-Century London. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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  111. An excellent introduction to engineering and urban planning revolutions in 19th-century London, with emphasis on urban visual culture. Part 1 discusses mapmaking, measuring technologies, transportation, and sanitation; Part 2 studies gas lighting and urban spectacle; and Part 3 examines street construction, gender, and obscenity. Draws extensively from period art and journalism.
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  113. Sussman, Herbert. Victorian Technology: Invention, Innovation, and the Rise of the Machine. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2009.
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  115. One of the few recent and accessible introductions to technology devoted specifically to Victorian period. Treats industrial production, Babbage’s calculating machine, the telegraph, the steamship, electricity, and new cultural approaches to the living human machine. Includes discussions of period literature and culture. Brief bibliography.
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  117. Reference Works
  118.  
  119. The Internet has broadened access to a remarkable number of materials on Victorian machinery, including not only digitized textual and visual sources but also photographs of the holdings of various archives and museums specializing in British industrial archaeology. The London Science Museum website maintains an extensive online exhibition of its various historical machines and devices (under “Museum Objects”). In addition, the museum’s website includes a page where illustrations of different steam engines may be viewed in motion (“See the Engines at Work”). The National Railway Museum, National Maritime Museum, and Transport Archive all maintain sites that house visual and archival material on the history of transportation, with holdings in Victorian railways and steamships. For researchers pursuing more conventional textual sources, The University of Rochester’s Steam Engine Library contains a helpful, if rather brief, bibliography and collection of digitized period publications on the history of stationary, locomotive, and marine engines in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Victorian Web includes a variety of well-edited introductory articles, bibliographies, and links providing guidance on resources for specific inventions. Finally, researchers may access indexes of a popular discussion list for historians of science and technology at H-Sci-Med-Tech, which includes a searchable indexed bibliography of 19th-century articles on science and technology in the Science in the Nineteenth-Century Periodical (SciPer) Index.
  120.  
  121. H-Sci-Med-Tech.
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  123. Electronic discussion list for “scholars who study science, medicine, and technology across a wide variety of periods and regions of the world.” Includes archives of past messages, book reviews commissioned by list, and searchable message logs (by keyword). Managed by an international consortium of rotating editors.
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  125. National Maritime Museum Collection.
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  127. Online collection includes ship models, plans, historic photographs, visual art, and instruments.
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  129. National Railway Museum. Our Collection.
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  131. Online collection includes photos of locomotives and rolling stock, railway posters, railway art, furniture, timepieces, signaling and telecommunications devices, and ephemera.
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  133. London Science Museum.
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  135. The London Science Museum maintains an extensive online exhibition of photographs of its various historical machines and devices (under “Museum Objects”). Its permanent online exhibition, “Making the Modern World”, includes Stephenson’s original Rocket locomotive and Babbage’s Difference Engine No. 1, as well as a searchable database. Other relevant topics and exhibits include “Babbage’s Analytical Engine” and “Constructing the Railway System”. “See the Engines at Work” is an especially valuable online exhibit for viewers who seek to gain a more material sense of how the various detailed sections of these devices move and work, both separately and in unison. The engines are illustrated in motion through animated explanatory diagrams and captions, breaking their motion down into various legible steps. Illustrations include Boulton and Watt’s rotative engine, J. and E. Hall’s compound steam engine, and Charles Parsons’s steam turbine.
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  137. Science in the Nineteenth-Century Periodical (SciPer) Index.
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  139. Summarizes and indexes material relating to science, technology, and medicine in sixteen British periodicals from 1800 to 1900. An invaluable tool for research on Victorian science and literature. Does not provide access to actual articles. Maintained by the Humanities Research Institute of the University of Sheffield.
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  141. Steam Engine Library.
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  143. A helpful bibliography and digitized collection of primary historical documents relating to the history of the steam engine. Contains some 19th-century sources, although incomplete. Based at the University of Rochester.
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  145. The Transport Archive.
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  147. A learning resource focused on railways, inland waterways, and aviation. Developed in association between the Leicestershire County Council, Trafford Borough Council, Salford City Council, South Gloucestershire Council, and De Montfort University, Leicester. Contains images and information on 19th-century engineering achievements, community history, and the changing environment.
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  149. Victorian Web. Victorian Technology.
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  151. A subcategory of the Victorian Web, managed by George Landow of Brown University. Articles and links arranged by topic, including the Industrial Revolution, factories, railway systems, and steamships.
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  153. Research Societies and Journals
  154.  
  155. Since both Victorian studies and science and technology studies (STS) encompass a vast number of journals and research societies, this list includes resources that focus more substantially on the history of Victorian technology and/or its relation to literature, culture, and language. Although broadly focused historical journals, Technology and Culture, the British Journal for the History of Science, the Journal of Transport History, and Isis often include essays on Victorian technology. Technology and Culture also regularly includes books reviews of recent scholarship on the 19th century. More specific literary approaches to technology may be found in Configurations and in Neo-Victorian Studies, which often treats alternate postmodern fantasies of Victorian technology (“steampunk”) in current fiction and film. More detailed technical and antiquarian approaches to engines and engineering—many of them Victorian—may be found in the Transactions of the Newcomen Society and the International Stationary Steam Engine Society Bulletin websites. In addition, the parent societies of many of these journals maintain websites with helpful resources for researchers.
  156.  
  157. British Journal for the History of Science.
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  159. Includes essays, review articles, and book reviews on “medicine, technology, and social studies of science.” Published by the British Society for the History of Science.
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  161. British Society for Literature and Science.
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  163. An international scholarly society that “promotes interdisciplinary research into the relationships of science and literature in all periods.” The website includes helpful book reviews of current scholarship in the “modern” period (including many Victorian topics).
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  165. Configurations.
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  167. A journal that “explores the relations of literature and the arts to the sciences and technology.” Published by the Society for Literature, Science and the Arts (SLSA), it studies discourses and cultural approaches toward science, technology, and medicine.
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  169. International Stationary Steam Engine Society.
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  171. An organization for industrial archaeologists and amateur enthusiasts, devoted to “all aspects of the stationary steam engine.” Publishes a Bulletin that includes technical reports and studies, book reviews, and other antiquarian resources.
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  173. Isis: An International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences.
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  175. Publishes scholarly articles, commentary, and book reviews “on the history of science, medicine, and technology, and their cultural influences.” Includes a helpful bibliography of current scholarship each year.
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  177. Journal of Transport History.
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  179. Publishes scholarship, book reviews, and museum/exhibition reviews on “transport, travel, tourism and mobility histories, including planning and policy.” Often contains material on Victorian railways, steamships, and transport engineering. Addresses scholarly and antiquarian interests.
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  181. Neo-Victorian Studies.
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  183. “An interdisciplinary peer-reviewed e-journal dedicated to contemporary re-imaginings of the 19th century in Literature, the Arts, and Humanities.” Includes book reviews. Primarily literary in focus.
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  185. Transactions of the Newcomen Society for the Study of the History of Engineering and Technology.
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  187. Contains research papers on the history of technology and “all branches of engineering: civil, mechanical, electrical, structural, aeronautical, marine, chemical and manufacturing.” Includes detailed technical and antiquarian studies, published from the meetings of the Newcomen Society.
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  189. Society for the History of Technology (SHOT).
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  191. A research society devoted to historical, cultural, and sociological approaches to technology. SHOT maintains a yearly bibliography (accessible to members on its webpage) and a resource page that provides helpful links for students, researchers, and teachers. Publishes the quarterly journal Technology and Culture.
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  193. Society for Literature, Science, and the Arts (SLSA).
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  195. An interdisciplinary research society interested in “problems of science and representation, and in the cultural and social dimensions of science, technology, and medicine.” Publishes Configurations.
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  197. Technology and Culture.
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  199. An extremely influential journal on cultural and historical approaches toward technology. Published by the Society for the History of Science (SHOT), it supports a wide range of interdisciplinary and international essays by anthropologists, sociologists, engineers, historians, scientists, archivists, and literary scholars. Includes books reviews, museum exhibit reviews, and bibliographies of current scholarship in issues from 1964 to 1990.
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  201. Bibliographies
  202.  
  203. Few bibliographic resources are devoted specifically to current scholarship on Victorian technology. The most helpful and up-to-date resources are general bibliographies organized by specific technologies and periods, found through the online journal Isis and on the website of the Society for the History of Technology (listed under Research Societies and Journals). A number of annotated bibliographies are also available in print (published by Garland), but they tend to be dated and to focus quite broadly upon the history of science and technology, often without specific geographical or period headings (see Bindocci 1993 on gender, Finn 1991 on electricity, Hurt and Hurt 1994 on agriculture, and Stapleton and Shumaker 1986 on civil engineering). Among these print resources, Ferguson 1968 maintains a largely Anglo-American emphasis and Ottley 1965 (including the 1988 and 1998 supplements) is an especially venerable resource on British railway history.
  204.  
  205. Bindocci, Cynthia Gay. Women and Technology: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1993.
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  207. Surveys secondary scholarship from 1979 to 1991. Mostly historical entries, but some are sociological or anthropological. Many headings address women in technological development and women’s work.
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  209. “Current Bibliography in the History of Technology.” Technology and Culture. 1964–.
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  211. A helpfully categorized and updated resource for cultural approaches to technology. Included in issues of Technology and Culture from 1964 through 1990. Post-1975 bibliography available to current members of SHOT through the society’s website.
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  213. Ferguson, Eugene. Bibliography of the History of Technology. Cambridge, MA: Society for the History of Science, 1968.
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  215. Although out of date, this wide-ranging resource includes general works, bibliographies, manuscripts, government publications, societies, civil engineering, transportation, energy conversion, electric arts, manufacturing, medical technology, musical instruments, military technology, industrial organization, and patents. European and Anglo-American in emphasis.
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  217. Finn, Bernard S. The History of Electrical Technology: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1991.
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  219. A wide-ranging resource. Includes many countries and both primary and secondary works. Organized according to general history, institutions, companies, countries, telegraphy, submarine cable, telephony, and radio. Still helpful for 20th-century history and criticism.
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  221. Hurt, R. Douglas, and Mary Ellen Hurt. The History of Agricultural Science and Technology: An International Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1994.
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  223. Subcategories address plant science, animal science, women, science, agronomy, and meteorology. Technology section includes resources on mechanization, tillage, harvesting, irrigation, technology transfer, and biotechnology. Treats a variety of countries; British resources are more difficult to locate.
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  225. Whitrow, Magda, ed. Isis Cumulative Bibliography: A Bibliography of the History of Science Formed from Isis Critical Bibliographies 1–90, 1913–65. London: Manswell, 1971.
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  227. An extremely expansive source of secondary bibliographic information on the history of science, including a helpful separate section on technology. Includes book reviews. Later editions, edited by John Neu, published in 1980, 1989, and 1997. Also published annually in online issues of Isis.
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  229. Ottley, George. A Bibliography of British Railway History. London: Allen and Unwin, 1965.
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  231. A vast general history and description of public rail transport in the British Isles. Organized according to particular periods, regions, types of locomotion, engineering, administration, management and operations, labor, nation, railways in art and literature, and appreciations. Includes primary and secondary sources. Supplements published in 1988 and 1998.
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  233. Stapleton, Darwin H., and Roger L. Shumaker. The History of Civil Engineering since 1600: An Annotated Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1986.
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  235. Includes background and general works, categorized historically. Section IV addresses the “Victorian Era and Second Industrial Revolution” (1830–1900). A good resource for 20th-century scholarship.
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  237. Anthologies
  238.  
  239. Many anthologies exist of period sources on Victorian technology, making available otherwise obscure material from periodicals, pamphlets, and other ephemera. Freedgood 2003 is a particularly useful and accessible source for beginning researchers, and Jennings 1985 is the most impressively encyclopedic. Berg 1979 focuses most closely on working-class journalistic sources, while Flint 1987 contains material well suited to the study of Victorian industrial fiction. Anthologies also provide access to valuable visual sources: Chew and Wilson 1993 provides a useful compilation of images of machinery from The Illustrated London News, while Watkins 1999 and Watkins 2000–2005 are both exhaustive works of industrial archaeology and photographic documentation.
  240.  
  241. Berg, Maxine, ed. Technology and Toil in Nineteenth-Century Britain: Documents. Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press, 1979.
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  243. An instructive collection of nonfiction period excerpts on the “Machinery Question” and factory automation. Includes detailed descriptions of machines used in a variety of trades. Especially substantial selections from working-class pamphlets and periodicals.
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  245. Chew, Kenneth, and Anthony Wilson. Victorian Science and Engineering Portrayed in the Illustrated London News. Dover, NH: Alan Sutton, 1993.
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  247. A substantial picture gallery of various inventions and technological processes, mostly from wood engravings. Emphasis on communications and transport technology, railway engineering, and railway accidents.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Flint, Kate, ed. The Victorian Novelist: Social Conditions and Social Change. London: Croom Helm, 1987.
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  251. Despite the title’s reference to fiction, this anthology consists primarily of nonfiction and journalistic portraits of the social relations and environments surrounding the mechanization of labor. Excerpts address London, the Industrial North, and agricultural poverty, and include prominent accounts of machine accidents in Dickens’s weekly Household Words.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Freedgood, Elaine, ed. Factory Production in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  255. Includes succinct and carefully edited excerpts from nonfiction primary sources on innovations in textile machinery, mechanical labor, and management. See especially pp. 70–181. Provides biographies, helpful annotations, suggestions for further reading, and a timeline. Well suited for upper-level undergraduates.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Jennings, Humphrey, ed. Pandaemonium: The Coming of the Machine as Seen by Contemporary Observers, 1660–1886. New York: Free Press, 1985.
