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Roman Architecture (Classics)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Architecture is the quintessential Roman art, and the well-preserved remains of Roman buildings dominate our vision of the Roman Empire. Alongside the temples and houses common to many societies, the Romans developed a wide range of new forms to meet the increasingly sophisticated and diverse needs of their society, such as baths, amphitheaters, and basilicas. Roman architecture is famous above all for its technological innovations and achievements, which found their greatest expression in wide-span buildings such as the Pantheon. They used arches and vaults widely from an early period, were highly skilled in timber construction, and developed concrete as a basic building material of wide-ranging application. The main evidence is the buildings themselves, many thousands of which survive to some degree, but ancient texts, especially the On Architecture of Vitruvius, and inscriptions provide much of the interpretative framework. Excavations and standing building surveys are constantly increasing our knowledge and understanding, sometimes confirming earlier hypotheses but also often requiring major reevaluations of established theories. Although Roman architecture has been studied since the Renaissance, it is only since the middle of the 20th century that it has come to be appreciated for the developments in concrete construction, which led to a revolution in the treatment of interior space. More recently, the emphasis has shifted to the processes of design and construction rather than the finished effect, and the role of architecture in society. Regional studies are also increasing, often tied to wider historical debates on identity and acculturation in the Roman Empire.
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  5. General Overviews
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  7. The traditional approach to Roman architecture is fundamentally historical, presenting a linear chronological narrative of the architecture of the city of Rome (Hesberg and Zanker 2009) and central Italy, but with sections on provincial developments in the imperial period (Boethius and Ward-Perkins, 1970, Sear 1982). Alternative approaches examine the different trajectories of individual building types in time and space, and their function in society (Gros 1996–2001, Hesberg 2005). Thomas 2007, although focusing on the Antonine period, provides broader insights into the meaning of architecture in Roman society.
  8.  
  9. Boethius, Axel, and John B. Ward-Perkins. 1970. Etruscan and Roman architecture. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
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  11. Arranged chronologically, and by region; Boethius focuses on Italy under the Roman Republic, while Ward-Perkins covers the whole Roman Empire from Augustus to Constantine, with roughly half on Rome and Italy, and half on the provinces, arranged geographically. Available more readily in two volumes: Axel Boethius, Etruscan and Early Roman Architecture, 2d ed., revised by Roger Ling and Tom Rasmussen (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1978); and J. B. Ward-Perkins, Roman Imperial Architecture, 2d ed. (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1981).
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  13. Gros, Pierre. L’architecture romaine: du début du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire. 2 vols. Paris: Picard, 1996–2001.
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  15. A magisterial work by the greatest living authority. Copiously illustrated, detailed typological study of Roman buildings from the mid-Republic to the end of the 3rd century BCE, focusing on Rome and Italy but with examples from all over the Empire, and stronger on the western provinces. Volume 1 examines public buildings, including temples, fora, buildings for spectacles, baths, and markets; Volume 2 (2001; 2d ed. 2006) looks at houses, palaces, villas, and tombs.
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  17. Hesberg, Henner von. 2005. Römische Baukunst. Munich: Beck.
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  19. Focuses on construction projects and building types in relation to society as a whole; strong on public buildings with little on domestic architecture. Also includes building materials and architectural ornament, and a discussion of builders, patrons, and users. Usefulness limited for those not already familiar with the material because of the small number of illustrations.
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  21. Hesberg, Henner von, and Paul Zanker, eds. 2009. Storia dell’architettura italiana: Architettura romana I grandi monumenti di Roma. Milan: Mondadori Electa.
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  23. Introductory essays by leading scholars, all in Italian, on the architecture of the city of Rome from its origins to Constantine, including single buildings, historical overviews, and typological surveys. No notes, but excellent bibliography and chronological table linking buildings and historical events.
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  25. Sear, Frank. 1982. Roman architecture. London: Batsford.
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  27. A basic introduction, clearly written but out of date in places. Still useful as an introductory text for undergraduates.
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  29. Thomas, Edmund V. 2007. Monumentality and the Roman Empire: Architecture in the Antonine age. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  31. Examines the meaning and significance of buildings as monuments and architectural forms, focusing on the architecture of the period from Antoninus Pius to Commodus. Intelligent and stimulating.
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  33. Regional Surveys
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  35. The growing interest in provincial architecture has yet to produce comprehensive regional studies, but several conference proceedings (Johnson and Haynes 1996, Meyer 2007), edited volumes (Macready and Thompson 1987), and shorter individual contributions (Bailey 1990, McKenzie 2007) provide useful overviews and illustrate the varying reception and influence of Roman architecture in different regions of the Empire.
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  37. Bailey, Donald. M. 1990. Classical architecture in Egypt. In Architecture and architectural sculpture in the Roman Empire. Edited by Martin Henig, 121–137. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Committee for Archaeology.
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  39. Still-useful overview of religious and civic architecture in the classical-Hellenistic tradition in Roman Egypt.
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  41. Johnson, Peter and Ian Haynes eds. 1996. Architecture in Roman Britain. Papers presented at a conference organized by the Roman Research Trust and held at the Museum of London in November 1991. York, UK: Council for British Archaeology.
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  43. The first major volume to take the buildings of Roman Britain seriously as architecture. Papers by leading scholars.
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  45. Macready, Sarah, and F. H. Thompson. 1987. Roman architecture in the Greek world. London: Society of Antiquaries.
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  47. Influential volume covering Roman Greece and Asia Minor, focusing on the influence of Roman practices and customs on the architecture of this area.
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  49. McKenzie, Judith. 2007. The architecture of Alexandria, c.300 B.C. to A.D. 700. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
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  51. Award-winning study of the Hellenistic, Roman, and late Antiquity architecture of the capital of Egypt’s most important city, and the second most important city of the Roman Empire.
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  53. Meyer, Marion, ed. 2007. Neue Zeiten, neue Sitten: zu Rezeption und Integration römischen und italischen Kulturguts in Kleinasien; Internationales Kolloquium am Institut für Klassische Archäologie der Universität Wien, 31.3.–2.4.2005. Wiener Forschungen zur Archäologie 12. Vienna: Phoibos.
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  55. Several papers (in German and English) demonstrate recent thinking on Roman influences on the architecture of Asia Minor.
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  57. Reference Works
  58.  
  59. There are no reference works or journals devoted entirely to Roman architecture, although the Dictionary of Art (Turner 1996), Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae (Steinby 1993–2000), and the Dictionnaire méthodique de l’architecture grecque et romaine (Ginouvès 1985–1998) are useful for general introductions, monuments of Rome, and techniques, respectively. Bibliographical research is best done through two essential search engines relating specifically to the ancient world, L’Année Philologique and Projekt Dyabola, or its more limited version, Zenon-DAI.
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  61. Ginouvès, René, ed. 1985–1998. Dictionnaire méthodique de l’architecture grecque et romaine. 3 vols. Athens, Greece: École Française d’Athènes.
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  63. A technical dictionary covering materials, construction techniques, and decoration (Vol. 1), structural elements (Vol. 2), and building types (Vol. 3).
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  65. L’Année Philologique. Paris: Société Internationale de Bibliographie Classique.
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  67. The annual bibliography for the whole of classical archaeology, literature, and ancient history: in print, 1924–; online 1959–. Available online by subscription.
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  69. Projekt Dyabola. Munich: Verlag Biering & Brinkmann.
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  71. Continues and expands the work of the Archäologische Bibliographie (in print, 1958–1996), originally the catalogue of the library of the German Archaeological Institute in Rome. Covers journal articles as well as monographs, updated periodically every few months. Idiosyncratic but functional search machines, most useful for architecture being the Subject Catalogue; cost makes it likely to be available only in specialized research libraries. Available online by subscription.
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  73. Steinby, Eva Margareta, ed. 1993–2000. Lexicon Topographicum Urbis Romae. 6 vols. Rome: Quasar.
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  75. Encyclopedia-style accounts of the monuments of the city of Rome, mostly in Italian with some German, French, and English. Well documented with thorough bibliographies and illustrations of varying quality. Although the focus is primarily topographical, the architecture is also discussed, and current controversies aired.
