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Islamic Political Theory (Islamic Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Islamic political theory includes works that are taken from multiple genres and discourses, since, historically speaking, political science and political theory did not exist as independent disciplines in Islam. Thus the works that discuss political theory listed here come from juristic works, administrative handbooks, works in the “mirrors for princes” genre, and philosophical works, in addition to Qurʾanic exegesis, historiography, theology, and ethics. Works on political theory include works that are descriptive, works that are normative, and works that are a combination of the two. One might pose the question of how one defines political theory as “Islamic.” This entry takes a broad perspective and defines political theory as Islamic if the thinker concerned engages with the Islamic discursive tradition (Qurʾan, Hadith, and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence)). Thus, for example, while this entry includes contemporary thinkers who argue for an Islamic state, it also includes thinkers who argue for the separation of religion and state while using Islamic sources and history as a basis for their political theory. The work is organized into two main sections. The first section is organized historically on the basis of the following periods: (1) Time of Muhammad and the Early Ummah; (2) Classical; (3) Middle or Premodern Period; (4) Modern; and (5) Contemporary. The second section, on Topics within Islamic Political Theory, is organized thematically and includes themes relatively organic to the tradition, such as justice, the caliphate, and religious authority, in addition to themes that have been more of a concern to modern Islamic thinkers in response to Western norms, such as human rights and democracy.
  3.  
  4. The Time of Muhammad and the Early Ummah
  5. This section lists sources from—and about—the time of Muhammad and the early ummah up to 750. This period was a time during which the Islamic community was in a state of considerable flux as the new religion was established and then consolidated in diverse historical, social, and political contexts. References to this time can be found in all periods and topics reviewed here. Sources here look at what might be best described as proto-Sunnism and proto-Shiʿism since it is not until later—anywhere from the 8th to the 10th century—that Sunni and Shiʿa identities became more fully crystallized. While most of the primary sources in this section are not contemporaneous with the time of the Prophet—at least in their written form—they are some of the earliest available. The sources tend not to theorize on politics as such but are descriptive, and provide ideal models to be followed. This is particularly the case with regards to the time of Muhammad and the first four caliphs (622–661), a time that was later prioritized by Sunni Muslims as a model to be followed.
  6.  
  7. Primary Sources
  8. Primary sources for the early period cannot really be described as political theory as such. In many respects, they did, however, provide the normative sources for the extrapolation of political behavior. Thus, while the Qurʾan (see Yusuf Ali 2012) and Hadith (al-Bukhari 1997, Siddiqi 1975) are not political tracts per se, they have been—and continue to be—sources for how Sunni Muslims should behave, including how they should formulate themselves politically, what kind authority they should have, and how leadership should be understood and respected. Ibn Ishaq 2002 is one of the earliest sources for the life of Muhammad, Tabari 2007 provides a Sunni perspective on Islamic history, while Sharif al-Radi 1965 indicates how Shiʿis of the 10th century understood early Islamic history, which was distinctly different from the Sunni perspective of the time, particularly in relation to the first four caliphs. Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ 1911 is one of the earliest examples of the Islamic advice manuals for rulers.
  9.  
  10. al-Bukhari, Muhammad Ibn Ismaaʿil. Sahih al-Bukhari: The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih al-Bukhari. Riyadh: Darussalam Pub and Distr. 1997.
  11.  
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  13.  
  14. A nine-volume translation of the sound Hadith collection of the Persian Sunni scholar al-Bukhari (b. 810–d. 870).
  15.  
  16. Find this resource:
  17.  
  18. Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ. al-Adab al-Saghir. Cairo, Egypt: Matbaʻat Madrasat Muhammad Ali al- Sinaʻiyya, 1911
  19.  
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  21.  
  22. Written in the “mirrors for princes” genre, the Persian scholar Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ (d. 756) advises the caliph to separate fiscal and military duties and recommends religious and ethical education for officers.
  23.  
  24. Find this resource:
  25.  
  26. Ibn Ishaq. The Life of Muhammad. Translated by A. Guillaume. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  27.  
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  29.  
  30. This translation was originally published in 1955. While the original of Ibn Ishaq’s (d. 768) biography of Muhammad has never been found, this version is based on Ibn Hisham’s (d. 833) edited version.
  31.  
  32. Find this resource:
  33.  
  34. Sharif al-Radi, Muḥammad ibn al-Husayn. Nahj Al-Balāgha. Cairo, Egypt: al-Maktaba al-Tijārīyya al-Kubrā, 1965.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. A collection of sermons, letters, and tafsir attributed to Ali Ibn Abi Talib, cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, the fourth caliph, whom Shiʿis believe Muhammad nominated as his successor. Collected by Sharif Razi (Persian spelling), a 10th-century Shiʿi scholar.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42. Siddiqi, Abdul Hamid, trans. Sahih Muslim. 4 vols. Lahore: Ashraf, 1975.