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  259. An ambitious, encyclopedic, and deeply influential anthology of excerpts describing machinery, drawn from a wide variety of literary, cultural, and scientific works. Jennings treats these passages as images and indexes them thematically and narratively, as well as chronologically (e.g., “Man-Animal-Machine,” “Daemons at Work,” “Industrial Man”).
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Watkins, George. The Textile Mill Engine. 2 vols. Ashbourne, UK: Landmark, 1999.
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  263. Another extensive photographic survey, including descriptive captions. Volume 1 treats early and modern mill engines and special-duty engines.
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  265. Watkins, George. Stationary Steam Engines of Great Britain: The National Photographic Collection. 10 vols. Edited by A. P. Woolrich. Ashbourne, UK: Landmark, 2000–2005.
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  267. An exhaustive photographic survey of British stationary steam engines, accompanied by captions and organized geographically. A work of descriptive, rather than analytical, industrial archaeology.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Edited Collections
  270.  
  271. Some of the most exciting new approaches to technology may be found in recent essay collections, which challenge traditional views of an antipathy between the Victorian sciences and humanities. Perhaps the most influential technophilic approach is represented by Spufford and Uglow 1996, which has prompted a playful rethinking of Victorian literature and culture through the lens of current information technology. Similarly, both Lightman 1997 and Luckhurst and McDonagh 2002 provide a variety of cultural and “contextualist” approaches to technology. Other more specifically focused collections on culture and technology include Henson, et al. 2004 on journalism and media, Stein 2001 on photography, Kang and Woodson-Boulton 2008 on visual technology, and Price and Thurschwell 2005 on labor and gender. Finally, students seeking more traditional economic and technical approaches to the history of transport technology will find Freeman and Aldcroft 1988 equally valuable.
  272.  
  273. Freeman, Michael J., and Derek H. Aldcroft, ed. Transport in Victorian Britain. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1988
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  275. A major contribution to the history of Victorian transportation. Discusses railways and steam-powered transport, coastal shipping, and the persistence of sail, human, and animal power in internal transport systems. Introduction provides a helpful overview to the period’s economic, social, and technological context. Will also interest students of statistics and geography.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Henson, Louise, Geoffrey Cantor, Gowan Dawson, Richard Noakes, Sally Shuttleworth, and Jonathan R. Topham, eds. Culture and Science in the Nineteenth-Century Media. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004.
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  279. A wide-ranging collection on the cultural history of technology in the Victorian periodical press. Includes essays on railways and telegraphs in Punch, “proto-environmental confrontations” surrounding transportation and sanitation, the extension of electrical lighting, and industry and nationalism in the Dublin Penny Journal. Distinctive for its emphasis on periodicals.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Kang, Minsoo, and Amy Woodson-Boulton, ed. Visions of the Industrial Age, 1830–1914: Modernity and the Anxiety of Representation in Europe. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
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  283. A recent interdisciplinary collection on visual culture and industrialism, treating the portrayal of industrial modernity in 19th-century and early-20th-century Britain and France. Essays examine depictions of locomotives, transportation and engineering, spiritual photography, microscopes, orreries, commodity culture, and the reproduction of new technology in French illustrated periodicals.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Lightman, Bernard, ed. Victorian Science in Context. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.
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  287. A pathbreaking collection of essays, contributing to the “contextualist history of Victorian science” (p. 9), with an emphasis on cultural and discursive (“externalist”) aspects of technology. Part 3 treats scientific practice, exploring how precision instruments, systems of measurement, cameras, and cable telegraphy influenced processes of scientific experiment, display, and persuasion.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Luckhurst, Roger, and Josephine McDonagh, ed. Transactions and Encounters: Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2002.
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  291. A significant collection of essays in cultural history, addressing conflicts and negotiations between the “two cultures” of Victorian literature and science. Part 1 focuses on mediating visual and aural technologies, responding to Crary 1990 (cited under General Overviews: Historical) with essays on microscopy, photography, and telephony.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Price, Leah, and Pamela Thurschwell, ed. Literary Secretaries/Secretarial Culture. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2005.
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  295. This collection of literary and cultural essays explores the human—and often female—workers who operate mechanical writing machines in their various forms, whether as stenographers, typists, telegraphists, or personal assistants. Addresses current debates surrounding labor, gender, textuality, and information and communications systems.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Spufford, Francis, and Jenny Uglow, ed. Cultural Babbage: Technology, Time, and Invention. London: Faber & Faber, 1996.
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  299. An innovative, pathbreaking collection, organized around Charles Babbage’s difference engine and devoted to recuperating “the elusive strains of genuine 19th-century technological feeling” (p. 288). Influenced by current neo-Victorian and cybernetic interests, essays analyze visual and information technology through playful speculative, cultural, and discursive approaches.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Stein, Richard L., ed. Special Issue: Nineteenth-Century Photography: Contexts, Discourses, Legacies. Nineteenth-Century Contexts 22.4 (2001).
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  303. Features a variety of new approaches toward photography and literature, memory, poverty, ethnography, film, and the daguerreotype.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Gender and Sexuality
  306.  
  307. Scholarship on Victorian technology has emphasized its transformative and sometimes controversial effects on views of gender, labor, and sexuality, especially in textile manufacturing. Wosk 2001 provides a fresh and accessible overview of Anglo-American portraits of women transformed by 19th-century machinery. Clark 1995 and Greenless 2007, two historical studies, examine relations among gender, class, and changing forms of industrial work, while Johnson 2001 and Zlotnick 1998 explore related literary accounts of female factory work and domesticity. Literary and cultural studies also discuss technological representations of sexuality in men (Sussman 1995) and in photographs of women and girls (Mavor 1995).
  308.  
  309. Clark, Anna. The Struggle for the Breeches: Gender and the Making of the British Working Class. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  311. A groundbreaking feminist revision of the history of industrialism. Explores relations of gender and power in the formation of the working class from the later 18th century to the mid-Victorian period. Analyzes gender norms, the sexual division of labor, sexual mores, and Radical rhetoric among artisans and textile workers.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Greenless, Janet. Female Labour Power: Women Workers’ Influence on Business Practices in the British and American Cotton Industries, 1780–1860. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2007.
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  315. A historical study of the effects of women workers on the development of cotton firms from 1780 to 1860 in England and America. Stresses the agency and self-determination of female collective action. Treats factory organization, manufacturers’ labor choices, types of millwork, time and work discipline, and working conditions and health.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Johnson, Patricia E. Hidden Hands: Working-Class Women and Victorian Social-Problem Fiction. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2001.
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  319. A literary study of working women in Victorian industrial literature. Argues for a crisis of representation in period portraits of factory women.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Mavor, Carol. Pleasures Taken: Performances of Sexuality and Loss in Victorian Photographs. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995.
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  323. A lively cultural analysis of Victorian photographs of women and young girls, with a theoretical emphasis on gender, sexuality, class relations, performativity, and the maternal. Treats photographs taken of “maid of all work” Hannah Cullwick and by Lewis Carroll and Margaret Cameron. Written in an unusual autobiographical style.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Sussman, Herbert. Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  327. Chapter 1 studies Carlyle’s use of hydraulic industrial metaphors to portray Victorian masculinity and its careful regulation of “fluid” sexual energy.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Wosk, Julie. Women and the Machine: Representations from the Spinning Wheel to the Electronic Age. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
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  331. An influential gender study of images of women transformed by the machine in literature and visual art. Chapter 1 (pp. 1–44) explores British, American, and French images of dramatic technological change accompanied by disruption in the domestic sphere. Accessible and wide-ranging.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Zlotnick, Susan. Women, Writing, and the Industrial Revolution. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
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  335. A literary study of the fears that accompanied Victorian industrial upheavals in gender, class, and domesticity. Stresses both the enthusiastic response of women writers to industrialism and the more reactionary stance of men. Treats canonical works of industrial fiction as well as working-class dialect texts.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Labor and Class
  338.  
  339. The growth of industrial technology has long been coupled with histories of Victorian working-class labor and identity. Many of these studies, such as Thompson 1963 and Joyce 1980, are indebted to Marxist approaches and to social histories “from below.” Marcus 1974 and Gray 2002 supplement this emphasis on industrial labor with detailed attention to language and literary representation, exploring either the depiction or concealment of Victorian factories and machine culture. Finally, recent scholarship in art history treats industrial labor conditions in photography (Edwards 2006) and in portrayals of the male laboring body (Barringer 2005). For additional resources on working-class identity, domesticity, and female factory work, see Gender and Sexuality.
  340.  
  341. Barringer, Tim. Men at Work: Art and Labour in Victorian Britain. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
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  343. A visual and historical study of the male laboring body and its relationship to industrialism, mechanical reproduction, and aesthetics. Explores a “Victorian dialectic of art and labour” (p. 2), especially in the writings of Ruskin and in the working-class artist James Sharples’s images of industrial ironwork and engineering (pp. 133–185).
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Edwards, Steve. The Making of English Photography: Allegories. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006.
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  347. Examines Victorian photographs as unconscious allegories of mechanical labor. Discusses the experiences of workers in photographic industries and their portrayal in 19th-century photographic journals. A detailed class analysis of photography and its relation to art and aesthetics.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Gray, Robert. The Factory Question and Industrial England, 1830–1860. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  351. A historical study of Victorian factories and factory work, as imagined in period fiction, art, melodrama, amateur theatricals, sermons, and medical treatises. Explores the role of language in influencing industrial debate, reform, and legislation.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Joyce, Patrick. Work, Society, and Politics: The Culture of the Factory in Later Victorian England. London: Harvester, 1980.
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  355. An influential social history of factory work and industrial communities in Victorian Britain. Emphasizes the consequences of mechanized industrial technology, class and familial relations, employer influence and paternalism, religion, and working-class politics. Argues for the persistent conservatism of many working-class communities.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Marcus, Steven. Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class. New York: W. W. Norton, 1974.
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  359. A classic study of literary attempts either to accommodate or bypass the “astonishing newness” (p. 49) and strangeness of technology and working-class machine culture in early-Victorian Manchester. Emphasizes class conflict, a new “culture of poverty,” and the use of metaphor to avoid it. Treats both Engels and other writers.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Thompson, E. P. The Making of the English Working Class. New York: Vintage, 1963.
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  363. A pathbreaking history of the rise of the British working class. Considers the role of industrial technology and labor conditions in working-class politics and communities.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Colonialism and Technology Transfer
  366.  
  367. In the past few decades, the relation between Victorian imperialism and technology has become a fertile field of study, with particular interest in global technology transfer and technological fantasies of empire. In a wide-ranging history of British imperial technology, Headrick 1981 offers students a good place to begin research. More specific approaches toward technology transfer may be found in Jeremy 1998, an account of Anglo-American industrial technology, and in historical studies of colonial technological influence in Kerr 2007 (on railways in India), Wang 2010 (on steamships in China), and Headrick 1988 (treating a number of case studies). Adas 1989 examines the relationship between technology and ideologies of imperial dominance, while other literary and cultural studies explore the British Empire as an imaginative representation in imperial photography (Ryan 1997) and in late-Victorian fiction and information technology (Richards 1993).
  368.  
  369. Adas, Michael. Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989.
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  371. A cultural and historical study of how scientific and technological advances shaped ideologies of Western imperialism and racial supremacy. Treats sub-Saharan Africa, India, and China. Provides a broad intellectual account of cultural and educational practices associated with Western industrialism.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Headrick, Daniel R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.
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  375. An introductory history of European imperialism as supported and encouraged by 19th-century technology. Brief chapters focus primarily on the British use of transport, military, and communication technology, such as steamboats in China, guns in Asia and Africa, the prophylactic use of quinine, the Suez Canal, submarine cable, and railroads in India. Wide-ranging in scope.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Headrick, Daniel R. The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism, 1850–1940. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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  379. A historical study of the process of imperial technology transfer, stressing its consequences for indigenous peoples, notably the creation of new export markets but the lack of investment in human capital. Deals mostly with British and French examples, including telecommunications, mines, urban planning, agriculture, transportation, and technical education. Contains a bibliographical essay.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Jeremy, David J. Artisans, Entrepreneurs, and Machines: Essays on the Early Anglo-American Textile Industries, 1770–1840s. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
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  383. A collection of Jeremy’s essays on the transfer of textile manufacturing technologies between Britain and America from the later 18th to the mid-19th century. See especially chapters 1 and 2 on legislation, immigration, and entrepreneurial values. Combines approaches from economic, technical, and social history.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Kerr, Ian J. Engines of Change: The Railroads That Made India. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007
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  387. A social and technical history of the transfer of railway technology from Britain to colonial India. First half focuses on the mid-19th century to 1905 (pp. 1–111). Discusses labor and engineering challenges, cultural and national identity, imperial administration, changing notions of geology, and the social and economic impact of railways.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Richards, Thomas. The Imperial Archive: Knowledge and the Fantasy of Empire. London: Verso, 1993.
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  391. An influential literary study of how the British Empire “was imagined to have been” (p. 8), through fantasies of information and control in late-Victorian fiction and cultural practice. Treats the relation between fiction (Kipling, Stoker, and Wells) and policymaking, knowledge-producing institutions, and imperial practices of cartography, geography, and taxonomic classification.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Ryan, James R. Picturing Empire: Photography and the Visualization of the British Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997.
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  395. A cultural history of how Victorian Britain used photography to imagine its empire. Discusses the association of photography with hunting and warfare, racial ethnography, and the education of schoolchildren in imperial geography. Studies photography by David Livingstone in Africa, Samuel Bourne in India, and John Thomson in China and Cypress.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Wang, Hsien-Chun. “Discovering Steam Power in China, 1840s–1860s.” Technology and Culture 51.1 (January 2010): 31–54.
  398. DOI: 10.1353/tech.0.0388Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A detailed cultural history of the transfer of steamship technology from Victorian Britain to China. Stresses the difficulty of transmitting and adapting Western steam power because of the lack of a Chinese tradition of machine tools and technical drawing.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Spirituality and Religion
  402.  