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  77. Turner, Jane, ed. 1996. The dictionary of art. 34 vols. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan.
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  79. Covers the world’s art, with good basic accounts of Roman architecture, its main monuments, building types, and themes, along with convenient access to Etruscan and Greek architecture, and to Renaissance studies and interpretations. See also, by subscription, Grove Art Online, which provides access to the entire text of The Dictionary of Art, with ongoing additions of new material and updates, and extensive image links.
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  81. Xenon-DAI.
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  83. The online catalogue of the German Archaeological Institutes. Available free, with simple, generally language-specific, search capabilities.
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  85. Vitruvius
  86.  
  87. Vitruvius’s On Architecture (De architectura), finished around the 20s BCE, is the only complete architectural treatise to survive from Antiquity, covering the role and training of the architect, architectural theory, town planning, building materials and construction, temples and orders, public and private buildings, decoration, hydraulic engineering, sundials, and machines. The highly specialized technical language makes the Latin text difficult, and translations do not always agree; compare, for example, those by Rowland and Howe (vitruvius 1999) and Schofield (Vitruvius 2009). Vitruvius has been used widely by modern scholars as a source on all aspects of Roman architecture (Gros 2006, Geertman and de Jong 1989), including the place of architects and architecture in Roman society (McEwan 2003, Wallace-Hadrill 2008). Vitruvius was also the main source of the other architectural manuals from the Roman period (Plommer 1973).
  88.  
  89. Geertman, Herman, and J. J. de Jong, eds. 1989. Munus non ingratum: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Vitruvius’ De Architectura and the Hellenistic and Republican Architecture, Leiden, 20–23 January 1987. Bulletin antieke beschaving, Supplement 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: BABesch.
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  91. Groundbreaking interdisciplinary symposium setting Vitruvius in his literary, historical, and architectural context. Papers by leading scholars in French, English, and German.
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  93. Gros, Pierre. 2006. Vitruve et la tradition des traités d’architecture: fabrica et ratiocinatio; recueil d’études. Rome: École Française de Rome.
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  95. Twenty-seven essays on a range of aspects, in French, by the greatest living Vitruvian scholar. Includes some unpublished papers and others from obscure sources.
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  97. McEwen, Indra K. 2003. Vitruvius: Writing the body of architecture. Cambridge, MA, and London: MIT Press.
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  99. Clear introduction to the study of Vitruvius, with extensive bibliography. Focuses on Vitruvius in his historical context, on his relation to Augustus, and on the text as corpus of architectural knowledge. Challenging.
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  101. Plommer, Hugh. 1973. Vitruvius and later Roman building manuals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  103. Provides a translation and commentary on the architectural treatise of M. Cetius Faventinus (c. 3rd–4th century CE, or possibly earlier), which abridged and revised Vitruvius for domestic architecture, and the corresponding section of the agricultural treatise of Palladius (c. mid-5th century CE), derived from Faventinus.
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  105. Vitruvius. 1931. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio: On architecture. Edited and translated by Frank Granger. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
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  107. Loeb edition with parallel Latin and English texts; old-fashioned translation without commentary but readily available.
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  109. Vitruvius. 1969–2009. De l’architecture. 10 vols. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.
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  111. The definitive Latin text, with parallel French translation and excellent commentaries by different leading French scholars.
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  113. Vitruvius. 1999. Vitruvius: Ten books on architecture. Translated and with commentary by Ingrid D. Rowland and Thomas Noble Howe. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  115. A contemporary English translation, with very useful introduction to Vitruvius and his times, and well-illustrated commentary, but no Latin text.
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  117. Vitruvius. 2009. On architecture. Translated by Richard Schofield. London: Penguin.
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  119. Good new English translation, with some notes and illustrations, designed as much for students of Renaissance and later architecture as for classical scholars. With an introduction by Robert Tavernor.
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  121. Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 2008. Rome’s cultural revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
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  123. Chapter 4 provides a thought-provoking reading of Vitruvius in relation to the creation of Roman identity in the transition from Republic to Empire.
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  125. Architects and Design
  126.  
  127. Although Vitruvius is still a major source, the broader study of literary and epigraphic sources has clarified the nature of architecture as a profession (Anderson 1997), along with the varied social status (Gros 1983) and ethnic origins (Donderer 1996) of architects. Wilson Jones 2000 also uses careful metrological studies of the monuments themselves to elucidate design principles and rules of proportion.
  128.  
  129. Anderson, James C. 1997. Roman architecture and society. Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  131. Chapter 1 gives a useful analysis of the position of the major architects known from literary sources and inscriptions, focusing on Rome and Italy.
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  133. Donderer, Michael. 1996. Die Architekten der späten römischen Republik und der Kaiserzeit: Epigraphische Zeugnisse. Erlangen, Germany: Universitätsbund Erlangen-Nürnberg e.V.
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  135. An examination of the epigraphic evidence for architects in the later Roman Republic and Empire, covering the whole empire. Particularly valuable for demonstrating their diverse social and geographical origins and countering the long-standing idea that almost all architects of the Roman period were Greek in origin.
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  137. Gros, Pierre. 1983. Statut social et rôle culturel des architectes (période hellénistique et augustéene). In Architecture et société, de l’archaisme grec à la fin de la Republique romaine: Actes du Colloque international organisé par le Centre national de la recherche scientifique et l’École française de Rome (Rome 2–4 décembre 1980). Edited by Pierre Gros, 425–452. Rome: École Française de Rome.
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  139. A pioneering study distinguishing different categories of architect, and examining their responsibilities and their role in theoretical aspects of architecture.
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  141. Wilson Jones, Mark. 2000. Principles of Roman architecture. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
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  143. The fundamental work on Roman architectural design, throwing new light on design principles for the Corinthian order, centralized buildings, Trajan’s Column, and the Pantheon. Comprehensive bibliography.
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  145. Building Materials and Construction
  146.  
  147. Overall explanations of building materials and techniques (Adam 1994, Ulrich 2007), and of structural systems (Giuliani 2006), provide essential tools for understanding Roman architecture. Lancaster 2008 provides a short overview. Attention has traditionally focused on Rome, where the local volcanic geology led to the development of concrete, with its characteristic facings of opus incertum, opus reticulatum, and brick, and the use of vaulted forms culminating in the Pantheon. While earlier treatments were descriptive catalogues (Blake 1947, Blake 1959, Blake 1973), more recent ones have explored concrete construction at Rome in terms of innovation fuelled by the needs and desires of society, and of the organization and economics of construction (Coarelli 1977, MacDonald 1982, Lancaster 2005). Recent scholarship is also concerned with construction techniques in the provinces. Marble is a special case, a prestige material closely connected with the Roman emperors, for whom normal ideas of economy did not operate.
  148.  
  149. Adam, Jean-Pierre. 1994. Roman building: Materials and techniques. Translated by A. Mathews. London: Batsford.
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  151. Standard account of Roman building materials and techniques, copiously illustrated and with examples from all over the Empire, but focusing on Rome, Pompeii, and Gaul. Excellent use of ethnographic material from later periods. Originally published as La construction romaine: matériaux et techniques (Paris: Picard, 1984). Republished in paperback by Routledge (London, 1999).
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  153. Blake, Marion Elizabeth. 1947. Ancient Roman construction in Italy from the prehistoric period to Augustus. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 570. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute.
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  155. A comprehensive catalogue, arranged chronologically and by techniques, much used by scholars for dating monuments. Still a valuable resource, despite the accumulation of much new data and changing perspectives in the interpretation of construction.
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  157. Blake, Marion Elizabeth. 1959. Roman construction in Italy from Tiberius through the Flavians. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication 616. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution.
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  159. A comprehensive catalogue, arranged chronologically and by techniques. Used frequently by scholars for dating monuments, remains important, despite new data and changing perspectives in the interpretation of construction.
  160. A reprint is available (New York: Krause Reprint Corporation, 1973).
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  162. Blake, Marion Elizabeth. 1973. Roman construction from Nerva through the Antonines. Edited by Doris Taylor Bishop. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Association.