  43.  
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  45.  
  46. This is a four-volume translation of the sound Hadith of Muslim Ibn al-Hajjaj. Volume 3 contains hadith on business transactions; the Islamic penal code; ijtihad; and authority, law, and rulership.
  47.  
  48. Find this resource:
  49.  
  50. Tabari, Muhammad Ibn Jarir. The History of al-Tabari. 40 vols. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007.
  51.  
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  53.  
  54. This is a 40-volume translation of Tabari’s Ta’rīkh al-Rusul wa al-Muluk, written by the Persian scholar, historian and exegete, al-Tabari (b. 838–9). It relates history from the time of creation to 915 and is a major primary source for historians of early Islam.
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  56. Find this resource:
  57.  
  58. Yusuf Ali, Abdullah, trans. The Qurʾan: Text, Translation, and Commentary. Elmhurst, NY: Tahrike Tarsile, 2012.
  59.  
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  61.  
  62. Originally published in 1987, this version is in Arabic and English and is one of the most popular translations, with a detailed commentary.
  63.  
  64. Find this resource:
  65.  
  66. Secondary Sources
  67. Secondary sources on Muhammad and the early ummah are in some respects hampered by the lack of contemporary sources, although some scholars are more optimistic than others about the reliability of later sources. Watt 1998 and Cook 2003a emphasize the interconnected nature of early theological debates and political thought. Similarly, Van Ess 2001 illustrates the historical maturation—and backward projection—of the Sunni concept of the “Rightly-Guided” Caliphs. Crone 2004 argues that Islamic political thought, with its emphasis upon the unity of religious power and political power, is distinct from Western political thought. Afsaruddin 2002 discusses key political concepts around which the early community began to splinter, and Afsaruddin 2007 critiques the concept of the Islamic state with reference to the model of governance employed by Muhammad and the first four caliphs. Marsham 2009 focuses on the concept of the caliphal bayʿa (oath of allegiance to a ruler) from the time of the Prophet Muhammad until the late 10th century. Cook 2003b examines the various ways that a key Qurʾanic concept of commanding good and forbidding wrong was understood.
  68.  
  69. Afsaruddin, Asma. Excellence and Precedence: Medieval Islamic Discourse on Legitimacy and Leadership. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  70.  
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  72.  
  73. Focuses on how legitimate leadership came to be defined in the formative period of Islam in terms of two key Qurʾanic concepts—moral excellence (fadl/fadila) and precedence (sabiqa)—and argues that all early factions prioritized a righteous polity guided by its most morally excellent members.
  74.  
  75. Find this resource:
  76.  
  77. Afsaruddin, Asma. The First Muslims: History and Memory. Oxford: Oneworld, 2007.
  78.  
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  80.  
  81. Critiques the Islamist argument that the unity of religion and state replicates the model of governance used by the Prophet Muhammad, the Companions, and the subsequent two generations of early Muslims.
  82.  
  83. Find this resource:
  84.  
  85. Cook, Michael. Early Muslim Dogma: A Source-Critical Study. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003a.
  86.  
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  88.  
  89. Originally published in 1981, this book is an analysis of the Murji’ite and the Qadarite positions, raising issues related to the judgment of the events of the first civil war and to the dilemma of predestination and free will.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93. Cook, Michael. Forbidding Wrong in Islam: An Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003b.
  94.  
  95. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511806766Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  96.  
  97. An abridged version of Cook’s book Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought, which was published in 2000. The book analyzes the injunction, based on the Qurʾan, to command good and forbid wrong in Sunni and Shiʿa sources. Looks at the early ummah and the classical period, but also addresses later periods.
  98.  
  99. Find this resource:
  100.  
  101. Crone, Patricia. God’s Rule: Government and Islam: Six Centuries of Medieval Islamic Political Thought. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
  102.  
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  104.  
  105. Based on a wide variety of primary sources, the book examines medieval Muslim answers to why states are necessary, what functions they are meant to fulfill, and whether or why they must be based on religious law.
  106.  
  107. Find this resource:
  108.  
  109. Marsham, Andrew. Rituals of Islamic Monarchy: Accession and Succession in the First Muslim Empire. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
  110.  
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  112.  
  113. Examines dynastic succession rituals and elucidates early Islamic attitudes (up until the late 9th century) toward the caliphate, shura (consultation) and genealogy. Illustrates the continuity between late antique Arabia and early Islam.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117. Van Ess, Joseph. “Political Ideas in Early Islamic Religious Thought.” British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 28.2 (November 2001): 151–164.