  403. Despite the commonplace view that secularism accompanies technological modernity, a growing number of literary and cultural studies have stressed the spiritual and religious aspects of Victorian technology. Noble 1997, a broad cultural history, examines the influence of religious belief in invention, and Smith and Scott 2007 treats similar factors in a more specific essay on Victorian ship design. Richardson 2003 looks at the role of religious practice in a wide-ranging cultural history of the railway. Finally, both Galvan 2010 and Thurschwell 2008 explore the psychic and spiritual significance of late-Victorian communications technology—a topic of growing prominence in literary and cultural studies of the period.
  404.  
  405. Noble, David. The Religion of Technology: The Divinity of Man and the Spirit of Invention. New York: Knopf, 1997.
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  407. A popular and groundbreaking study of the religious roots and motivations of Western technology. Studies engineering and machine-building traditions as imitating and emulating the power of “God the Designer.” Chapter 6 largely focuses on the 19th century in Britain and America. Accessible and wide-ranging.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Galvan, Jill. The Sympathetic Medium: Feminine Channeling, the Occult, and Communication Technologies, 1859–1919. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010.
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  411. A stimulating work of cultural and literary criticism, combining gender studies with the history of technology. Links telegraphs, telephones, and typewriters with later Victorian séances and other occult practices. Emphasizes portraits of feminine channeling, spiritualism, and sympathy in fiction by James, Eliot, Stoker, Corelli, and Du Maurier.
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  413. Richardson, R. C. “The ‘Broad Gauge’ and the ‘Narrow Gauge’: Railways and Religion in Victorian England.” In The Impact of the Railway on Society in Britain: Essays in Honour of Jack Simmons. Edited by A. K. B. Evans and J. V. Gough, 101–115. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2003.
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  415. A wide-ranging cultural history of interconnections between Victorian railways and religion. Explores transformations of dioceses by railways, missionary work among railway workers, ecclesiastical patronage by railway companies and individual railway leaders, Sabbatarianism and secular temptations, and the railway’s own role as a religious symbol and metaphor.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Smith, Crosbie, and Anne Scott. “‘Trust in Providence’: Building Confidence into the Cunard Line of Steamers.” Technology and Culture 48.3 (July 2007): 471–496.
  418. DOI: 10.1353/tech.2007.0133Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Provides a more specifically focused cultural history of marine engines and engineering, as influenced by religious practice. Argues that Cunard’s evangelical Christianity discouraged the use of new and experimental inventions.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Thurschwell, Pamela L. Literature, Technology, and Magical Thinking, 1880–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  423. An influential study of the occult significance of teletechnologies (telegraphs, telephones, and typewriters) in British fin-de-siècle literature and culture and early-20th-century psychoanalysis. Shows how communication technologies supported psychic, spiritual, and sexual bonds in the Society for Psychical Research and fiction by Wilde, James, Du Maurier, Kipling, and Stoker.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Art and Aesthetics
  426.  
  427. Approaches to Victorian art and aesthetics have long been indebted to the anti-technological views of John Ruskin (as summarized in O’Hear 1995). However, in recent decades, many literary and cultural studies have reconsidered technological forms of art and aesthetics. Sussman 2000 surveys recent studies of Victorian “machine beauty,” Bizup 2003 explores both pro- and anti-industrial aesthetic discourse, Serres 1982 treats mechanical depictions of energy in painting, Wosk 1992 studies period attempts to ornament machinery, and Swafford 2008 explores Wells’s own technological aesthetics, developed in response to Ruskin and Morris. More general overviews of the depiction of technology in visual art may be found in Klingender 1968 and especially Wosk 1992.
  428.  
  429. Bizup, Joseph. Manufacturing Culture: Vindications of Early Victorian Industry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003.
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  431. Important revisionist study of the explicitly cultural and aesthetic aims of early-Victorian “proindustrial rhetoric” and machine beauty, but does not extend these claims to Victorian fiction more generally. The second half of the book treats the anti-industrial views of Ruskin and Morris, who argued that mechanical labor dehumanizes and demasculinizes men.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Klingender, Francis. Art and the Industrial Revolution. Rev. ed. London: Evelyn, Adams & Mackay, 1968.
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  435. A classic, wide-ranging study of pictorial representations of the Industrial Revolution and modern technology in painting, graphic art, and technical illustrations. Decries the “cashbox aesthetics” (p. 120) and bric-a-brac that accompany the new industrial age. Ends in the mid-Victorian period. Originally published in 1947 (London: N. Carrington).
  436. Find this resource:
  437. O’Hear, Anthony. “Art and Technology: An Old Tension.” In Philosophy and Technology. Edited by Roger Fellows, 143–158. Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement 38. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Although a wide-ranging essay on philosophical approaches toward art, it draws extensively from Ruskin’s model of art as a moral human creation made with skill and craft and “never perfect, or finished like machine work” (p. 156).
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Serres, Michel. “Turner Translates Carnot.” In Hermes: Literature, Science, Philosophy. By Michel Serres; edited by Josué V. Harari and David F. Bell, 54–62. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Explores how Turner’s painting represents the new artistic principle of energy in fire from within the steam boiler. Classic theoretical essay on the literary, artistic, and mechanical transition from “simple machines to steam engines, from mechanics to thermodynamics—by way of the Industrial Revolution” (p. 56).
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Sussman, Herbert. “Machine Dreams: The Culture of Technology.” Victorian Literature and Culture 28.1 (2000): 197–204.
  446. DOI: 10.1017/S1060150300281114Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A helpful bibliographic review essay on recent scholarship devoted to recovering forgotten forms of Victorian “machine beauty” (p. 198) and technological enthusiasm.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Swafford, Kevin. “Science, Technology, and the Aesthetics of Everyday Life: H. G. Wells’s Response to John Ruskin and William Morris in A Modern Utopia.” Victorian Newsletter 113 (Spring 2008): 77–88.
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  451. Reconsiders Wells’s attitude toward late-Victorian aesthetics and his ambivalent relation to Ruskin’s and Morris’s views of art as opposed to modern technology. Explores how Wells supports beauty in design and execution rather than nature, allying aesthetics with the utopian “potential of modern science and technology” (p. 77).
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Wosk, Julie. Breaking Frame: Technology and the Visual Arts in the Nineteenth Century. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992.
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  455. A wide-ranging overview of visual representations of Victorian technology, with three chapters devoted specifically to the relation between 19th-century art and manufactures. Chapters 3–4 treat mass-produced ornament and cast iron. Chapter 6 explores how Victorian machinery was classicized, ornamented, and aestheticized.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Intellectual Property
  458.  
  459. Victorian technology is closely intertwined with questions surrounding invention, intellectual property, and patent law. Coulter 1992 and MacLeod 1996 both study the historical evolution of patent reform in the period, while Van Dulken 1999 provides a valuable reference source on patents more generally. Kriegel 2004 examines early-Victorian debates surrounding originality, intellectual property, and production in the context of textile manufacturing, while Pettitt 2004 offers an influential cultural study of Victorian literary artistry, mechanical invention, and evolving concepts of copyright.
  460.  
  461. Coulter, Moureen. Property in Ideas: The Patent Question in Mid-Victorian Britain. Kirksville, MO: Thomas Jefferson University Press, 1992.
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  463. The most extensive book-length history of patent reform in Victorian Britain. Treats the influence of industrialism on patent reform, struggles for new legislation in 1851 and the 1880s, and the role of parliamentary and extra-parliamentary pressure groups.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Kriegel, Lara. “Culture and the Copy: Calico, Capitalism, and Design Copyright in Early Victorian Britain.” Journal of British Studies 43.2 (April 2004): 233–265.
  466. DOI: 10.1086/380951Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. An insightful essay on early-Victorian debates surrounding intellectual property and the extension of copyright for the design of calicoes (printed cottons). Explores concepts of original and copy in a study of market cultures and textile printing innovations. Revises histories of modern consumption and industrial production.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. MacLeod, Christine. “Concepts of Invention and the Patent Controversy in Victorian Britain.” In Technological Change: Methods and Themes in the History of Technology. Edited by Robert Fox, 137–153. Amsterdam: Overseas Publishers Association, 1996.
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  471. Explores how late-19th-century attempts to defend the patent system against abolition promoted heroic, individualist concepts of invention that still survive today. Argues that the “patent controversy” has obscured a resilient discourse of technological determinism.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Pettitt, Clare. Patent Inventions: Intellectual Property and the Victorian Novel. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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  475. An innovative and wide-ranging study of how literary artistry and mechanical invention informed each other in 19th-century debates about copyrights, patents, and originality. Emphasis on novels by Dickens, George Eliot, Elizabeth Gaskell, and Hardy; on the Great Exhibition; and on changing views of intellectual and artisanal labor.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Van Dulken, Stephanie. British Patents of Invention, 1617–1977: A Guide for Researchers. London: British Library, 1999.
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  479. An extensive reference source, with information on patenting procedures, the historical background of the patent system and legislation, searching tips, and an appendix on archival holdings and sources throughout Britain. Significant coverage of mid- and later-Victorian period. Wide-ranging.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Literature
  482.  
  483. This section covers more specialized topics on the treatment of technology in Victorian literature and cultural discourse. It focuses on the relation of technology to “high” literary culture, criticism surrounding Charles Dickens and technology, critical approaches devoted to poetry, and literary and/or discursive accounts of bodies and machines.
  484.  
  485. Industrial Culture and Technoculture
  486.  
  487. Critics have long debated the relation between technology—especially industrial technology—and “high” literary culture in the Victorian period. Many works by literary historians, such as Williams 1983 and Roe 1970, emphasize the Romantic, anti-mechanical views of established Victorian writers and intellectuals. Others explore the literary and representational challenges posed by industrial technology, with Marcus 1974 focusing on class issues and Gallagher 1985 addressing the formal features of industrial fiction. Childers 2001 provides a helpful overview of the “ubiquitous” yet still “faint” presence of industrial technology in literature. In an influential theoretical approach, Kittler 1990 explores the new discursive functions of technology in the shift from Romanticism to modernism (with Victorians sandwiched between these two periods). In response, Clayton 2003 stresses the distinctly Victorian aspects of “technoculture,” while challenging earlier accounts of an opposition between technology and culture. (See entries under Art and Aesthetics and General Overviews: Literary for similar approaches.)
  488.  
  489. Childers, Joseph. “Industrial Culture and the Victorian Novel.” In The Cambridge Companion to the Victorian Novel. Edited by Deirdre David, 77–96. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
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  491. A helpful overview of the shadowy yet pervasive presence of industrial culture and technological change in Victorian literature, and especially in Dickens. Represents a middle position between Gallagher 1985 and Clayton 2003.
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  493. Clayton, Jay. Charles Dickens in Cyberspace: The Afterlife of the Nineteenth Century in Postmodern Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  495. A pathbreaking study of Victorian technoculture. Seeks to heal the rift between high literary culture and technology/science. Questions traditional modes of disciplinarity and periodization in analyses of Dickens. Also includes Hardy, James, Babbage, recent neo-Victorian literature, and both information and communications technology.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Gallagher, Catherine. The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction: Social Discourse and Narrative Form, 1832–1867. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
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  499. A groundbreaking study of the formal changes that Victorian fiction underwent when it participated in debates surrounding industrialism and technological change. Explores the engagement of industrial fiction with questions of human freedom, social cohesion, and representation. Ultimately argues for a late-Victorian opposition between literary culture and industrialism.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Kittler, Friedrich A. Discourse Networks 1800/1900. Translated by Michael Metteer, with Chris Cullens. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990.
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  503. A broad theoretical study of the discursive functions of media technologies in literature, focusing on the historical turning points of 1800 and 1900 (from the mother’s act of alphabetization to new modernist technological information systems). Largely treats the Continental tradition, although it has significantly influenced approaches in Victorian studies. Complicated. First published as Aufschreibesysteme 1800–1900 (Munich: Fink, 1985).
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Marcus, Steven. Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class. New York: Random House, 1974.
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  507. A classic study of literary attempts either to accommodate or bypass the “astonishing newness” (p. 49) and strangeness of technology and working-class machine culture in early-Victorian Manchester. Although Marcus focuses primarily on Engels, his section on “The Town” (pp. 26–66) explores other responses to industrialism.
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  509. Roe, Frederick William. The Social Philosophy of Carlyle and Ruskin. New York: Gordian, 1970.
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  511. A representative traditional study of Carlyle’s and Ruskin’s responses to the radical social and technological changes of industrialism. First published in 1921.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780–1950. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.
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  515. A seminal work of cultural criticism, which broadly explores literary responses to industrialism and the machine as a philosophical metaphor. Traces Romantic and implicitly anti-mechanical views in Carlyle, Arnold, Ruskin, and Morris. First published in 1958.
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  517. Dickens
  518.  
  519. Charles Dickens is an author whose attitude toward—and portraits of—technology have provoked continued scholarly attention in Victorian studies, perhaps more so than any other writer of the period. Criticism has especially tended to focus on his sketches of railways (Nelson 1974, Matus 2001) and of industrialism and factories (Brantlinger 1971; see also entries under Literature and Factories). Leavis 1948 has famously emphasized Dickens’s dehumanizing vision of machines in Hard Times, although others have reassessed these views, instead arguing for his ambivalence and even enthusiasm toward technology (Brantlinger 1971, Philpotts 2008). More recently, literary historians have explored Dickens’s influence on other modern technologies (e.g., Smith 2003 on cinema; Matus 2001 on technological accounts of psychic trauma). For a wide-ranging account of Dickens’s engagement with a variety of technologies, see Nixon 2005.
  520.  
  521. Brantlinger, Patrick. “Dickens and the Factories.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction 26.3 (December 1971): 270–285.