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  164. A comprehensive catalogue, arranged chronologically and by techniques, much used by scholars for dating monuments. Still a valuable resource, despite the accumulation of much new data and changing perspectives in the interpretation of construction.
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  166. Coarelli, F. 1977. Public building between the second Punic War and Sulla. Papers of the British School at Rome (PBSR) 45:1–23.
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  168. Groundbreaking study explaining the development of opus reticulatum in terms of the increase in public building at Rome over the 2nd century BCE and the development of a more industrial approach to concrete construction under the influence of slave modes of labor. Some details, especially the dating of key buildings, now need revision.
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  170. Giuliani, Cairoli F. 2006. L’edilizia nell’antichità. Manuali universitari (Rome, Italy) 27. Rome: Carocci.
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  172. Analytical description and discussion of Roman construction techniques in relation to structural systems and the engineering of buildings. Enlarged edition of 1990 publication. Text well illustrated with the author’s drawings, with photographs, computer reconstructions, and historical images on a CD-ROM. Used as a university textbook in Italy.
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  174. Lancaster, Lynne C. 2005. Concrete vaulted construction in imperial Rome: Innovations in context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  175. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511610516.018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  176. A complete reevaluation of the evolution and nature of Roman concrete vaulting in Rome and central Italy, covering materials and techniques. Well-founded in the material evidence but also uses engineering analysis to evaluate how and why the structures work. Includes an excellent analysis of the nature of innovation in Roman construction. Essential reading.
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  178. Lancaster, Lynne C. 2008. Roman engineering and construction. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 256–284. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  180. Short introduction.
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  182. MacDonald, William L. 1982. The architecture of the Roman Empire: An introductory study. 2d rev. ed. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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  184. An accessible and still useful account of the development of concrete construction in Rome, focusing on key monuments (Nero’s Golden House; Domitian’s Palace, Trajan’s Markets, Pantheon), with chapters on architects and the building industry, but some arguments contentious (e.g., roofing the great halls of Domitian’s Palace) and for vaulting now superseded by Lancaster 2005. First of 2 volumes (Vol. 2: An urban appraisal, see MacDonald 1986, cited under Public Buildings).
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  186. Ulrich, Roger B. 2007. Roman woodworking. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
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  188. The first monograph on the topic, covering woodwork for foundation shoring, timber-framed construction, roofs and ceilings, formwork for vaulting, door and window construction, and techniques. Important for understanding Roman wide-span structures.
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  190. Marble
  191.  
  192. Marble was the prestige material for architectural orders and surface decoration in the Roman world, and the emperors in particular invested large amounts of resources in extracting and moving different types and colors of hard stone from all over the Roman Empire. Fant 2008 provides a short overview. Studies have moved from simple identification and provenance (Gnoli 1971) to debates about the nature of distribution or trade (Dodge and Ward Perkins 1992, Fant 2001), discussions of the use and meaning of different marbles to Roman society (De Nuccio and Ungaro 2002), and the formation of a language of marble architectural decoration (Pensabene 2007).
  193.  
  194. De Nuccio, Marilda, and Lucrezia Ungaro, eds. 2002. I marmi colorati della Roma imperiale. Venice: Marsilio.
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  196. Scholarly exhibition catalogue, lavishly illustrated. Introductory essays provide useful coverage of types, quarrying, use, and meaning of colored marble in architecture.
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  198. Dodge, Hazel, and Bryan Ward-Perkins, eds. 1992. Marble in antiquity: Collected papers of J. B. Ward-Perkins. London: British School at Rome.
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  200. Collects together Ward-Perkins’s seminal papers on Roman marble quarry systems and trade, including both architectural and sculptural marbles, which started the current interest in the economic and political aspects of this exceptional material. Useful gazetteer and bibliography.
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  202. Fant, J. Clayton. 2001. Rome’s marble yards. Journal of Roman Archaeology 14:167–198.
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  204. Careful assessment of the evidence for the storage and handling at Rome and Portus, including earlier scholarship. Argues for imperial control, and against the idea of stockpiling against undetermined future use.
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  206. Fant, J. Clayton. 2008. Quarrying and stoneworking. In The Oxford handbook of engineering and technology in the classical world. Edited by John P. Oleson, 121–135. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
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  208. Short introduction to Greek and Roman quarrying, with much on marble.
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  210. Gnoli, Raniero. 1971. Marmora romana. Rome: Edizioni dell’Elefante.
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  212. The “marble bible”: the origins, history, description, and use (in Italian) of the main colored marbles used in ancient Rome. The full-scale color photos of prime examples form an important reference.
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  214. Pensabene, Patrizio. 2007. Ostiensium marmorum decus et décor: Studi architettonici, decorative e archeometrici. Studi Miscellanei 33. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
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  216. A monumental and dense study of the architectural use of marble at Rome’s port of Ostia, focusing on the relation between patrons, marble supply, and craftsmen in the creation of local styles.
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  218. Construction Techniques in the Provinces
  219.  
  220. The study of construction techniques in the provinces focuses particularly on areas either where the characteristic techniques of Rome were imported (Spanu 1996, Bessac 1988, Bachmann 2009), or where local or regional techniques developed to enable Roman-looking buildings, particularly vaulted ones, to be constructed with locally available materials (Wilson 1992). Both show the importance of Roman-style buildings in the creation of Roman identity at local levels.
  221.  
  222. Bachmann, Martin. 2009. Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien: Internationale Konferenz, 13–16. Juni 2007 in Istanbul. Istanbul: Ege Yayinlari.
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  224. Half of the papers examine a range of materials and construction techniques in Roman Asia Minor based on detailed observation. A good demonstration of the German Bauforschung (building archaeology) tradition.
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  226. Bessac, Jean-Claude. 1988. Influences de la conquête romaine sur le travail de la pietre en Gaule Mediterranéene. Journal of Roman Archaeology 1:57–72.
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  228. Examines the evidence for changes in the use of stone construction in southern Gaul following the Roman conquest, and asks stimulating questions on the process of change and transmission of techniques in what was essentially a Hellenistic Greek tradition adopted by Roman builders.
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  230. Spanu, Marcello. 1996. L’opus reticulatum e mixtum nelle province asiatiche. In L’Africa romana: Atti dell’XI Convegno di studio, Cartagine 15–18 dicembre 1994. 3 vols. Edited by Mustapha Khanoussi, Paola Ruggeri, and Cinzia Vismara, 923–939. Ozieri, Italy: Editrice Il Torchietto.
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  232. Emphasizes the role of Italian workmen in public projects tied closely to Rome, or to the army, in the use of opus reticulatum in Asia Minor.
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  234. Wilson, Roger J. A. 1992. Terracotta vaulting tubes (tubi fittili): On their origin and distribution. Journal of Roman Archaeology 5:97–129.
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  236. Pioneering study. Demonstrates that this unusual device for creating vaults, usually associated with North Africa from the 2nd century CE, was also used much earlier and was more widely spread.
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  238. Organization and Economics of Construction
  239.  
  240. One of the fastest-growing areas is the study of Roman architecture as the result of the construction process, and thus as an important factor in the Roman economy. Anderson 1997 represents the state of play before the groundbreaking analysis of DeLaine 1997, while Cifani 2008 and Camporeale, et al. 2008 show developments since then.
  241.  
  242. Anderson, James C. 1997. Roman architecture and society. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
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  244. Chapters 2 and 3 provide a useful survey of the organization of building, manpower, and the supply of materials. Undergraduate-level introduction to topic.
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  246. Camporeale, Stefano, Hélène Dessales, and Antonio Pizzo, eds. 2008. Arqueología de la Construcción I: Los procesos constructivos en el mundo romano: Italia y provincias Occidentales (Mérida, Instituto de Arqueología, 25–26 de octubre de 2007). Anejos de Archivo Español de Arqueologa 50. Mérida, Spain: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas.
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  248. Demonstrates the importance of the new “archaeology of construction” for the Roman period, showcasing new methodologies and approaches through case studies from western provinces. Papers in Italian, French, Spanish; conclusions in English. The first of three projected volumes.