  522. DOI: 10.1525/ncl.1971.26.3.99p0093rSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Assesses Dickens’s attitude toward factories and industrial technology more broadly. Concludes that Dickens’s “confusion over industrialism” is a result of his own considerable familiarity with the “factory system” and results in his “unique vision of society as a dismal, unfathomable tangle” (p. 271).
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  525. Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad. London: Chatto and Windus, 1948.
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  527. Contains a landmark chapter on Hard Times as an anti-mechanical “moral fable,” dominated by an alienating vision of “spirit-quenching” factories and “dreadful” mechanical “degradation.” A classic, canonical work of criticism.
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  529. Matus, Jill M. “Trauma, Memory, and Railway Disaster: The Dickensian Connection.” Victorian Studies 43.3 (Spring 2001): 413–436.
  530. DOI: 10.2979/VIC.2001.43.3.413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. An influential literary and historical approach to machine accidents, nervous shock, and unconscious memory in Dickens’s railway accident and his ghost story “The Signalman.” Draws highly illuminating connections between postmodern trauma theory and Victorian industrial modernity.
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  533. Nelson, Harland S. “Staggs’s Gardens: The Railways through Dickens’ World.” Dickens Studies Annual 3 (1974): 41–53.
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  535. A classic literary study of early railway travel as portrayed in Dickens’s Dombey and Son and his popular journalism. Stresses the railway’s disorienting influence upon human senses of mind, place, relationship, and aesthetic variation.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Nixon, Jude. “‘Lost in the Vast Worlds of Wonder’: Dickens and Science.” Dickens Studies Annual 35 (2005): 267–333.
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  539. A broad survey essay on Dickens’s knowledge of and interest in Victorian science and technology, through parody and metaphor in his fiction, journalism, letters, and speeches. Treats his engagement with industrialism and machinery, delight in modern invention, and knowledge of thermodynamics.
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  541. Philpotts, Trey. “Dickens and Technology.” In A Companion to Charles Dickens. Edited by David Parroissien, 199–215. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
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  543. Revises Leavis’s antimechanical account with a more complex and ambivalent portrait of Dickens’s views of technological innovation.
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  545. Smith, Grahame. Dickens and the Dream of Cinema. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003.
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  547. A cultural history and literary study of Dickens as proto-cinematic. Treats his use of melodrama, narrative technique, stage adaptation, and engagement with popular visual entertainments such as the panorama, diorama, and magic lantern. Also analyzes early film adaptations of Dickens.
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  549. Poetry
  550.  
  551. Traditional studies of Victorian poetry have stressed its disengagement from or resistance to technology, with the exception of a few poems on railways (see Warburg 1958). However, in the past few decades, poetry criticism has more substantially explored the figurative and metaphorical aspects of Victorian technology, especially of electricity and “new” energy physics (Brown 1997, Rudy 2009, Gold 2010), and of communications technologies such as telegraphy, mass media (Rudy 2009, Linley 2003, Groth 2002), and photography (Groth 2002, Kreilkamp 2003). Tennyson remains a perennial topic of interest, although G. M. Hopkins, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, and Robert Browning have also inspired recent attention.
  552.  
  553. Brown, Daniel. Hopkins’ Idealism: Philosophy, Physics, Poetry. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997.
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  555. A detailed philosophical study of Hopkins’s use of energy physics and related technological metaphors and analogies.
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  557. Groth, Helen. “Technological Mediations and the Public Sphere: Roger Fenton’s Crimea Exhibition and ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade.’” Victorian Literature and Culture 30.2 (2002): 553–570.
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  559. Explores the relation between established narrative techniques and new communication technologies (such as photography and mass media) through the interplay between Tennyson’s idealizing verse, Fenton’s abstract images, and modern mass culture.
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  561. Gold, Barri J. ThermoPoetics: Energy in Victorian Literature and Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2010.
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  563. A lively and learned account of the thermodynamic impulse—and its mechanical aims and effects—in Victorian literature and physics. Chapter 1 treats Tennyson’s In Memoriam.
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  565. Kreilkamp, Ivan. “Victorian Poetry’s Modernity.” Victorian Poetry 41.4 (Winter 2003): 603–611.
  566. DOI: 10.1353/vp.2004.0009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Argues for technologically mediated forms of modernity in Victorian poetry by examining the relation between Robert Browning’s verse and photography.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Linley, Margaret. “Conjuring the Spirit: Victorian Poetry, Culture, and Technology.” Victorian Poetry 41.4 (2003): 536–544.
  570. DOI: 10.1353/vp.2004.0012Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Argues for Victorian poetry as a technology in its own right. Treats Tennyson’s invocation of spirit in In Memoriam as an embodied prosthetic voice, a figure for sound disconnected from its source. Calls for more studies of poetry mapped through Kittler’s “discourse networks” and information and communications technology.
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  573. Rudy, Jason R. Electric Meters: Victorian Physiological Poetics. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2009.
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  575. An incisive literary, cultural, and historical study, linking Victorian poetry to electric telegraphy, field theory, and the analysis of nerve impulses. Explores how electricity represents “a new, physiological mode of poetic transmission” (p. 13) in verse by Tennyson, Maxwell, Hopkins, E. B. Browning, and Swinburne.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Warburg, Jeremy. “Poetry and Industrialism: Some Refractory Material in Nineteenth-Century and Later English Verse.” Modern Language Review 53.2 (April 1958): 161–170.
  578. DOI: 10.2307/3718172Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. An unusual essay on the machine in Victorian poetry. Stresses the general resistance of poets to assimilating machinery as a metaphor or even as an extended topic. Discusses popular poetry on railroads and Tennyson’s misuse of railroad metaphor.
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  581. Body and Machine
  582.  
  583. Complicating Romantic concepts of organic form, studies of Victorian literature and culture have also examined the machine as a metaphor for the living body (Channell 1991, Otis 2001), for emotions and their regulation (Ketabgian 2003, Sussman 1995, Shuttleworth 1996), and for organic and thermodynamic systems. Seltzer 1992 provides an influential, although more American, approach to human-machine relations and embodiment. Rabinbach 1992 and Sternberger 1977 offer seminal accounts of these changing ideas of mechanical life and power, bridging interests in thermodynamics and cultural discourses surrounding labor and the human body.
  584.  
  585. Channell, David F. The Vital Machine: A Study of Technology and Organic Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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  587. A groundbreaking history of biology and engineering, in which Channell argues against outmoded distinctions between the organic and mechanical. See especially chapters 5 and 6 on the Victorian steam engine as a living, organized entity and the explicitly organic worldview of period engineers such as George Wilson (p. 81).
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  589. Ketabgian, Tamara. “‘Melancholy Mad Elephants’: Affect and the Animal Machine in Hard Times.” Victorian Studies 45.4 (Summer 2003): 649–676.
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  591. Contesting views of the machine as dead and unfeeling, this revisionist essay explores metaphors of both organic living machines and mechanical human bodies in Hard Times and period culture. Treats the machine as a figure of powerful, threatening, and intensified feeling.
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  593. Otis, Laura. Networking: Communicating with Bodies and Machines in the Nineteenth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
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  595. Examines telegraphy as metaphor for a human body composed of and connected to communications nets, webs, and machines. An impressive study of technology, physiology and literature.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Rabinbach, Anson. The Human Motor: Energy, Fatigue, and the Origins of Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
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  599. A groundbreaking synthesis of cultural and scientific discourses surrounding the body as a thermodynamic system and machine. Also treats the rise of industrial efficiency studies (scientific management) and modern concepts of fatigue.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Seltzer, Mark. Bodies and Machines. New York: Routledge, 1992.
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  603. A pathbreaking literary and cultural study of the modern “body-machine complex.” Despite its largely American subject matter, its theories of mechanical agency, embodiment, mass culture, and representation have crucially influenced approaches to Victorian machinery.
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  605. Shuttleworth, Sally. Charlotte Brontë and Victorian Psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
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  607. Treats the machine as a model for the control of emotional and physiological force in novels by Brontë and popular Victorian discourses of medicine, self-help, and phrenology. A pathbreaking approach to literature, science, and technology.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Sternberger, Dolf. “Natural/Artificial.” In Panorama of the Nineteenth Century. By Dolf Sternberger; translated by Joachim Neugroschel. New York: Urizen, 1977.
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  611. A highly significant cultural and metaphorical analysis of the steam engine in popular 19th-century representations. Explores the machine as an allegory of combined natural and artificial power, imagined as semihuman and semiorganic.
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  613. Sussman, Herbert. Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
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  615. Chapter 1 studies Carlyle’s use of hydraulic industrial metaphors to portray Victorian masculinity and its careful regulation of “fluid” sexual energy.
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  617. Industrial
  618.  
  619. This section on industrial technology explores (1) literary and discursive studies of Victorian factories, and (2) historical studies of manufacturing, which include social history, economic history, and the history of technology.
  620.  
  621. History
  622.  
  623. Historical approaches to Victorian industrial technology run the gamut, including the social, the economic, the technical, and the linguistic (see also entries under Literature and Factories). Thompson 1967, a now classic essay on social labor history, stresses the influence of mechanized labor upon ideas of industrial time and efficiency. Invoking a similar history of technological discipline, Samuel 1977 argues for a corresponding working-class resistance to industrial machinery throughout the 19th century. Joyce 1980 also explores paternalistic labor relations influenced by these evolving technological conditions, while Tunzelmann 1978 challenges the uniform dominance of Victorian industrial mechanization. Finally, students seeking a detailed history of industrial technologies of feedback control may consult Denny 2007 for an accessible account of the systems necessary for controlling steam-powered factories. Bennett 1979 provides a more extensive technical and mathematical account of industrial control engineering.
  624.  
  625. Bennett, Stuart. A History of Control Engineering, 1800–1930. Stevenage, UK: Peregrinus, 1979.
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  627. A valuable but very technical study of the growth of feedback and electronic controls in the 1860s and beyond. Discusses the evolution of control theory, beginning with Maxwell and with Watt’s steam engine governor. Also treats navigational servomechanisms and regulators for electric lighting systems. Not an introductory or popular account.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Denny, Mark. Ingenium: Five Machines that Changed the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.
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  631. An accessible technical and historical explanation of the centrifugal governor and the evolution of feedback control. Discusses both the mathematical function of governors and the broader context of the Industrial Revolution. See especially pp. 127–156. A helpful introduction for nonspecialist readers.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Joyce, Patrick. Work, Society, and Politics: The Culture of the Factory in Later Victorian England. London: Harvester, 1980.
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  635. An influential social history of factory work and industrial communities in Victorian Britain. Emphasizes the consequences of mechanized industrial technology, class and familial relations, employer influence and paternalism, religion, and working-class politics. Argues for the persistent conservatism of many working-class communities.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Samuel, Raphael. “Workshop of the World: Steam Power and Hand Technology in Mid-Victorian Britain.” History Workshop 3.1 (Spring 1977): 6–72.
  638. DOI: 10.1093/hwj/3.1.6Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. An illuminating social and economic history that surveys a wide variety of mechanized trades and manufactures, with emphasis on discontinuous and incremental change. Argues that resistance to machinery was an “endemic” feature of 19th-century industrial life and labor.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Thompson, E. P. “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism.” Past and Present 38.1 (December 1967): 56–97.
  642. DOI: 10.1093/past/38.1.56Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. A classic labor history essay on the influence of “highly-synchronized automated industry” (p. 98) on concepts of efficiency and time thrift.
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  645. Tunzelmann, G. N. von. Steam Power and British Industrialization to 1860. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978.
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  647. An influential economic history that questions popular views of the Industrial Revolution as based on the massive buildup of steam power and Watt’s rotative engine. Argues for the continued significant impact of waterpower in manufacturing up to 1840. Helpful introductory chapter, although later chapters are more technical.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Literature and Factories
  650.  
  651. The Victorian factory and associated forms of technology continue to spur critical attention, both as topics of literary representation and as broad cultural and discursive concerns. Berg 1982, a highly significant study, examines the cultural and rhetorical prominence of the “machinery question” in early- and mid-Victorian Britain, while Bizup 2003 amplifies this history in a revisionist study of proindustrial discourse and industrial aesthetics. These studies use literary techniques to analyze portraits of industrial technology—and human-machine relations—in conventional fiction and poetry, but even more frequently in Victorian journalism and other genres of nonfiction. For similar approaches focused specifically on the factory and mechanized labor, see Ketabgian 1997, Waters 2008, and Zimmerman 1997; Gray 2002 offers an especially detailed and wide-ranging book-length study. On factory accidents, see Fielding and Smith 1970, an examination of mid-Victorian literary debates and labor reform, and Bronstein 2008, which emphasizes the cultural meaning of accidents in Anglo-American legal and social history.
  652.  
  653. Berg, Maxine. The Machinery Question and the Making of Political Economy, 1815–1848. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
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  655. A highly influential study of the emergence of mechanical industrial technology as a central social, political, and economic topic of debate in early to mid-19th-century Britain. Focuses on the close interest of classical political economy in machinery and on related national commentary surrounding new relations of production.
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  657. Bizup, Joseph. Manufacturing Culture: Vindications of Early Victorian Industry. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003.
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  659. Important revisionist study of the explicitly cultural and aesthetic aims of early-Victorian “proindustrial rhetoric” and machine beauty, but does not extend these claims to Victorian fiction more generally.
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  661. Bronstein, Jamie L. Caught in the Machinery: Workplace Accidents and Injured Workers in Nineteenth-Century Britain. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008.
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  663. Combines legal analysis and social detail to explore the cultural meanings of accidents in the mechanized Anglo-American workplace. See especially pp. 61–73. Includes detailed analysis of journalistic narratives.
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  665. Fielding, K. J., and Anne Smith. “Hard Times and the Factory Controversy: Dickens vs. Harriet Martineau.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction 24.4 (March 1970): 404–427.