  249. Find this resource:
  250. Cifani, Gabriele. 2008. Architettura romana arcaica: edilizia e società tra monarchia e repubblica. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
  251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  252. A challenging attempt to reassess the remains of Roman architecture of the regal period (7th to early 4th centuries BCE) in terms of building techniques as a guide to the relation between economics and society.
  253. Find this resource:
  254. DeLaine, Janet. 1997. The baths of Caracalla in Rome: A study in the design, construction and economics of large-scale building projects in imperial Rome. Journal of Roman Archaeology Supp. 25. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  255. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256. A pioneering study of construction as a process based on one of the largest single building projects carried out in imperial Rome, notable as the first attempt to calculate quantities of materials, manpower, and costs in concrete construction from first principles.
  257. Find this resource:
  258. Public Buildings
  259.  
  260. Temples and secular public buildings provide the most impressive remains of Roman architecture, representative of the urban society that lay at the heart of the Roman Empire. Different types of buildings were developed to serve as focal points of religion, political power, local administration and the exercise of law, and of social organization (Gros 1996), and were key to the definition of Roman urban form (MacDonald 1986). Nearly all discussions make reference to the buildings of the city of Rome as models; the latest thinking on these is gathered in Hesberg and Zanker 2009. The architecture of Augustan Rome has attracted most attention, as the key moment in the formation of an imperial style (Zanker 1988), highly influential in the western provinces (Mierse 1990).
  261.  
  262. Gros, Pierre. 1996. L’architecture romaine: Du début du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire. Vol. 1, Les monuments publics. Paris: Picard.
  263. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  264. Fundamental introduction, especially for temples, fora, and associated buildings, but tends to treat different building types in isolation.
  265. Find this resource:
  266. Hesberg, Henner von, and Paul Zanker, eds. 2009. Storia dell’architettura italiana: Architettura romana I grandi monumenti di Roma. Milan: Mondadori Electa.
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268. Introductory essays by leading scholars, all in Italian, on the architecture of the city of Rome from its origins to Constantine, including single buildings, historical overviews, and typological surveys.
  269. Find this resource:
  270. MacDonald, William L. 1986. The architecture of the Roman Empire: An urban appraisal. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
  271. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  272. A stimulating study of public architecture in relation to the whole urban environment, articulated through thoroughfares, squares, and essential public buildings, and given symbolic value by columnar displays.
  273. Find this resource:
  274. Mierse, William E. 1990. Augustan building programmes in the western provinces. In Between republic and empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher, 308–333. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  275. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  276. Examines urban plan and architectural embellishment as a statement of the new Augustan order in the cultural unification of the Western Empire.
  277. Find this resource:
  278. Zanker, Paul. 1988. The power of images in the age of Augustus. Translated by Alan Shapiro. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  279. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  280. A now classic account of the creation of Roman culture in the Augustan age. For buildings at Rome see especially pp. 65–77, 104–118, 135–156, 254–262, and chap. 8, passim, for influence on the provinces.
  281. Find this resource:
  282. Temples and Sanctuaries
  283.  
  284. Religious architecture is a relatively understudied area of Roman architecture, although Stamper 2005 addresses the subject for the city of Rome. Focal points are the development of the Corinthian temple (Schenk 1997), especially in the Augustan age (Gros 1976, Viscogliosi 1996), the Capitoline temple at Rome and its influence (Barton 1982, Stamper 2005), and the Pantheon.
  285.  
  286. Barton, Ian M. 1982. Capitoline temples in Italy and the provinces. In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt (ANRW) Vol. 2.12.1. Edited by Hildegard Temporini, 259–342. Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
  287. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  288. Attempt at definition of the architectural and other characteristics of temples to the Capitoline Triad, with a survey of main examples.
  289. Find this resource:
  290. Coarelli, Filippo. 1987. I santuari del Lazio in età repubblicana. Rome: La Nuova Italia Scientifica.
  291. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  292. Thought-provoking synthetic study of the great theater-temple complexes and other major sanctuaries of Republican central Italy, including Palestrina, Tivoli, and Terracina.
  293. Find this resource:
  294. Gros, Pierre. 1976. Aurea Templa: Recherches sur l’architecture religieuse de Rome à l’époque d’Auguste. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  295. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  296. Fundamental study of the evolution of an architectural language for temples and other major public works in the Augustan era, still the starting point of research on the topic, including that of Viscogliosi 1996.
  297. Find this resource:
  298. Schenk, Ralf. 1997. Der korinthische Tempel bis zum Ende des Prinzipats des Augustus. Espelkamp, Germany: M. Leidorf.
  299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  300. Latest attempt to trace the evolution of a distinctively Roman Corinthian order in Rome and Italy, culminating in the “standard” imperial form of the Temple of Mars Ultor, with earlier scholarship.
  301. Find this resource:
  302. Stamper, John W. 2005. The architecture of Roman temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. press.
  303. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  304. Concentrates on temples in the city of Rome, from the late 6th century BCE to the 2nd century CE. Well illustrated, but some ideas, especially on the Capitoline temple, are controversial.
  305. Find this resource:
  306. Viscogliosi, A. 1996. Il Tempio di Apollo “In circo” e la formazione del linguaggio architettonico Augusteo. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  307. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  308. Takes a single building, the Temple of Apollo Medicus besides the Theatre of Marcellus, as the starting point for reflections on the formation of an Augustan architectural language that culminated in the Temple of Mars Ultor, including the development of the interior space of temples.
  309. Find this resource:
  310. Pantheon
  311.  
  312. The Pantheon is the best-known temple of Rome, famous for its vast circular rotunda covered with the largest dome in Antiquity (Licht 1968, Wilson Jones 2000), and, because of its exceptional state of preservation, of enormous influence on later architecture (MacDonald 1976). Usually associated with the emperor Hadrian, it has now been redated to Trajan (Hetland 2007), and other recent studies are reassessing some long-held ideas (Grasshoff, et al. 2009).
  313.  
  314. de Fine Licht, Kjeld 1968. The Rotunda in Rome: A study of Hadrian’s Pantheon. Jutland Archeological Society Publications 8. Copenhagen: Gyldendal, 1968.
  315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316. The most detailed descriptive account of the building, and still the standard reference.
  317. Find this resource:
  318. Grasshoff, Gerd, Michael Heinzelmann, and Markus Wäfler, eds. 2009. The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the conference, Bern, November 9–12, 2006. Bern, Switzerland: Bern Studies.
  319. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  320. Papers in German, English, and Italian by leading scholars reflect the latest thinking on the Pantheon, using new approaches and challenging previously held ideas. Also available in digital form with downloadable PDFs.
  321. Find this resource:
  322. Hetland, Lisa. 2007. Dating the Pantheon. Journal of Roman Archaeology 20:95–112.
  323. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  324. Redates the start of the Pantheon project to Trajan on brickstamp evidence, vindicating Wolf-Dieter Heilmayer’s “Apollodorus von Damaskus, der Architekt des Pantheon,” Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts 90 (1975): 316–347. Arguments convincing but still to be completely accepted.
  325. Find this resource:
  326. MacDonald, W. L. 1976. The Pantheon: Design, meaning, and progeny. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328. An accessible short account from an architect’s perspective, but rapidly becoming out of date in some areas.
  329. Find this resource:
  330. Wilson Jones, Mark. 2000. Principles of Roman architecture. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
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  332. Chapters 9 and 10 provide a thorough analysis of the design of the Pantheon, arguing for a change in the porch design partway through construction, possibly due to problems in supply of the very large columns originally intended for it.
  333. Find this resource:
  334. Provincial Temples and Sanctuaries
  335.  
  336. Temples serve as a key indicator of the variable influence of Rome on the provinces (Mierse 1999). Imperial temples in Rome generally had a strong influence on state or civic cults in the provinces (Eingartner 2005), while temples to local deities were more often hybrid forms (Fauduet 1993, Van Ess 2008), designed to enable traditional ritual practices to continue, while adopting elements of Roman temple design. The Greek East, which strongly influenced the development of temples in Rome, is a special case (Pohl 2002).
  337.  
  338. Eingartner, Johannes. 2005. Templa cum Porticibus: Ausstattung und Funktion italischer Tempelbezirke in Nordafrika und ihre Bedeutung für die römische Stadt der Kaiserzeit. Rahden/Westfalia, Germany: M. Leidorf.
  339. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  340. A study of thirty-eight temple complexes in North Africa, all with Roman-style podium temples in a (usually) porticoed precinct.
  341. Find this resource:
  342. Fauduet, Isabelle. 1993. Les Temples de tradition celtique en Gaule romaine. Paris: Editions Errance.
  343. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  344. Demonstrates that there is no clear relationship between architectural form and specific Roman-Celtic cults, but that differences rather depend on region and urbanistic context.
  345. Find this resource:
  346. Mierse, William E. 1999. Temples and towns in Roman Iberia: The social and architectural dynamics of sanctuary designs from the third century B.C. to the third century A.D. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univ. of California Press.
  347. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348. A survey of temple architecture from Roman Spain and Portugal, which explores the nature of stylistic choice and the formation of regional variety.
  349. Find this resource:
  350. Pohl, Daniela. 2002. Kaiserzeitliche Tempel in Kleinasien unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der hellenistischen Vorläufer. Bonn, Germany: Dr. Rudolf Habelt.
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352. Relation of temple architecture of the Roman period in Asia Minor to Hellenistic predecessors and the prescriptions of Vitruvius, based on detailed catalogue of seventy examples.
  353. Find this resource:
  354. Van Ess, Margarete, ed. 2008. Baalbek/Heliopolis: Results of the archaeological and architectural research, 2002–2005; German-Lebanese Colloquium, Berlin 2006. Beirut: Ministère de la culture, Direction générale des antiquités.
  355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  356. New light on the chronology and building sequence of temples of Jupiter Heliopolitanus, Bacchus, and Venus at this key site of the Roman Near East.
  357. Find this resource:
  358. The Forum and Associated Buildings
  359.  
  360. The forum was the heart of the Roman city, technically an open space in and around which political, juridical, administrative, commercial, and some religious activities concentrated. For most of the Republic it had no specific architectural form, apart from a growing tendency to be lined with porticoes (Etxebarria Akaiturri, 2008). The developments rather took place in ancillary buildings: curia or senate house/council meeting place, basilica, temples, and market halls. The creation of the imperial fora in Rome (Meneghini and Santangeli Valenzani 2007, Packer 2001) marked the start of architecturally structured forms, incorporating at least an axially placed temple and/or a basilica. The influence of the examples from Rome is an important aspect of provincial fora.
  361.  
  362. Etxebarria Akaiturri, Alaitz. 2008. Los foros romanos republicanos en la Italia centro-meridional tirrena: Origen y evolución. Rome: Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología en Roma.
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364. A comprehensive reassessment of the origins and development of Roman fora in central Italy during the Republic.
  365. Find this resource:
  366. Meneghini, Roberto, and Riccardo Santangeli Valenzani. 2007. I fori imperiali: Gli scavi del Comune di Roma (1991–2007). Rome: Vivani Editore.
  367. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  368. Short account of the imperial fora in the light of the recent excavations, excellently illustrated with new plans and reconstructions, and with detailed bibliography. Supersedes all previous reconstructions, but some elements (the basins in the Temple of Peace, the reconstruction of the Basilica Ulpia) are controversial.
  369. Find this resource:
  370. Nünnerich-Asmus, Annette. 1994. Basilika und Portikus: Die Architektur der Säulenhallen als Ausdruck gewandelter Urbanität in später Republik und früher Kaiserzeit. Cologne: Böhlau, 1994.
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372. A discussion and catalogue of civic basilicas and public porticoes of the late Republic and early Empire in their urban context.
  373. Find this resource:
  374. Packer James E. 2001. The Forum of Trajan in Rome: A study of the monuments in brief. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
  375. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  376. An abridged and more accessible study of the most important of the imperial fora than Packer’s 1997, two-volume publication subtitled A Study of the Monuments, which provides the detailed documentation.
  377. Find this resource:
  378. Welch, Katherine E. 2003. A new view of the origins of the Basilica: The Atrium Regium, Graecostasis, and Roman diplomacy. Journal of Roman Archaeology 16:5–34.
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380. Argues for the origin of the Roman basilica in the 3rd century BCE, as a reception hall for foreign embassies inspired by Hellenistic royal audience halls.
  381. Find this resource:
  382. Provincial Fora
  383.  
  384. The spread of Roman rule determined the creation of fora and associated buildings as the political and administrative cores of provincial cities, first within Italy and then in the Western Empire (Los foros romanos, Frakes 2009, Balty 1991), where a particular form that combined porticoed space and temple and/or basilica developed under the influence of the imperial fora (Ward-Perkins 1970). The forum at Lepcis Magna, sponsored by the emperor Septimius Severus in his hometown (Ward-Perkins 1994) is an important example. The Greek East used its traditional forms or developed new ones under Roman influence, particularly for basilicas (Gros 2003, Stinson 2008).
  385.  
  386. Balty, Jean Ch. 1991. Curia ordinis: recherches d’architecture et d’urbanisme antiques sur les curies provinciales du monde romain. Brussels: Académie royale de Belgique.
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388. Thorough survey and discussion of all buildings that might have been used for meetings of town councils in the Roman Empire, including many basilicas. Some identifications could be challenged.
  389. Find this resource:
  390. Frakes, James F. D. 2009. Framing public life: The portico in Roman Gaul. Vienna: Phoibos.
  391. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  392. Interesting study of porticoes and fora from a phenomenological perspective, focusing on porticoed spaces as a vital part of acculturation by structuring society. Extensive catalogue.
  393. Find this resource:
  394. Gros, Pierre. 2003. Basilica sous le Haut-Empire: Ambiguïtés du mot, du type et de la fonction. Bulletin de Antieke Beschaving 78:191–204.
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396. Examines the wider use of the basilica as a building type under the Empire, e.g., in relation to theaters and baths, or as a reflection of the transformations of cities and the fluidity of the architecture of public meeting places.
  397. Find this resource:
  398. Los foros romanos de las provincias occidentales. 1987. Madrid: Ministerio de Cultura, Dirección General de Bellas Artes y Archivos.
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400. Various studies on individual provincial fora in Spain, Portugal, and France, with some regional surveys.
  401. Find this resource:
  402. Stinson, Philip. 2008. The civil basilica: Urban context, design, and significance. In Aphrodisias Papers 4: New research on the city and its monuments. Edited by Christopher Ratté and R. R. R. Smith, 79–106. Journal of Roman Archaeology Suppl. 70. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  403. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  404. Architectural study of the basilica at Aphrodisias, in the context of other Asiatic basilicas of the long stoa form, peculiar to this region and influenced by the Greek stoa.
  405. Find this resource:
  406. Ward-Perkins, John B. 1970. From Republic to Empire: Reflections on the early provincial architecture of the Roman West. Journal of Roman Studies 60:1–19.
  407. DOI: 10.2307/299409Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  408. Fundamental study, still of relevance, particularly important for forum complexes.
  409. Find this resource:
  410. Ward-Perkins, John B. 1994. The Severan buildings of Lepcis Magna. Society for Libyan Studies Monograph 2. London: Society for Libyan Studies.
  411. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412. The main focus is a detailed study of the forum and basilica complex, the architecture of which shows influences from both the imperial fora in Rome and the Eastern Empire.
  413. Find this resource:
  414. Buildings for Spectacles
  415.  
  416. Displays of circus racing, gladiatorial games and wild beast hunts, and theatrical and musical performances were all integral to Roman political, religious, and social life, and discrete but related building types—circus, amphitheater, theater, and odeon—developed to accommodate them. Roman theaters are well served by Sear’s architectural study (Sear 2006), and circuses by Humphrey 1986, despite its date. Golvin 1988 is the equivalent of Sear for amphitheaters, but Welch 2007 has provided a different model for the origins and early development, and Wilson Jones 1993 has challenged Golvin’s idea of the design process of this complex shape. Rose 2005 looks at the main examples in Rome in terms of the spectators’ experiences.