  666. DOI: 10.1525/ncl.1970.24.4.99p0312zSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. A classic account of the journalistic debate between Dickens, Martineau, and others surrounding machine accidents and regulatory legislation for factory workers. Discusses the representation of mechanical labor and Martineau’s admiration for mechanical humans and near-human machines (pp. 419–420).
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  669. Gray, Robert. The Factory Question and Industrial England, 1830–1860. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
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  671. A historical study of Victorian factories and factory work, as imagined in period fiction, art, melodrama, amateur theatricals, sermons, and medical treatises. Explores the role of language in influencing industrial debate, reform, and legislation. First published in 1996.
  672. Find this resource:
  673. Ketabgian, Tamara. “The Human Prosthesis: Workers and Machines in the Victorian Industrial Scene.” Critical Matrix 11 (1997): 4–32.
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  675. A comparative analysis of factory sketches that feature the territorial conflict and fusion of workers and machines, yielding hybrid forms of community composed of various prosthetic parts and relationships. Treats Babbage, Butler, Martineau, Marx, and Ure. Wide-ranging.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Waters, Catherine. Commodity Culture in Dickens’s Household Words: The Social Life of Goods. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2008.
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  679. Chapter 5, “Men Made by Machinery” (pp. 83–99), explores the portrayal of industrial labor and human-machine relations in journalism in Household Words by Henry Morley and Harriet Martineau. Highlights the ambivalent, transformative, and figuratively obscuring effects of these portraits. An illuminating study of commodity culture.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Zimmerman, Andrew. “The Ideology of the Machine and the Spirit of the Factory: Remarx on Babbage and Ure.” Cultural Critique 37 (Autumn 1997): 5–29.
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  683. An analysis of the mystifying ideological functions of Victorian portraits of factories and machines. Emphasizes the subsuming “mechanical ontology” of the factory. A highly philosophical account, which stresses alienation.
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  685. Transport
  686.  
  687. This section treats general approaches toward transport technology as well as more specific studies of railways and steamships. Freeman and Aldcroft 1988 provides a valuable introductory collection of economic and technical approaches to the history of Victorian transport technology. In addition, Harvie 1977 explores the broad relevance of Kipling’s literature to transport studies.
  688.  
  689. Freeman, Michael J., and Derek H. Aldcroft, eds. Transport in Victorian Britain. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1988
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  691. A major contribution to the history of Victorian transportation. Discusses railways and steam-powered transport, coastal shipping, and the persistence of sail, human, and animal power in internal transport systems. Introduction provides a helpful overview to the period’s economic, social, and technological context. Will also interest students of statistics and geography.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Harvie, Christopher. “‘The Sons of Martha’: Technology, Transport, and Rudyard Kipling.” Victorian Studies 20.3 (Spring 1977): 269–282.
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  695. Explores Kipling’s celebration of railways and ocean liners as the celebration of a managerial hierarchy of skilled labor, specialization, and traditional discipline. Distinguishes this vision of technocratic community from the textile industry and from popular narratives of technological alienation and dehumanization inherited from earlier Victorian social critics.
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  697. Railways
  698.  
  699. A daunting amount of scholarship exists on the growing dominance of the railway in the Victorian physical and cultural landscape. Helpful general overviews of literary, cultural, and artistic responses to the railway may be found in Freeman 1999 and Simmons 1991. Schivelbusch 1987 provides a sophisticated, pioneering, yet still accessible cultural history, which may be supplemented by more recent technological approaches to Victorian railway literature in Daly 2004, the first half of Carter 2001, and the still classic account of Dickens and railway perception in Nelson 1974. McGowan 2004 provides a useful technical history of the locomotive engine, and Kerr 2007 examines the cultural politics of railway technology transfer in the British Empire.
  700.  
  701. Carter, Ian. Railways and Culture in Britain: The Epitome of Modernity. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2001.
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  703. A lively cultural and literary study of the railway as a metaphor for modernity. Two chapters focus specifically on Victorian art and literature (Turner and Dickens). Asks why Britain possesses “no great railway novel.” Provocative, but sometimes uneven.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Daly, Nicholas. Literature, Technology, and Modernity, 1860–2000. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  707. While this study also treats machine culture more broadly, it concentrates on multiple variations of the railway rescue narrative, which restage anxieties about human-mechanical conflict in theatrical melodrama and sensation fiction.
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  709. Freeman, Michael J. Railways and the Victorian Imagination. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999.
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  711. A wide-ranging cultural study of the literary, artistic, and musical representations of the railway throughout the Victorian period. Contains excellent maps and images. Beautifully produced.
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  713. Kerr, Ian J. Engines of Change: The Railroads That Made India. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007.
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  715. A detailed social and technical history of the transfer of railway technology from Britain to colonial India. First half focuses on the mid-19th century to 1905. Discusses labor and engineering challenges, cultural and national identity, imperial administration, and changing notions of geology.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. McGowan, Christopher. Rail, Steam, and Speed: The “Rocket” and the Birth of Steam Locomotion. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
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  719. A popular biographical and technical description of the challenges involved in Stephenson’s design and engineering of the “Rocket” locomotive for the 1829 Rainhill trials. Introduces the various personalities involved in popularizing steam locomotives and railway construction in the early and mid-Victorian years.
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  721. Nelson, Harland S. “Staggs’s Gardens: The Railways through Dickens’ World.” Dickens Studies Annual 3 (1974): 41–53.
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  723. A classic literary study of early railway travel as portrayed in Dickens’s Dombey and Son and his popular journalism. Stresses the railway’s disorienting influence upon human senses of mind, place, relationship, and aesthetic variation.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the Nineteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
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  727. A pioneering cultural history of railways and industrialized consciousness in literature, art, architecture, journalism, and psychoanalysis. Discusses related transformations of time, space, social relations, and new concepts of industrial fatigue, shock, and trauma. Defines the railway as the consumer’s most direct encounter with new technological discipline. Accessible and extremely influential.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Simmons, Jack. The Victorian Railway. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1991.
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  731. An extensive compendium of Victorian visions of the railway, treating technical, social, literary, and cultural history. Explores the railway’s transformation of human consciousness and perspective, the technical details of its mechanism, and its effects on society and the environment. Addresses visual art, caricature, railway press, tourism, and theater.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Steamships
  734.  
  735. The Victorian period saw significant engineering advances in steamships, which may be credited to the use of iron hulls and screw propellers, as well as to the shift from reciprocating steam engines to steam turbines later in the century. Recent works by historians of technology, such as Smith and Scott 2007 and Wang 2010, examine steamships in the context of global technology transfer. Aside from these cultural studies, the field is dominated by introductory narrative and biographical accounts of inventors and shipbuilders; see Fox 2003, Buchanan 2002, and Scaife 2000. In addition, Brodie 1941 offers a broad technical and historical introduction to steamships, Sandler 1970 treats specific advances in naval armaments, and Spratt 1958 provides a more succinct technical description.
  736.  
  737. Brodie, Bernard. Sea Power in the Machine Age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1941.
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  739. A useful technical and historical introduction to naval innovations, beginning from the 1840s. Treats the development of the marine steam engine, iron warships, armor, armaments, and submarine methods of war. Considers the effects of naval implements on global maritime power. Clear and accessible.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Buchanan, R. Angus. Brunel: The Life and Times of Isambard Kingdom Brunel. London: Hambledon and London, 2002.
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  743. An accessible, thematically organized biographical history, which treats both steamships and railway locomotives. Chapter 8 discusses Brunel’s Great Eastern.
  744. Find this resource:
  745. Fox, Stephen. Transatlantic: Samuel Cunard, Isambard Brunel, and the Great Atlantic Steamships. New York: HarperCollins, 2003.
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  747. A popular narrative history of steamships. Celebrates the biographical achievement or Cunard and Brunel, from packet ships of 1820s to the rise of steamship competition. Broadly accessible.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Sandler, Stanley. “The Emergence of the Modern Capital Ship.” Technology and Culture 11.4 (October 1970): 575–595.
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  751. A technical and historical study of the 1869 ironclad Devastation as a “quantum jump in naval architecture” (p. 575), which displaced traditional masts and rigging with huge revolving turret guns. Discusses public criticism of this new naval reliance upon machinery.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Scaife, W. Garrett. From Galaxies to Turbines: Science, Technology, and the Parsons Family. New York: Taylor and Francis, 2000.
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  755. A biographical and technical history. See especially chapters 11–12 on the design of the ship Turbinia. Also discusses the future application of Parsons’s turbine engine to transoceanic liners and large warships.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Smith, Crosbie, and Anne Scott. “‘Trust in Providence’: Building Confidence into the Cunard Line of Steamers.” Technology and Culture 48.3 (July 2007): 471–496.
  758. DOI: 10.1353/tech.2007.0133Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. A more specifically focused cultural history of marine engines and engineering. Argues that Cunard’s evangelical Christianity discouraged the use of new and experimental inventions.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Spratt, H. Philip. “The Marine Steam-Engine.” In A History of Technology. Vol. 5, The Late Nineteenth Century, c. 1850 to c. 1900. Edited by Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall and Trevor I. Williams, 141–156. Oxford: Clarendon, 1958.
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  763. A brief and authoritative technical description, recounting developments in the marine engine from paddle wheel to experimental steam propulsion, with emphasis on screw propulsion and the marine steam turbine.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Wang, Hsien-Chun. “Discovering Steam Power in China, 1840s–1860s.” Technology and Culture 51.1 (January 2010): 31–54.
  766. DOI: 10.1353/tech.0.0388Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  767. A detailed cultural history of the transfer of steamship technology from Victorian Britain to China. Stresses the difficulty of transmitting and adapting Western steam power because of the lack of a Chinese tradition of machine tools and technical drawing.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Civil Engineering
  770.  
  771. Civil engineering advances in the Victorian period have spurred a broad range of literary and cultural histories, many of which address new innovations in urban and transportation design. This section lists representative studies on bridge building (Cossons and Trinder 1979, Dreicer 2010), machine tool manufacturing, sanitation, and urban planning. Nead 2000 supplies a particularly accessible introduction to urban planning, while Allen 2008, a study of sanitary geography, pairs well with literary texts of the period. Porter 1998 examines the Thames Embankment as a sanitary and transportation system, and Williams 1990 provides a suggestive literary and cultural study of urban subterranean architecture. Finally, Musson and Robinson 1969 offers a classic and still highly illuminating account of mass-production engineering and tool-making.
  772.  
  773. Allen, Michelle. Cleansing the City: Sanitary Geographies in Victorian London. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2008.
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  775. A literary and cultural study of responses to sanitary reform in Victorian London. Emphasizes urban planning, engineering, and sewerage technology in novels by Dickens and Gissing, popular period journals, and writing by Mayhew, Kingsley, and Chadwick. Chapter 2 focuses on resistance to the construction of the Thames Embankment.
  776. Find this resource:
  777. Cossons, Neil, and Barrie Trinder. The Iron Bridge, Symbol of the Industrial Revolution. Bradford-on-Avon, UK: Moonraker, 1979.
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  779. A definitive account of the Iron Bridge. Includes industrial history of the Coalbrookdale area, context, and a survey of the subsequent fifty years of iron bridge building.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Dreicer, Gregory K. “Building Bridges and Boundaries: The Lattice and the Tube, 1820–1860.” Technology and Culture 51.1 (January 2010): 126–163.
  782. DOI: 10.1353/tech.0.0406Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783. Treats the design and development of the tubular bridge by Robert Stephenson and William Fairbairn. Considers the design’s unprecedented use of wrought iron, its similarity to American “lattice” bridges, and the competing claims of national engineering cultures.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Musson, A. E., and Eric Robinson. “The Growth of Mass-Production Engineering.” In Science and Technology in the Industrial Revolution. By A. E. Musson and Eric Robinson, 473–509. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1969.
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  787. A broad introductory essay in the history of technology and engineering. Argues that British engineering firms preceded Americans in pioneering standardized mass-production assembly-line manufacture in the earlier 19th century. Discusses the manufacture of machine tools and engines by engineers such as James Nasmyth and William Fairbairn.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Nead, Lynda. Victorian Babylon: People, Streets, and Images in Nineteenth-Century London. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000.
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  791. An excellent introduction to engineering and urban planning revolutions in 19th-century London, with emphasis on urban visual culture. Part 1 discusses mapmaking, measuring technologies, transportation, and sanitation; part 2 studies gas lighting and urban spectacle; and part 3 covers street construction, gender, and obscenity. Draws extensively from period art and journalism.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Porter, Dale H. The Thames Embankment: Environment, Technology, and Society in Victorian London. Akron, OH: University of Akron Press, 1998.
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  795. An extensive social and technological study of planning and construction of the Thames Embankment, which housed London’s sewer system, supported sanitary reform, and facilitated navigation on the Thames. Treats the Embankment’s social construction as a public works project shaped by various interest groups.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Williams, Rosalind H. Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.
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  799. A suggestive cultural study of actual and imaginary undergrounds in late-19th-century Britain and France. Treats modern urban infrastructures of sewers and subways, archaeological excavations, and fictional undergrounds of Verne, Wells, Bulwer-Lytton, and others. Explores technological metaphors of the city as a networked system.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Electric
  802.  
  803. The last few decades of the Victorian period supported the significant, if uneven, growth of electricity as a consumer good, especially in lighting systems and communications media such as the electric telegraph. Schivelbusch 1988 provides the most important, accessible, and wide-ranging history of modern lighting, treating its influence on modern European consciousness, spectacle, architecture, and urban culture. More specific social and cultural histories of electricity in Britain may be found in Gooday 2004 on the measurement of electricity; Morus 1998 on electrical display and commodification; Marvin 1990 on light and telephony as social media; and Otter 2008 on lighting and the political history of freedom. Hughes 1983 also provides a chapter-length systems history of electricity in London. More technical accounts of electrical and lighting systems may be found in Bowers 1998, an introductory illustrated history, and Jarvis, et al. 1958, a briefer technological account. For other studies of electrical telegraphy, see entries cited under Telegraph.