  417.  
  418. Golvin, Jean-Claude. 1988. L’amphithéâtre romain: Essai sur la théorisation de sa forme et de ses fonctions. Paris: Diffusion de Boccard.
  419. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  420. Analytical catalogue of all major surviving Roman amphitheaters known by the mid-1980s, with excellent plans. Addresses the question of design, but see also Wilson Jones 1993.
  421. Find this resource:
  422. Humphrey, John. 1986. Roman circuses: Arenas for chariot racing. London: Batsford.
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424. Mainly focuses on the well-preserved circus at Lepcis Magna (Libya) and the Circus Maximus at Rome, with more summary accounts of other circuses of the Empire, drawing on visual as well as archaeological evidence.
  425. Find this resource:
  426. Rose, Peter. 2005. Spectators and spectator comfort in Roman entertainment buildings. Papers of the British School at Rome 73:99–128.
  427. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  428. Analyzes the design of the Theatre of Marcellus, the Colosseum, and the Circus Maximus at Rome from the point of view of the spectator, especially in relation to the visibility and audibility of the spectacles, using modern approaches to stadium design.
  429. Find this resource:
  430. Sear, Frank. 2006. Roman theatres: An architectural study. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
  431. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432. A thorough architectural analysis of the design and development of Roman theaters in Italy and the provinces, with extensive catalogue.
  433. Find this resource:
  434. Welch, Katherine E. 2007. The Roman amphitheatre: From its origins to the Colosseum. New York and Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436. Stimulating study of the development of Roman amphitheaters up to and including the Colosseum, mainly in Italy but with some provincial examples, with detailed catalogue. Argues for the origins of the amphitheater in the city of Rome and in Roman army camps, rather than in Oscan Campania, as long believed.
  437. Find this resource:
  438. Wilson Jones, Mark. 1993. Designing amphitheatres. Mitteilungen des Deutsches Archaeologisches Instituts: Römische Abteilung 100:391–444.
  439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440. A detailed metrical and geometrical analysis of the design of several of the best-preserved amphitheaters, including the Colosseum.
  441. Find this resource:
  442. Baths
  443.  
  444. Baths are some of the most characteristic of all Roman public buildings, and one of the most numerous and widely spread. They are also architecturally the most variable, and hence able to spread light on the processes of change over time, of regional acculturation, and of technological innovation. Nielsen 1993 and Yegül 1992 provide strong overviews, while Thébert 2003 gives a thorough regional analysis; all take different approaches, especially to classification and typologies. Fagan 2001 is an up-to-date debate on their origins.
  445.  
  446. Fagan, Garrett G. 2001. The genesis of the Roman public bath: Recent approaches and future directions. American Journal of Archaeology 105.3: 403–426.
  447. DOI: 10.2307/507363Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448. Best introduction to the difficult question of the origins of Roman baths and the invention of the hypocaust, arguing for origins in the 3rd to 2nd century BCE, with Campania playing an important role.
  449. Find this resource:
  450. Nielsen, Inge. 1993. Thermae et Balnea. 2d ed. Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus Univ. Press.
  451. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  452. A useful empire-wide survey, with excellent sections on terminology and technology, although the distinction between balnea (baths without palaestrae) and thermae (baths with) has been widely criticized.
  453. Find this resource:
  454. Thébert, Yvon. 2003. Thermes Romains d’Afrique du Nord et leur contexte méditerranéen: Études d’histoire et d’archéologie. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456. Excellent example of the French approach to plan-based typologies, based on a well-illustrated, comprehensive catalogue of the baths in North Africa.
  457. Find this resource:
  458. Yegül, Fikret K. 1992. Baths and bathing in classical antiquity. New York: Architectural History Foundation.
  459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  460. The best overall study, strongly architectural in focus and particularly good on the baths of Asia Minor.
  461. Find this resource:
  462. Monumental Water Structures
  463.  
  464. While aqueducts are very much associated with Roman achievements in engineering, they are usually discussed from a technical and functional point of view rather than as architecture. Hodge 2002 is the best general overview for this, while Kek 1996 at least attempts to discuss aqueducts as architecture. Fountains and nymphaea (Letzner 1990, Walker 1987, Aicher 1993) and latrines (Neudecker 1994) are the most common forms of architectural embellishments (see Gros 1996 for an overview). New work on all aspects can be found in the Cura Aquarum series of conference proceedings.
  465.  
  466. Aicher, Peter J. 1993. Terminal display fountains (“mostre”) and the aqueducts of ancient Rome. Phoenix: 339–352.
  467. DOI: 10.2307/1088729Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  468. Argues convincingly that monumental fountains were not associated with the terminals of specific aqueducts in Rome, and that mostre are a post-classical phenomenon.
  469. Find this resource:
  470. Cura Aquarum. 1975–2006. International congresses on the history of water management and hydraulic engineering in the Mediterranean region. 12 vols.
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472. Covers all aspects of water management and use, including the architectural aspects. Various publishers.
  473. Find this resource:
  474. Gros, Pierre. 1996. L’architecture romaine: du début du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire. Vol. 1, Les monuments publics. Paris: Picard.
  475. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  476. Chapters 15 and 16 concentrate on the structures found in cities—monumental fountains, nymphaea, and latrines—together with a short discussion of architectural embellishments at the sources of springs and aqueducts.
  477. Find this resource:
  478. Hodge, A. Trevor. 2002. Roman aqueducts and water supply. London: Duckworth.
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480. Still the best introduction to aqueducts in general, focusing on technical aspects, but discussions of architectural aspects (aqueduct bridges, arcades, castellae, fountains, etc.) are limited and dispersed. First published 1992.
  481. Find this resource:
  482. Kek, Damir. 1996. Der römische Aquädukt als Bautypus und Repräsentationsarchitektur. Münster, Germany: LIT.
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484. An attempt to treat aqueducts as a building type and example of public architecture, but the bulk of the text concerns construction and technology. Originally presented as the author’s thesis (Tübingen, 1994).
  485. Find this resource:
  486. Letzner, Wolfram. 1990. Römische Brunnen und Nymphaea in der westlichen Reichshälfte. Münster, Germany: LIT.
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488. A complete catalogue of the fountains of Rome, Italy, and the western provinces.
  489. Find this resource:
  490. Neudecker, Richard. 1994. Die Pracht der Latrine: Zum Wandel öffentlicher Bedürfnisanstalten in der kaiserzeitlichen Stadt. Munich: F. Pfeil.
  491. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  492. A complete survey and discussion, on both typology and function, of Roman latrines.
  493. Find this resource:
  494. Walker, Susan. 1987. Roman nymphaea in the Greek world. In Roman architecture in the Greek World. Edited by Susan Macready and F. H. Thompson, 60–71. London: Society of Antiquaries.
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496. A short survey for Roman Greece, complements Letzner 1990.
  497. Find this resource:
  498. Housing
  499.  
  500. Domestic architecture, both urban and rural, constitutes the largest single group of extant Roman buildings, although not always the best documented. The atrium houses of Pompeii and Herculaneum, the apartment buildings of Ostia, the imperial palaces of Rome, and the luxurious villas of the Bay of Naples and elsewhere in Italy dominate the scholarship and define the particularly Roman forms of housing. Scholarship is increasingly focusing on the relationship between houses and society, and it is often difficult to see where an architectural study ends and a sociological one begins. Studies of sites and regions outside of Italy emphasize the continuity of preexisting forms of domestic architecture, particularly in the Eastern Empire, and the adoption or adaptation of Roman models, as part of a process of acculturation or Romanization. There is no good comprehensive and up-to-date survey in English. Gros 2001 is the most comprehensive treatment, looking at architectural development in its context, especially for the western provinces. Wallace-Hadrill 1994 emphasizes the relation between houses and society, which has since become the most common approach, as in Laurence and Wallace-Hadrill 1997.
  501.  
  502. Gros, Pierre. 2001. L’architecture romaine: du début du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire. Vol. 2, Maisons, palais, villes et tombeaux. Paris: Picard.
  503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  504. Best available survey, covering town houses, palaces, rural villas, and tombs, organized chronologically and geographically within each section. The introductory essays to the chapters set out the state of current research and address crucial issues of interpretation. Strongest on the Western Empire.
  505. Find this resource:
  506. Laurence R., and A. Wallace-Hadrill, eds. 1997. Domestic space in the Roman world: Pompeii and beyond. Journal of Roman Archaeology Suppl. 22. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology.
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508. A pioneering collection of essays presenting different methodologies and approaches to Roman houses and households, focusing on Pompeii. Particularly important for making work of Italian and German scholars accessible in English.
  509. Find this resource:
  510. Wallace-Hadrill, A. 1994. Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  511. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  512. Seminal and influential work on the relation between houses and society, looking at decoration and household objects as well as architecture, but limited to these two sites and to the early imperial period.
  513. Find this resource:
  514. The Atrium House
  515.  
  516. The atrium houses of Pompeii, identified with the descriptions in Vitruvius, have been the focus of study for a long time, but only recently have serious documentation programs (Häuser in Pompeji, Ling 1997) provided the detailed evidence. Rather than being treated as an unproblematic proxy for the houses of the Roman Republican aristocracy, as in the past, these are now being examined in the historical context of Pompeii and other Italian towns under the influence of Rome (Zanker 1998, Pesando 1997, Dickmann 1999) and in relation to how they functioned in society (Dwyer 1991, Wallace-Hadrill 1994).
  517.  
  518. Dickmann, Jens-Arne. 1999. Domus frequentata: anspruchsvolles Wohnen im pompejanischen Stadthaus. Munich: Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil.
  519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  520. Addresses questions of the development of the atrium-peristyle house.
  521. Find this resource:
  522. Dwyer, Eugene. 1991. The Pompeian atrium house in theory and practice. In Roman art in the private sphere. Edited by Elaine K. Gazda, 25–48. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
  523. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  524. Influential discussion, arguing that too much emphasis has been placed on formal architectural aspects of the atrium houses of Pompeii in relation to the description in Vitruvius, and not enough on the changing functional aspects in relation to society.
  525. Find this resource:
  526. Häuser in Pompeji. 1990–2002. 12 vols. Munich: Hirmer Verlag.
  527. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  528. Large-format, detailed documentation and analysis of large and/or well-preserved Pompeian atrium houses with extensive remains of wall paintings. Various authors, most in German.
  529. Find this resource:
  530. Ling, Roger. 1997. The insula of the Menander at Pompeii. Vol. 1, The structures. Oxford: Clarendon.
  531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  532. Exemplary documentation and analysis of the House of the Menander and other structures in the same city block.
  533. Find this resource:
  534. Pesando, Fabrizio. 1997. Domus: edilizia privata e società pompeiana fra III e I secolo a.C. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider.
  535. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  536. Examines the larger houses of Pompeii in the 2nd century BCE from a mentalité perspective, in order to illuminate the “self-Romanization” of Italian towns either side of the Social Wars.
  537. Find this resource:
  538. Wallace-Hadrill, A. 1994. Houses and society in Pompeii and Herculaneum. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
  539. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  540. Seminal and influential work on the relation between houses and society, looking at decoration and household objects as well as architecture, but limited to these two sites and to the early imperial period.
  541. Find this resource:
  542. Zanker, P. 1998. Pompeii: Public and private life. Translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
  543. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  544. English translation of Pompeji: Stadtbild und Wohngeschmack, first published in 1995. Part 3 examines the development of atrium houses in the city, especially in relation to the growth of luxury villas.
  545. Find this resource:
  546. Apartment Housing
  547.  
  548. In contrast to the atrium house, many-storied apartment blocks, usually associated with rented accommodation, have only been seriously studied since the excavations at Ostia (Packer 1971). They have usually stood proxy for the poorly preserved non-elite housing of Rome, although now see Priester 2002. Recent emphasis has been on the wide socioeconomic range catered for in these blocks (DeLaine 1999, Gering 1999). Rented accommodation and apartment living has recently been studied at Pompeii and Herculaneum (Pirson 1999).
  549.  
  550. DeLaine, Janet. 1999. High status insula apartments in early imperial Ostia—a reading. Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome, Antiquity 58:175–187.
  551. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  552. Argues that many of the ground-floor houses were of reasonably high status and the equivalent of medium-sized atrium houses in Pompeii.
  553. Find this resource:
  554. Gering, A. 1999. “Medianum-apartments”: Konzepte von Wohnen in der insula im 2. Jh. n.Chr. Mededelingen van het Nederlands Instituut te Rome, Antiquity 58:102–115.
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556. Concise analysis of the organization and functioning of the “medianum apartments” at Ostia.
  557. Find this resource:
  558. Packer, James E. 1971. The insulae of imperial Ostia. Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 31. Rome: American Academy in Rome.
  559. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  560. Pioneering, systematic survey of all the apartment blocks of Ostia.
  561. Find this resource:
  562. Pirson, Felix. 1999. Mietwohnungen in Pompeji und Herkulaneum: Untersuchungen zur Architektur, zum Wohnen und zur Sozial- und Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Vesuvstädte. Munich: F. Pfeil.
  563. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  564. Groundbreaking study on rental accommodation and apartment houses at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
  565. Find this resource:
  566. Priester, Sascha. 2002. Ad summas tegulas: Untersuchungen zu vielgeschossigen Gebäudeblöcken mit Wohneinheiten und Insulae im kaiserzeitlichen Rom. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  567. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568. In-depth study of multistory apartment blocks in Rome from literary, epigraphic, and archaeological evidence, with some comparisons with Ostia.
  569. Find this resource:
  570. Provinces
  571.  
  572. Domestic architecture in the Roman provinces provides useful indicators of the complex interactions between local and Roman societies (Thébert 1987, Perring 2002). Most studies focus on high-status housing (Bullo and Ghedini 2003), on the development of new forms without atria based on older Mediterranean models (Meyer 1999), and on different degrees of acculturation (Bonini 2006).
  573.  
  574. Bonini, Paolo. 2006. La casa nella Grecia romana: forme e funzioni dello spazio privato fra I e VI secolo. Rome: Quasar.
  575. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  576. Investigates formal and functional patterns in fifty-nine houses of mainland and Aegean Greece of the Roman period, countering the widespread idea that Greek houses did not change under Roman influence.
  577. Find this resource:
  578. Bullo, Silvia, and Francesca Ghedini. 2003. Amplissimae atque ornatissimae domus (Aug., civ., 2., 20, 26): l’edilizia residenziale nelle città della Tunisia romana. Rome: Quasar.
  579. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  580. Investigation of individual spaces and working of domus as a whole in 131 houses in Tunisia. The most complete catalogue of houses from this region.
  581. Find this resource:
  582. Meyer, Katharina E. 1999. Axial peristyle houses in the Western Empire. Journal of Roman Archaeology 12:101–121.
  583. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  584. Argues that a predominantly axial arrangement of vestibule, peristyle, and triclinium in many high-status houses at a number of sites in southern France, Spain, and North Africa, reflect a new common pattern of social display for Roman or Romanized elites.
  585. Find this resource:
  586. Perring, Dominic. 2002. The Roman house in Britain. London and New York: Routledge.
  587. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  588. Based on a useful compendium of Romano-British town houses and villas, argues the somewhat controversial view that the inclusion of elements from the Roman Mediterranean represents the full-scale adoption of Roman cultural and social practices as well.
  589. Find this resource:
  590. Thébert, Yvon. 1987. Private life and domestic architecture in Roman Africa. In A history of private life. Vol. 1, From pagan Rome to Byzantium. Edited by Paul Veyne, 319–409. Cambridge, MA: Belknap.
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592. Now classic study of the extensive evidence from North Africa from a mentalité perspective.
  593. Find this resource:
  594. Imperial Palaces and Villas
  595.  
  596. The residences of the Roman emperors in Rome, chiefly the Domus Aurea of Nero and the Flavian Palace on the Palatine Hill, have long been a focus of intense scholarly interest, for both their complex concrete architecture (MacDonald 1982, Ball 2003, Hemsoll 1990) and their role in imperial self-presentation (Royo 1999). Recent archaeological research has led to at times radical revisions of key elements (Gibson, et al. 1994, Medri 1996, Wulf-Rheidt and Sojc 2009), some of which are still to be integrated into standard accounts.