  804.  
  805. Bowers, Brian. Lengthening the Day: A History of Lighting Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
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  807. Introductory illustrated technical history, with many sources drawn from the Lighting Collection of the London Science Museum. Ranges from early lighting to the first electric inventions and designs, as well as rivals to electricity. Includes extensive illustrations and technical detail on various lamps and their applications.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Gooday, Graeme J. N. The Morals of Measurement: Accuracy, Irony, and Trust in Late Victorian Electrical Practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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  811. An influential cultural history of electrical measurement and the late-Victorian debates that surrounded it. Explores conflicts surrounding trust, cultural authority, and institutional practice among physicists, chemists, electricians, engineers, and consumers. Treats changes in domestic electricity measurement, from time-consuming individual practices to later automated instrument mechanisms.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Hughes, Thomas Parke. Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880–1930. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983.
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  815. A wide-ranging history of the development of electrical supply systems, with comparative studies of Berlin, Chicago and London. Chapter 9 (pp. 227–261) examines London’s disordered and decentralized power system, considering the effects of the Electricity Act of 1882 and the adaptation of the American Edison system.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Jarvis, C. Mackechnie, et al. “The Generation of Electricity.” In A History of Technology. Vol. 5, The Late Nineteenth Century, c. 1850 to c. 1900. Edited by Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall, and Trevor I. Williams, 177–207. Oxford: Clarendon, 1958.
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  819. A detailed technical introduction to the form and function of various Victorian electrical mechanisms.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Marvin, Carolyn. When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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  823. A significant sociological approach to new electric media in the last quarter of the 19th century. Places special emphasis on electric light and the telephone in the social construction of 20th-century mass media and communications. Studies the negotiations of social and discursive groups for power.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. Morus, Iwan Rhys. Frankenstein’s Children: Electricity, Exhibition, and Experiment in Nineteenth-Century London. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
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  827. An influential social and cultural history of electrical scientific experiment and display in 19th-century London. Explores the transformation of electricity from an unreliable fluid to a desirable industrial commodity by the 1840s. Emphasizes the role of electricity in telegraphy (chapter 7) and the practices of inventors, showmen, and entrepreneurs.
  828. Find this resource:
  829. Otter, Chris. The Victorian Eye: A Political History of Light and Vision in Britain, 1800–1910. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
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  831. A political history of light, vision, and power, which treats the relation between the British history of freedom and changing understandings of perception. Explores links between ways of seeing and urban architecture. Second half treats illumination technologies, such as gaswork networks, early electricity infrastructure, and related perceptual capacities and practices.
  832. Find this resource:
  833. Schivelbusch, Wolfgang. Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century. Translated by Angela Davies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
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  835. Classic, pathbreaking cultural history of lighting and related transformations of consciousness, modernity, and public and private space in the 19th century. A lively introductory study of Europe and Britain. Discusses the rise of nightlife and the shop window, the political symbolism of streetlamps, and different cultural discourses surrounding gas and electricity. Originally published as Lichtblicke. Zur Geschichte der künstlichen Helligkeit im 19. Jahrhundert (Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1983).
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Communication
  838.  
  839. The Victorian period supported the growth of many communications technologies, including the telegraph, the typewriter, mass journalism, and the early stages of the telephone and gramophone. Current interest in new media has spurred an explosion of approaches toward these earlier technologies. A wide-ranging social and cultural introduction to Victorian communication technology may be found in Briggs and Burke 2002. Winston 1998 provides a more social “systems history,” while Hugill 1999 and Headrick 1991 explore the role of these new media in international politics and economics. More literary and cultural approaches to new Victorian media may be found in Wicke 1992, an influential essay on the mass communications technologies that underpin vampirism; in Kittler 1999, a pathbreaking discourse analysis of modernist media; and in Thurschwell 2008, a study of the psychic and spiritual aspects of late-Victorian teletechnologies. For more specific studies of telegraphy, see entries under Telegraph; of gramophones and wireless, see Sound; and for print media, see Visual.
  840.  
  841. Briggs, Asa, and Peter Burke. A Social History of the Media: From Gutenberg to the Internet. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2002.
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  843. A broad historical overview of communications media and its cultural context, with substantial material (chapters 4–6) on the transition from steam to electricity, the press, and 19th-century communications: telegraphs, telephones, wireless, cinema, and gramophones. Includes a chronology and suggestions for further reading. Introductory.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Headrick, Daniel. The Invisible Weapon: Telecommunications and International Politics, 1851–1945. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991.
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  847. A broad political and historical study of how telegraphy transformed foreign relations and imperialism in India, Indochina, China, and the Boer War. Chapters 1–5 treat the Victorian period: the first submarine cables, expansion of the world cable network, and the beginnings of radio and wireless telegraphy. Includes a bibliographic essay.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Hugill, Peter J. Global Communications since 1844: Geopolitics and Technology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
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  851. A wide-ranging historical and economic study of global communications and corresponding changes in geopolitics and the world economy. Begins with Victorian advances in international electrical telegraphy and ends with the two world wars. First chapters treat British hegemony in the capitalist world-system.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Kittler, Friedrich A. Gramophone, Film, Typewriter. Translated by Geoffrey Winthrop-Young and Michael Wutz. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1999.
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  855. A groundbreaking discourse analysis of new media technologies arising in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, largely treating Continental literature and psychology. Explores how the printed word was challenged by new ways of storing and communicating data in photography, phonography, cinematography, and typewriting. A complicated and influential theoretical approach. Originally published as Grammophon Film Typewriter (Berlin: Brinkmann & Bose, 1986).
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Thurschwell, Pamela L. Literature, Technology, and Magical Thinking, 1880–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  859. An influential study of the occult significance of teletechnologies (telegraphs, telephones, and typewriters) in British fin-de-siècle literature and culture and early-20th-century psychoanalysis. Shows how communication technologies supported psychic, spiritual, and sexual bonds in the Society for Psychical Research and fiction by Wilde, James, Du Maurier, Kipling, and Stoker.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Wicke, Jennifer. “Vampiric Typewriting: Dracula and Its Media.” ELH 59.2 (Summer 1992): 467–493.
  862. DOI: 10.2307/2873351Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  863. A highly influential study of media technologies that underpin vampirism. Explores how Dracula’s powers serve as an analogue for mass culture, invited by female consumers, supported by empire, and promoted through technologies crucial to modernism—speech recorded on gramophones, transcribed through stenography and typewriting, and distributed through telegraphy and journalism.
  864. Find this resource:
  865. Winston, Brian. Media Technology and Society: A History from the Telegraph to the Internet. New York: Routledge, 1998.
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  867. A wide-ranging history of the growth of communications technologies, with emphasis on the development of inventions, prototypes, and related industries. Examines how complex social forces support and hinder technological developments, shaping their diffusion and transformation. Early chapters begin with 19th-century systems of electrical communication, including the telegraph, telephone, and wireless.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Telegraph
  870.  
  871. A variety of studies focus on the Victorian telegraph, both as an evolving new technology and as a topic of literary and cultural representation. (For specific studies of wireless telegraphy, see Sound.) Standage 1998 provides a general popular introduction, and Kieve 1973 gives a social and economic history of the technology’s development. Morus 1998 focuses on its popularization and commodification as an electric system. More recently, scholars have explored the telegraph as a literary and neurobiological metaphor, particularly Otis 2001 in fiction and Rudy 2009 in poetry. Both Menke 2008 and Clayton 2003 examine portraits of telegraphy in literature and culture, challenging Kittler’s emphasis (in Kittler 1999) on modernism with alternate histories of earlier and distinctly Victorian technology. In addition, Menke influentially analyzes realist fiction as a media and communications system in its own right.
  872.  
  873. Clayton, Jay. Charles Dickens in Cyberspace: The Afterlife of the Nineteenth Century in Postmodern Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  875. A pathbreaking study of Victorian technoculture; telegraphy is dealt with in chapter 2 (on Hardy, James, and others). Challenges Kittler’s emphasis (in Kittler 1999) on data storage by highlighting interpretative conflicts between the telegraph’s visual and aural signals.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Kieve, Jeffrey. The Electric Telegraph: A Social and Economic History. Newton Abbot, UK: David and Charles, 1973.
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  879. A descriptive narrative and technical account of the telegraph. Treats the industry’s private control and eventual nationalization, problems with public ownership, and relation to the telephone and post office.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Menke, Richard. Telegraphic Realism: Victorian Fiction and Other Information Systems. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2008.
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  883. A insightful study of Victorian realist fiction and new media systems ranging from the penny post to electric and wireless telegraphy. Explores “how fiction could begin imagining itself as a medium and information system” (p. 3). Treats telegraphy as a topic, theme, and narrative form in Brontë, Dickens, James, and Kipling.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Morus, Iwan Rhys. Frankenstein’s Children: Electricity, Exhibition, and Experiment in Nineteenth-Century London. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998.
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887. An influential cultural history of electrical scientific experiment and display in 19th-century London. Chapter 7 treats the electric telegraph, its commodification, and its constitutive role in the development of physics.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Otis, Laura. Networking: Communicating with Bodies and Machines in the Nineteenth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001.
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  891. An excellent analysis of the reciprocal conceptual influence of the telegraph and Victorian neurobiology. Traces metaphors of communications networks in scientific texts on the nervous system, and in fiction on organic social and moral connections, telegraphy, and mental telepathy.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Rudy, Jason. Electric Meters: Victorian Physiological Poetics. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2009.
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  895. An incisive literary, cultural, and historical study, linking Victorian poetry to electric telegraphy and to “a new, physiological mode of poetic transmission” (p. 13) in verse by Tennyson, Maxwell, Hopkins, E. B. Browning, and Swinburne.
  896. Find this resource:
  897. Standage, Tom. The Victorian Internet: The Remarkable Story of the Telegraph and the Nineteenth Century’s On-line Pioneers. New York: Walker, 1998.
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  899. A popular and broadly accessible history. Suggests that the Victorian telegraph and Atlantic cable directly influenced dominant modern communications technologies, such as the Internet.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Visual
  902.  
  903. The study of Victorian visual technologies has grown to include not only photography but also many other optical instruments and techniques predating and coinciding with the camera. Crary 1990 provides the most influential study of these alternate visual devices and technologies, offering a history of modern perception and embodiment that has profoundly shaped later accounts of Victorian visuality. Moore 1997 supplies a helpful review essay of approaches by both Crary and others toward 19th-century visual technology. Horton 1995 helpfully contextualizes Crary’s claims within Victorian literature, while Flint 2000 responds to Crary with a study of painting and literature that emphasizes “the particularities of spectatorship,” the cultural functions, contexts, and discourses of visuality. Scientific approaches toward visuality have also attracted renewed attention. In a pathbreaking essay, Daston and Galison 1992 explores the idealized scientific role of mechanical instruments in producing objective visual representations in the later 19th century. A broader study of scientific imaging systems and the history of perception may be found in Tomas 2004. (For more specific studies of the history of photography and its relation to Victorian literature, see Photography.)
  904.  
  905. Crary, Jonathan. Techniques of the Observer: On Vision and Modernity in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990.
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  907. A seminal cultural history of vision and visual technology before the appearance of photography. Argues for a fundamental “reorganization of the observer” (p. 14) through popular optical devices (such as the stereoscope), which operated directly upon the body of the individual. Challenges technological determinism and received histories of modernist art.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Daston, Lorraine, and Peter Galison. “The Image of Objectivity.” Representations 40 (Autumn 1992): 81–128.
  910. DOI: 10.1525/rep.1992.40.1.99p0137hSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  911. A groundbreaking essay in the cultural history of science and technology, treating new and more mechanical notions of objectivity in scientific atlases in the latter half of the 19th century. Explores how scientists validated wordless and nonsubjective forms of visual representation in photography and mechanical instruments.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Flint, Kate. Victorians and the Visual Imagination. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
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  915. An influential cultural history of Victorian attitudes toward sight, as shaped by new accounts of physiology and technologies of spectatorship. Explores cultural discourses of visuality, transparency, and the unseen in realist and Pre-Raphaelite painting, art criticism, and literature by Eliot, Wells, Kipling, and E. B. Browning.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Horton, Susan R. “Were They Having Fun Yet? Victorian Optical Gadgetry, Modernist Selves.” In Victorian Literature and Victorian Visual Imagination. Edited by Carol T. Christ and John O. Jordan, 1–26. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995.
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  919. A concise and accessible essay, comparing the popularity of Victorian optical shows to accounts of seeing in Dickens’s novels and Arnold’s criticism. Explores how Victorian visual technology (such as camera obscuras, magic lanterns, dioramas, panoramas) created a conflict between subjective and objective models of seeing (as treated by Crary 1990).
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Moore, Kevin Z. “Viewing the Victorians: Recent Research on Victorian Visuality.” Victorian Literature and Culture 25.2 (1997): 367–385.
  922. DOI: 10.1017/S106015030000485XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923. Review essay on the period and scholarship on visuality, encompassing photography, cinema, and other early forms of visuality. Helpful bibliography and overview of trends surrounding the emergence of new visual technologies and corresponding forms of consciousness, perception, and embodiment. Significant emphasis on the influence of Crary 1990 and new reprints.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Tomas, David. Beyond the Image Machine: A History of Visual Technologies. London: Continuum, 2004.
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  927. A wide-ranging study of scientific imaging systems and their depiction in art, photography, and cinema. Treats transformations of perception through early photography, Babbage’s difference engine, and mechanical drawing. Emphasizes “uchronie,” the “historical reconstruction of fictive events on the basis of given historical referents” (p. 86). Theoretical.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. Photography
  930.  