  597.  
  598. Ball, Larry F. 2003. The Domus Aurea and the Roman architectural revolution. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.
  599. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511666551Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  600. Detailed, and at times over-complicated, analysis of the Esquiline Wing of the Golden House of Nero in terms of architectural structure and methods, building types, and imperial ideology. Many of the author’s interpretations are controversial.
  601. Find this resource:
  602. Gibson, Sheila, Janet DeLaine, and Amanda Claridge. 1994. The Triclinium of the Domus Flavia: A new reconstruction. Papers of the British School at Rome 62:67–97.
  603. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  604. Argues that the triclinium of Domitian’s Palace, and the other state halls, had flat timber roofs, and reconstructs the architectural decoration.
  605. Find this resource:
  606. Hemsoll, David. 1990. The architecture of Nero’s Golden House. In Architecture and architectural sculpture in the Roman Empire. Edited by Martin Henig, 10–38. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Committee for Archaeology.
  607. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  608. Key article using evidence from Italian excavations to propose a new reconstruction for the Esquiline Wing of Nero’s Domus Aurea, emphasizing the two-story facade, although some details are controversial.
  609. Find this resource:
  610. Hoffmann, Adolf, and Ulrike Wulf, eds. 2004. Die Kaiserpaläste auf dem Palatin in Rom: Das Zentrum der römischen Welt und seine Bauten. Mainz, Germany: Philipp von Zabern Verlag.
  611. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  612. Largely up-to-date analyses of the different elements of the imperial palaces on the Palatine, although for the Flavian Palace now see Wulf-Rheidt and Sojc 2009. Includes Zanker’s important arguments for Domitian’s palace as a monument of imperial self-representation.
  613. Find this resource:
  614. MacDonald, William L. 1982. The architecture of the Roman Empire, I: Introduction: An introductory study. 2d rev. ed. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.
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  616. Good introduction to the Esquiline Wing of Nero’s Golden House, with long chapter on Domitian’s Palace, focusing on concrete construction. Some interpretations of the latter superseded by Hoffmann and Wulf 2004, Wulf-Rheidt and Sojc 2009, and Gibson, et al. 1994.
  617. Find this resource:
  618. Medri, Maura. 1996. Suet. Nero, 31.1: Elementi e proposte per la ricostruzione del progetto della Domus Aurea. In Meta Sudans I: Un’area sacra in Palatino e la valle del Colosseo prima e dopo Nerone. Edited by Clementina Panella, 165–188. Rome: Istituto Poligrafico e Zecca dello Stato.
  619. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  620. Primary publication of new archaeological evidence for the vestibule and lake of Nero’s Domus Aurea, demonstrating for the first time that the lake was a formal rectangular structure, not the naturalistic form of previous reconstructions.
  621. Find this resource:
  622. Royo, Manuel. 1999. Domus Imperatoriae: Topographie, formation, et imaginaire des Palais Impériaux du Palatine. Rome: École Française de Rome.
  623. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  624. A reading of the development of the imperial residences on the Palatine in Rome, in terms of the impact of mytho-historical topography, politics, and society on the organization of architecture and space.
  625. Find this resource:
  626. Wulf-Rheidt, Ulrike, and Natascha Sojc. 2009. Evoluzione strutturale del Palatino sud-orientale in epoca Flavia. In Divus Vespasianus. Edited by Filippo Coarelli, 268–279. Rome: Mondadori Electa.
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628. The best illustrated of several preliminary publications of the new survey under the direction of Wulf-Rheidt, which requires substantial revision to the accepted view of the Flavian palace, particularly to the area of the so-called Severan substructures and the facade on the Circus Maximus.
  629. Find this resource:
  630. Villas
  631.  
  632. Rural residences held an important place in Roman life, and they were an increasing focus of otium, or leisure, for the Roman elite, leading to lavish complexes where luxurious decoration, cultivated gardens, and structured views over the landscape were all-important (Mielsch 1987, Lafon 2001); the suburban villas (horti) of the city of Rome are a special case (Cima and La Rocca 1998). The evolution of the villa from simple farmstead is explored by Terrenato 2001, while Smith 1997 focuses on the social implications of the layouts of the rather different villas in the northwestern provinces. The ultimate villa is that of the emperor Hadrian at Tivoli, the concrete architecture of which marks the high point of Roman experiments in curvilinear forms.
  633.  
  634. Cima, Maddalena, and Eugenio La Rocca. 1998. Horti Romani: Atti del convegno internazionale, Roma, 4–6 maggio, 1995. Rome: L’Erma di Bretschneider.
  635. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  636. Explores the phenomena of gardens, villas, and green space, in and around the city of Rome. Essays by influential scholars in Italian, English, French, and German.
  637. Find this resource:
  638. Lafon, Xavier. 2001. Villa maritima: Recherches sur les villas littorales de l’Italie romaine (IIIe siècle av. J. -C./IIIe siècle ap. J.-C.). Rome: École Française de Rome.
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640. Focuses on the Republican and imperial period luxury villas built to take advantage of sea and lake views in Italy, with extensive catalogue.
  641. Find this resource:
  642. MacDonald, William L., and John A. Pinto. 1995. Hadrian’s Villa and its legacy. New Haven, CT, and London: Yale Univ. Press.
  643. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  644. Now the standard work on the most famous of all imperial villas. Focusing on the architecture, it includes an attempt to assign new, less weighted, names to individual structures.
  645. Find this resource:
  646. Mari, Zaccaria, and Sergio Sgalambro. 2007. The Antinoeion of Hadrian’s Villa: Interpretation and architectural reconstruction. American Journal of Archaeology 111:83–104.
  647. DOI: 10.3764/aja.111.1.83Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  648. Convincing arguments based on excavation for locating the cenotaph of Hadrian’s favorite Antinoos, previously only known from a commemorative obelisk now in Rome, within the area of Hadrian’s Villa close to the main entrance. The whole complex, including obelisk, funerary garden, and twin temples, was strongly Egyptianizing.
  649. Find this resource:
  650. Mielsch, Harald. 1987. Die römische Villa: Architektur und Lebensform. Munich: C.H. Beck.
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652. Short standard account of the evolution of villa architecture in Italy, concentrating on luxury and imperial villas. The second part explores landscape elements including gymnasia, theaters, gardens, and water features as part of a villa lifestyle of otium.
  653. Find this resource:
  654. Smith, John T. 1997. Roman villas: A study in social structure. London: Routledge.
  655. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  656. A typological study based largely on plans, focusing on the northwestern provinces, exploring how architectural arrangements reflect social relationships.
  657. Find this resource:
  658. Terrenato, Nicola. 2001. The Auditorium site in Rome and the origins of the villa. Journal of Roman Archaeology 14.1: 5–32.
  659. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  660. Uses a short account of the site, a farmstead just outside Rome that developed from the mid-6th century into a villa of the 3rd century BCE, to initiate a discussion of the origin of the villa form. Interpretation challenged by Elizabeth Fentress in “Stately Homes: Recent Work on Villas in Italy,” Journal of Roman Archaeology 16.2 (2003): 545–556.
  661. Find this resource:
  662. Tombs
  663.  
  664. Roman funerary monuments show a great diversity of form and decoration, sensitive to differing funerary practices, social and economic possibilities, and regional traditions, and reflecting individual choice better than almost any other form of architecture. Gros 2001 provides a wide-ranging introduction to the architecture, while Hesberg 1992 also places the architecture in its wider setting.
  665.  
  666. Gros, Pierre. 2001. L’architecture romaine: du début du IIIe siècle av. J.-C. à la fin du Haut-Empire. Vol. 2, Maisons, palais, villes et tombeaux. Paris: Picard.
  667. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  668. Part 3 provides an excellent introduction to the subject.
  669. Find this resource:
  670. Hesberg, Henner von. 1992. Römische Grabbauten. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
  671. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  672. Thorough account of Roman tomb monuments and funerary practices.
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