  931. This section treats both historical accounts of the technical evolution of photography and more literary, cultural, and linguistic approaches to photography as a form of representation.
  932.  
  933. History
  934.  
  935. Standard technical histories of photography may be found in Coe 1976, which provides a century-long survey, and Gernsheim 1958, which offers a more specific technical account of photography from 1850 to 1900. Schaaf 1992 supplies an illuminating cultural and biographical prehistory of photography, stressing its origins in art and science, while Barger and White 1991 provides an extensive technical history of the daguerreotype process.
  936.  
  937. Barger, M. Susan, and William B. White. The Daguerreotype: Nineteenth-Century Technology and Modern Science. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991.
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  939. A detailed technical history of the daguerreotype since its introduction in 1839 as a complex “interplay of chemistry, microstructure, and optical physics” (p. xii). Concentrates on the scientific aspects of the daguerreotype process, drawing on extensive laboratory investigations. Discusses the use of daguerreotypes as scientific tools and their conservation today.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Coe, Brian. The Birth of Photography: The Story of the Formative Years, 1800–1900. New York: Taplinger, 1976.
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  943. Standard illustrated technical history, from daguerreotypes to the first Kodak camera.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Gernsheim, Helmut, and Alison Gernsheim. “The Photographic Arts: Photography.” In A History of Technology. Vol. 5, The Late Nineteenth Century, c. 1850 to c. 1900. Edited by Charles Singer, E. J. Holmyard, A. R. Hall, and Trevor I. Williams, 716–733. Oxford: Clarendon, 1958.
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  947. A more detailed technical history of photographic devices and processes in the latter half of the 19th century.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Schaaf, Larry J. Out of the Shadows: Herschel, Talbot, and the Invention of Photography. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992.
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  951. A “prehistory” of the invention of photography through the relation between scientist John Herschel and artist William Henry Fox Talbot. A cultural and biographical study of the process until 1844, drawing from extensive archival manuscript sources. Beautifully illustrated.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Literature
  954.  
  955. The relation between Victorian literature and photography has recently spurred a wide range of literary theories surrounding narrative, realism, fiction, and scientific representation. Green-Lewis 1996 and Armstrong 1999 both influentially explore how photography complicates distinctions between illusion and truth, with Armstrong focusing substantially on Victorian realist fiction and Green-Lewis using literary analysis to examine visual images. Other studies focus further on the authority, accuracy, and contextual specificity of photography: Tucker 2005 historicizes the use of Victorian photography as empirical scientific evidence, Groth 2003 treats its impact on nostalgic poetic culture, Tucker 2008 links it with new forms of public and perceptual experience, and Novak 2008 explores its construction of fictional forms of identity.
  956.  
  957. Armstrong, Nancy. Fiction in the Age of Photography: The Legacy of British Realism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999.
  958. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. An influential literary and cultural study of how Victorian novels sought to emulate the realism of photography and to address a new visually literate readership used to cataloguing people and things according to mass-reproduced images. Treats Dickens, the Brontës, Carroll, and Wilde.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Green-Lewis, Jennifer. Framing the Victorians: Photography and the Culture of Realism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1996.
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  963. A cultural study of how photography complicated distinctions between romance and realism, magic and empirical truth. Treats the imaginative construction of photography in popular discourse and its role in colonial and documentary contexts (e.g., the Crimean War), medical psychiatry, and criminology.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. Groth, Helen. Victorian Photography and Literary Nostalgia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
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  967. Explores the impact of photography on the nostalgic construction of Victorian literary—and especially poetic—culture. Emphasizes both its modern, democratizing aspects and its support of nostalgic memory, folk traditions, and rural heritage culture. Treats Wordsworth, E. B. Browning, Tennyson, and Cameron. Chapter 2 published as “Literary Nostalgia and Poetic Idylls in Early Victorian Photographic Discourse.” Nineteenth-Century Contexts 25.3 (2003): 199–213.
  968. Find this resource:
  969. Novak, Daniel. Realism, Photography, and Nineteenth-Century Fiction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
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  971. A literary study of how photography produced “the non-existent, the fictional, and the abstract” (p. 3), in composite fictional bodies associated with inaccuracy and distortion. Explores how realist fiction pursues similarly manipulative photographic practices, producing racial, sexual, and classed identities in Marx, Dickens, Eliot, and Wilde.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Tucker, Irene. “Picturing Utilitarianism: John Stuart Mill and the Invention of a Photographic Public.” Criticism 50.3 (Summer 2008): 411–446.
  974. DOI: 10.1353/crt.0.0076Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  975. A theoretical approach to photography through Victorian accounts of poetry and the public. Argues we may understand Mill’s new perceptually based concept of “publicness” through photographic logic: the creation of a “multisensory” self and a view of the world as a socially generated, temporality-less site. Complicated but illuminating.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Tucker, Jennifer. Nature Exposed: Photography as Eyewitness in Victorian Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
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  979. A cultural study of photography as “objective” scientific evidence. Explores the relation between photography and scientific authority, the manipulation of images, and the use of photographic evidence in different disciplines, with case studies from 1850 to the early 1900s on the photography of spirit forms, meteorology, bacteria, and planets.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Print and Illustration
  982.  
  983. No study of Victorian visual technology would be complete without treating developments in printing and illustration. Banham 2007 is a helpful and accessible introduction to book printing technology. Derry and Williams 1960 provides a more cursory technical account of changes in the Victorian printing press, while Wakeman 1973 offers an accessible survey of innovations specific to illustration. Finally, McKelvy 2007 explores the relation between literature and print technology in an essay on Tennyson’s verse and mechanical visual representation.
  984.  
  985. Banham, Rob. “The Industrialization of the Book, 1800–1970.” In A Companion to the History of the Book. Edited by Simon Eliot and Jonathan Rose, 273–290. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.
  986. DOI: 10.1111/b.9781405127653.2007.00021.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  987. A helpful introductory essay on innovations in book printing, focusing significantly on mechanization in the 19th century. Treats social and economic factors as well as the development of iron and steam-driven presses, rotary presses, image reproduction (stereotyping and electrotyping), and automated paper feeding. Includes illustrations and a bibliography.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. Derry, T. K., and Trevor Williams. “The Modern Printing-Press.” In A Short History of Technology from the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900. By T. K. Derry and Trevor Williams, 643–648. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960.
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991. A brief description of advances in modern printing techniques, including perfecting cylinders, the cylinder press, and the ten-feeder Hoe used in journals and newspapers.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. McKelvy, William R. “Iconic Destiny and ‘The Lady of Shalott’: Living in a World of Images.” Romanticism and Victorianism on the Net 47 (August 2007).
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  995. Treats Tennyson’s “Lady of Shalott” as a response to the mass production of imagery by the early-Victorian steam press and power loom. Shows how the poem’s emphasis on nonverbal visual interpretation reveals anxieties about the nature of writing and authorship, intensified by mechanical visual representation.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Wakeman, Geoffrey. Victorian Book Illustration: The Technical Revolution. Newton Abbot, UK: David and Charles, 1973.
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  999. A clear and concise introduction to innovations in book illustration, beginning with wood and steel engraving. Explores the role of the Great Exhibition of 1851 in promoting new illustration processes, photography and the photomechanical revolution, and innovations of the 1890s. Includes an appendix on the frequency of use of different illustration methods.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Sound
  1002.  
  1003. Paralleling new interest in visual technology, Victorian sound technology has also inspired new cultural studies and literary approaches. The later years of the period saw the uneven growth of the gramophone, the phonograph, the telephone, and early wireless and radio. (For broader approaches to the gramophone and telegraphy, both wireless and electric, see Communication.) Picker 2003 provides the most influential and wide-ranging cultural history of Victorian sound, exploring its transformation into a material commodity and its depiction in period literature and culture. More specific approaches toward Victorian literature may be found in Kreilkamp 1997, which treats the phonographic logic of narrative in Conrad; and in Connor 2002, which explores the modernization and automatization of hearing (following Crary 1990, listed under General Overviews: Historical, on vision). For more traditional historical accounts of sound technology, see Welch and Burt 1994, a technical and commercial history of recorded sound (which briefly treats the British adoption of American technologies). Wireless technology is treated in Aitken 1976, a technical and sociological history of radio, and in Hong 2001, which usefully supplements Aitken by tracing both the early development of wireless and the relationship between scientific and engineering practices. Finally, Perry 1977 provides a helpful historical introduction to the failed adoption of the telephone in late-Victorian Britain.
  1004.  
  1005. Aitken, Hugh G. J. Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio. New York: Wiley, 1976.
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  1007. A classic history of the origins of commercially viable radio, treated as a case study of social systems of science, technology, economics, and their interaction. Focuses on Hertz, Lodge, and Marconi, from the verification of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory (1888) to the invention of continuous-wave vacuum tubes (1914).
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Connor, Steven. “Voice, Technology, and the Victorian Ear.” In Transactions and Encounters: Science and Culture in the Nineteenth Century. Edited by Roger Luckhurst and Josephine McDonagh, 16–29. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2002.
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  1011. A cultural history of new sound technologies (especially the telephone and phonograph) in the second half of the 19th century. Argues that hearing was automatized and modernized according to industrial and thermodynamic models. Also explores spiritualism and fantasies of the mobility of senses (the distancing of sound from its original source).
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Hong, Sungook. Wireless: From Marconi’s Black-Box to the Audion. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.
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  1015. A detailed analysis of the engineering and scientific practices involved in wireless telegraphy. Treats both experimental and theoretical topics. Chapters 1–3 discuss the origins of wireless technology, priority disputes between Marconi and Lodge, and the “grafting” of power technology onto wireless telegraphy.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Kreilkamp, Ivan. “A Voice without a Body: The Phonographic Logic of Heart of Darkness.” Victorian Studies 40.2 (Winter 1997): 211–244.
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  1019. An influential account of the phonographic logic of narrative, viewed by Conrad as the threat of a disembodied and mechanically reproducible voice. Reprinted in Kreilkamp’s Voice and the Victorian Storyteller (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. Perry, Charles R. “The British Experience, 1876–1912: The Impact of the Telephone during the Years of Delay.” In The Social Impact of the Telephone. Edited by Ithiel de Sola Pool, 69–96. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977.
  1022. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1023. A rare essay on the failure of telephone development in Britain from its introduction in 1876 to its nationalization in 1912. Discusses reasons for its delayed adoption and acceptance, its competition with Britain’s already efficient telegraph and postal systems, and the public movement for its nationalization.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Picker, John M. Victorian Soundscapes. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. The only book-length study of sound technology throughout the Victorian period. An influential analysis of literature and culture, treating the gramophone, phonograph, electric telegraph, telephone, and other apparatuses. Explores the transformation of sound into a marketable and quantifiable “sonic commodity” (p. 10). Treats Eliot, Tennyson, Doyle, and various scientists.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. Welch, Walter L., and Leah Brodbeck Stenzel Burt. From Tin Foil to Stereo: The Acoustic Years of the Recording Industry, 1877–1929. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994.
  1030. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1031. The standard technical and commercial history of recorded sound. Provides a detailed account of Edison’s inventions. Discusses the introduction of the phonograph in Britain. Revised edition of the first half of Oliver Read and Walter L. Welch’s From Tin Foil to Stereo: Evolution of the Phonograph (Indianapolis, IN: Howard W. Sams, 1959).
  1032. Find this resource:
  1033. Information
  1034.  
  1035. The current information revolution has spurred an explosion of interest in related Victorian systems and technologies, epitomized by Charles Babbage’s unfinished calculating engine, a device viewed by many as a precursor to the modern computer. This section thus treats both the historical use of information technology as well as postmodern fantasies of the completion of Babbage’s engine, whether in “neo-Victorian” science fiction (treated in Sussman 1994 and Spufford 1996) or in actual fact (after painstaking construction in the London Science Museum in 1991, as recounted by Swade 2001). Essinger 2004 offers a popular historical introduction to the difference engine and the related industrial technology of the Jacquard loom, while Bromley 1990 supplies a more mathematically detailed explanation of the engine’s function. Swade 2001 provides a highly learned and accessible history of Babbage’s unsuccessful attempts to build his engine, followed by its construction and successful operation in 1991 by Swade himself. More specifically, Ashworth 1996 explores Babbage’s vision of mental and industrial efficiency, and Schaffer 1994 offers a pathbreaking account of how Victorian systems theory redefined labor and intelligence. Finally, Headrick 2000 supplies a wide-ranging introduction to other nonmechanized information technologies of the period. For more studies on the informatic aspects of new Victorian media, see Communication.
  1036.  
  1037. Ashworth, William J. “Memory, Efficiency, and Symbolic Analysis: Charles Babbage, John Herschel, and the Industrial Mind.” Isis 87.4 (December 1996): 629–653.
  1038. DOI: 10.1086/357650Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. Examines Herschel’s and Babbage’s attempts to discipline the human mind and economize its operation through both algebraic and mechanical forms of representation. Explores their attempts to systematize intellectual labor through the storage and production of knowledge—a process they compared to “industrializ[ing] the human mind” (p. 653).
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Essinger, James. Jacquard’s Web: How a Hand-Loom Led to the Birth of the Information Age. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. Traces the influence of Jacquard’s loom on the punch cards used in Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine and in more recent forms of automated information technology. Accessible and introductory.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Bromley, Allan G. “Difference and Analytical Engines.” In Computing Before Computers. Edited by William Aspray. Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1990.
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. A detailed technical and mathematical description of the functions of both engines. Clearly and extensively illustrated. More accessible to readers with some knowledge of advanced algebra.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Headrick, Daniel. When Information Came of Age: Technologies of Knowledge in the Age of Reason and Revolution, 1700–1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  1050. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1051. Introduces the concept of information systems before mechanization—as a tool of historical analysis. Treats cartography (maps and graphs), compendia (dictionaries, encyclopedias), communications information (the postal service, semaphore telegraph), and statistics. Wide-ranging.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Schaffer, Simon. “Babbage’s Intelligence: Calculating Engines and the Factory System.” Critical Inquiry 21.1 (Autumn 1994): 203–227.
  1054. DOI: 10.1086/448746Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1055. A pathbreaking essay on how discourses of machine intelligence and systems theory both shaped and were shaped by struggles for social, economic, and industrial power in the early Victorian period. Explores how labor and intelligence were redefined through modern engineering, in which creators and engineers—rather than workers—controlled machinery.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Spufford, Francis. “The Difference Engine and The Difference Engine.” In Cultural Babbage: Technology, Time, and Invention. Edited by Francis Spufford and Jenny Uglow, 266–290. London: Faber & Faber, 1996.
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  1059. Explores “imaginary history” as a popular postmodern genre of Victorian literature, through William Gibson and Bruce Sterling’s alternate steampunk (and fictional) history of Babbage and his calculating machine (The Difference Engine; New York: Bantam Books, 1991). Discusses how the engine’s fictional construction serves as a speculative exercise both of the historical imagination and of wonder.
  1060. Find this resource:
  1061. Sussman, Herbert. “Cyberpunk Meets Charles Babbage: The Difference Engine as Alternative Victorian History.” Victorian Studies 38.1 (Autumn 1994): 1–23.
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  1063. Examines Gibson and Sterling’s novel The Difference Engine (New York: Bantam Books, 1991) both as a rewriting of industrial novels by Gaskell and Disraeli and as an alternative work of technophilic nostalgia, deconstructing traditional Victorian cultural dualisms such as “culture/industrial, human/ mechanical, art/technology” (p. 5). Argues that Victorians pioneered an anti-technological view of culture, against which The Difference Engine reacts.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Swade, Doron. The Difference Engine: Charles Babbage and the Quest to Build the First Computer. New York: Viking, 2001.
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  1067. An accessible account of Babbage’s original attempt to design and build a mechanical calculating engine and Swade’s own successful attempt to build Babbage’s difference engine and printer out of period materials and instruments for the London Science Museum in 1991.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Medical
  1070.  
  1071. Changes in Victorian medicine were inseparable from innovations in medical technology, which increasingly used graphical, mechanical, and mathematical processes to measure and represent the condition of the human body. These graphical instruments raised urgent questions surrounding visual representation and scientific objectivity. Helpful introductions to their use and development may be found in Reiser 1978, which provides a wide-ranging account of medical technology, and Davis 1981, which supplies an accessible illustrated introduction to various apparatuses. Chadarevian 1993 offers a more technical essay on the effects of self-recording instruments and graphical method, while Schickore 2007 treats microscopy. Although many studies exist of Victorian literature, medicine, and realism, Kennedy 2010 is the only literary study that focuses specifically upon medical visual technologies and graphical method.
  1072.  
  1073. Chadarevian, Soraya de. “Graphical Method and Discipline: Self-Recording Instruments in Nineteenth-Century Physiology.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 24.2 (1993): 267–290.
  1074. DOI: 10.1016/0039-3681(93)90048-OSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1075. A detailed technical essay on later Victorian use of self-recording instruments to measure and represent physiology through graphical method. Explores how physiology was transformed into a mathematical science through standardized instruments such as the kymograph, myograph, sphymograph, and laryngoscope. Treats related professional and disciplinary transformations in medicine.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Davis, Audrey B. Medicine and Its Technology: An Introduction to the History of Medical Instrumentation. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981.
  1078. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1079. An introductory history of medical practice and culture, with an emphasis on Victorian Anglo-American medicine. Treats early and widely adopted instruments (thermometers, stethoscopes, cardiac and pulse-related devices), debates on the standardization of physiological functions, changing concepts of disease, and instrument design and practice. Includes excellent illustrations of instruments,
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. Kennedy, Meegan. Revising the Clinic: Vision and Representation in Victorian Medical Narrative and the Novel. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 2010.
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  1083. An insightful study of medical technologies of seeing in Victorian novels and clinical case histories. Explores the reciprocal influence of fiction and medical narrative in debates over observing and recording the world. Treats sources on visual knowledge, mechanical observation, and medical instruments, including Dickens, Gaskell, Eliot, and Freud.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Reiser, Stanley Joe. Medicine and the Reign of Technology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
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  1087. A wide-ranging historical study of medicine, tracing the use of visual technology for viewing the human body, “the translation of physiological actions into the language of machines,” the influence of diagnostic laboratories, and changing relations between physicians and patients. Substantially treats later Victorian mechanical apparatus and graphical instruments. Anglo-American emphasis.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Schickore, Jutta. The Microscope and the Eye: A History of Reflections, 1740–1870. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
  1090. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1091. A historical study of the eye and microscope as optical systems in British and German culture. Explores the technical development of the microscope and its relation to debates surrounding trust, reliability, and the nature of knowledge and observation. Chapter 5 concentrates on early-19th-century Britain.
  1092. Find this resource:
  1093. Military
  1094.  
  1095. During the Victorian period, the industrialization of culture was accompanied by the industrialization of war, especially during the second half of the century. A variety of historical studies explore innovations in armaments technology, naval ship design, and allied military strategy. McNeill 1982 provides an accessible overview of British military technologies and strategies during the period. Bastable 2004 offers a biographical history of late-Victorian armaments technology and entrepreneurial engineering. For more specific studies of the Victorian army, see Strachan 1985 on the relation between new artillery technology and tactical doctrine, as well as Spiers 1992 on the late-Victorian army’s responses to technology. Specific approaches toward naval design, technology, and armaments may be found under Steamships. Finally, Clarke 1997 explores the role of late-Victorian science fiction in supporting the rise of the military industrial complex.
  1096.  
  1097. Bastable, Marshall J. Arms and the State: Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power, 1854–1914. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. A well-researched history of armaments technology in late-Victorian Britain. Emphasizes technical innovations (including Armstrong’s breech-loading wrought-iron field gun), the Royal Navy’s modernization, and the military-industrial-political relationships of Armstrong’s armaments firm. Challenges views of the failure of Victorian entrepreneurial engineering during the Crimean War and beyond.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Clarke, I. F. “Future-War Fiction: The First Main Phase, 1871–1900.” Science Fiction Studies 24.3 (November 1997): 387–412.
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  1103. A descriptive survey of popular Victorian science fiction and its attempts both to anticipate technological advances in warfare and to pose arguments for greater military development. Explores how science fiction contributed to and fed off of a growing sense of nationhood. Focuses on superweapons in Wells, Verne, and London.
  1104. Find this resource:
  1105. McNeill, William H. “The Industrialization of War.” Review of International Studies 8.3 (July 1982): 203–213.
  1106. DOI: 10.1017/S0260210500115608Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. Helpful introductory overview of various Victorian military technologies and strategies. Traces the roots of the modern military-industrial complex to the late Victorian period and its naval building program of 1884.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. Spiers, Edward M. The Late Victorian Army, 1868–1902. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992.
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  1111. Chapter 9 (“Arms, Tactics, and Training”) provides a succinct summary of the army’s tactical and organizational responses to a massive increase in firepower, through innovations such as breech-loading rifles, smaller-caliber ammunition, smokeless power, a further-refined machine gun, and the prospect of quick-firing artillery.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Strachan, Hew. From Waterloo to Balaclava: Tactics, Technology, and the British Army, 1815–1854. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
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  1115. A study of the divided priorities of the British Army (defense, colonial, and continental), focusing especially on the dramatic effects of technology on tactical doctrine. Closely studies the technological changes that created a revolution in the power of small arms and promised similar changes in artillery.
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117. Agricultural
  1118.  
  1119. The adoption of agricultural technology was slow and uneven in the Victorian period, with significant growth only occurring in the century’s later decades. Scholarship on these developments is dominated by technical and antiquarian approaches. The most recent technical history is Brown 2008, though Spence 1960 also remains an excellent technical source. Williams 1973 and Meadowsong 2009 provide literary accounts of farm machinery as portrayed by Hardy. However, a substantial literary or cultural study of Victorian agricultural technology has yet to be published.
  1120.  
  1121. Brown, Jonathan. Steam on the Farm: A History of Agricultural Steam Engines 1800 to 1950. Ramsbury, UK: Crowood, 2008.
  1122. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1123. The most recent scholarly study of the technological development and adoption of steam machinery in British agriculture. Contains excellent archival photos and a bibliography.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Meadowsong, Zena. “Thomas Hardy and the Machine: The Mechanical Deformation of Narrative Realism in Tess of the d’Urbervilles.” Nineteenth-Century Literature 64.2 (September 2009): 225–248.
  1126. DOI: 10.1525/ncl.2009.64.2.225Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1127. An updated narrative and thematic account of the objectification performed by agricultural technology in Hardy. Links the novel’s plot “defects” with “the problem of mechanization” (p. 231) and its inevitably dehumanizing formal and historical effects.
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129. Spence, Clark C. God Speed the Plow: The Coming of Steam Cultivation to Great Britain. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1960.
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  1131. A classic and still influential technological history of British agriculture, focusing on different stages of the application of steam plowing to farms. Assesses various applications of steam through the tractor/traction engine, rotary tiller/cultivator, and cable-drown plow. Includes many illustrations and an extensive bibliography.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973
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  1135. Chapter 18 (“Wessex and the Border”) contextualizes Hardy’s portrait of agricultural threshing machinery in Tess of the D’Urbervilles, arguing against a neo-pastoral view of the country. Claims Hardy gives the pressures of rural Wessex “a human and social rather than a mechanical dimension” (p. 208).
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. back to top
  1138.  
  1139. VICTORIAN LITERATURE
  1140. About Victorian Literature »
  1141. Meet the Editorial Board »
  1142. JUMP TO OTHER ARTICLES:
  1143. Jump To
  1144. Up
  1145.  
  1146. Actresses
  1147. Aestheticism
  1148. Affect
  1149. Arnold, Matthew
  1150. Atheism and Secularization
  1151. Autobiography
  1152. Barnes, William
  1153. Barrett Browning, Elizabeth
  1154. Braddon, Mary Elizabeth
  1155. Brontë, Anne
  1156. Brontë, Charlotte
  1157. Brontë, Emily
  1158. Broughton, Rhoda
  1159. Browning, Robert
  1160. Butler, Samuel
  1161. Caird, Mona
  1162. Carlyle, Thomas
  1163. Catholicism and Anti-Catholicism
  1164. Chartism
  1165. Children's Literature
  1166. Christian Church, The
  1167. City, The
  1168. Class
  1169. Clough, Arthur Hugh
  1170. Collins, Wilkie
  1171. Conan Doyle, Sir Arthur
  1172. Conrad, Joseph
  1173. Corelli, Marie
  1174. Crime and Punishment
  1175. Culture, Visual
  1176. Darwinism
  1177. Decadence
  1178. Dickens, Charles
  1179. Disraeli, Benjamin
  1180. Domesticity
  1181. Dowson, Ernest
  1182. Du Maurier, George
  1183. Education
  1184. Eliot, George
  1185. Empire
  1186. Evangelicalism
  1187. Feminism
  1188. Fiction, Detective
  1189. Fiction, Sensation
  1190. Fin de Siècle
  1191. Gaskell, Elizabeth
  1192. Gender
  1193. Gosse, Edmund
  1194. Haggard, H. Rider
  1195. Hardy, Thomas
  1196. Historical Novel, The
  1197. Homosexuality
  1198. Hopkins, Gerard Manley
  1199. Ireland
  1200. James, Henry
  1201. Journalism
  1202. Keble, John
  1203. Kingsley, Charles
  1204. Kipling, Rudyard
  1205. Lear, Edward
  1206. Lee, Vernon
  1207. Literacy
  1208. Machines
  1209. Marryat, Florence
  1210. Martineau, Harriet
  1211. Masculinity
  1212. Material
  1213. Medicine
  1214. Melodrama
  1215. Mill, John Stuart
  1216. Mobility
  1217. Monologue, Dramatic
  1218. Morris, William
  1219. Neo-Victorianism
  1220. New Woman, The
  1221. Newgate Novel, The
  1222. Newman, John Henry
  1223. Oliphant, Margaret
  1224. Orientalism
  1225. Oxford Movement, The
  1226. Pantomime
  1227. Pater, Walter Horatio
  1228. Periodical Press, The
  1229. Psychology
  1230. Race
  1231. Raphaelitism, Pre-
  1232. Reade, Charles
  1233. Realism
  1234. Reynolds, G. W. M.
  1235. Rossetti, Christina
  1236. Rossetti, Dante Gabriel
  1237. Ruskin, John
  1238. Satire
  1239. Science
  1240. Sentimentality
  1241. Serialization
  1242. Sexuality
  1243. Silver Fork Novel (Fashionable Novel)
  1244. Sincerity
  1245. Social-Problem Novel
  1246. Sonnet
  1247. Stevenson, Robert Louis
  1248. Swinburne, A.C.
  1249. Symonds, John Addington
  1250. Technology
  1251. Tennyson, Alfred
  1252. Thackeray, William Makepeace
  1253. Tonna, Charlotte Elizabeth
  1254. Travel Writing
  1255. Trollope, Anthony
  1256. Trollope, Frances
  1257. Unitarianism
  1258. Verse, Devotional
  1259. Ward, Mary
  1260. Webster, Julia Augusta
  1261. Wells, H. G.
  1262. Wood, Ellen (Mrs. Henry Wood)
  1263. Yonge, Charlotte
  1264. Down
  1265.  
  1266. Oxford University Press Copyright © 2017. All rights reserved. Privacy Policy Legal Notice Sign Out страничка проекта Sci-Hub в социальных сетях →
  1267. поменять прокси
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