  118.  
  119. DOI: 10.1080/13530190120083059Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  120.  
  121. Looks at the development of the concept of the “Rightly-Guided” Caliphs, along with the question of nomination and succession, the right of resistance, the limits of power, and the necessity of rulership.
  122.  
  123. Find this resource:
  124.  
  125. Watt, W. Montgomery. The Formative Period of Islamic Thought. Oxford: Oneworld, 1998.
  126.  
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  128.  
  129. Originally published in 1977, this is an in-depth look at the early Islamic philosophical and theological debates and their political Implications until 950. Looks at early sects and examines why certain theological and political ideas came to be considered more orthodox than others.
  130.  
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  132.  
  133. Classical
  134. While there are some variations in the temporal boundaries of what has often been described as the “classical period,” the term refers here to the mid-8th century, or the beginning of the Abbasid Empire in 750, until 1258, when Baghdad was conquered by the Mongols. This period has sometimes been referred to as a kind of Islamic golden age due to the endurance of the concept of Islamic unity under a caliph within the context of a self-confident victorious empire. While this was no longer a reality long before 1258—the dissolution of central authority in the Muslim heartland was underway by the mid-11th century, and the power of the caliphate had begun to diminish as far back as the mid-9th century—it was not until 1258 when the last caliph was executed that the full realization of its loss became apparent. Classical Islamic thought prior to 1200 is therefore characterized by a particular focus on the question of the caliphate (in Sunnism) and the imamate (in Shiʿism).
  135.  
  136. Primary Sources
  137. This section contains a variety of types of literature, from history to jurisprudence and theology, both Sunni and Shiʿi. On the Sunni side, al-Shaybani 2001 was instrumental in the foundation of the Hanafi school of law. Ibn Rushd (Averroes 2005) was a 12th century Andulusian representative of the Maliki school of law who was influenced by the thought of Plato (see Averroes 2005). Also from the 12th century, al-Ghazzali belonged to the Shafiʿi school of Islamic jurisprudence and to the Asharite school of theology (al-Ghazzali 2002). Ibn Hazm was a Sunni scholar of the Zahiri school (see Ibn Hazm 1964). Moving away from Islamic jurisprudence, al-Mulk 1978 is a later example of the administrative handbook style of political thought known as the “mirrors for princes.” On the Shiʿi side, al-Rassi 2001 is a source for the often overlooked Zaydi trend, while Tusi 1964 is a source for Ismaili thought in the 13th century. Turning to philosophy, this was also the period in which many Islamic thinkers were influenced by Greek thought, and in turn passed that influence on to Europe through Muslim Spain. Lerner and Mahdi 1972 is a source for thinkers who have been influenced by the political thought of Plato and Aristotle, and al-Farabi 1998 theorizes on an ideal state as in Plato’s Republic. Ibn Rushd was influenced by the thought of Plato (see Averroes 2005).
  138.  
  139. Averroes [Ibn Rushd]. Averroes on Plato’s Republic. Translated, edited, and introduced by Ralph Lerner. Ithaca, NJ: Cornell University Press, 2005.
  140.  
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  142.  
  143. Translation of Ibn Rushd’s discussion of the Republic. Ibn Rushd (aka Averroes; b. 1126–d. 1198) had a major role in the translation and adaptation of Platonic tradition in the West.
  144.  
  145. Find this resource:
  146.  
  147. al-Farabi, Abu Nasr. On the Perfect State: Mabādi’ Ārā’ Ahl al-Madīnat al Fāḍilah. Revised Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary by Richard Walzer. Great Books of the Islamic World. Chicago: Kazi, 1998.
  148.  
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  150.  
  151. A scientist and philosopher, al-Farabi (b. 872–d. 950/1) argued that the ideal state was the city-state of Medina when it was governed by Muhammad.
  152.  
  153. Find this resource:
  154.  
  155. al-Ghazzali, Muhammad. Al-Ghazzali on Enjoining Good and Forbidding Wrong. Translated by Muhammad Nue Abdus-Salam. Chicago: Kazi, 2002.
  156.  
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  158.  
  159. Al-Ghazzali discusses this important principle within Islamic political thought and appears to depart from many scholars who argue that anarchy is the worst of all situations, by arguing instead that in some circumstances armed bands are able to take the situation into their own hands.
  160.  
  161. Find this resource:
  162.  
  163. Ibn Hazm, ʿAli ibn Ahmad. Kitāb al-Faṣl fī al-Milal wa al-Ahwāʼ wa al-Niḥal. Baghdad: Maktabat al-Muthannā, 1964.
  164.  
  165. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  166.  
  167. An Andalusian Sunni Islamic legal scholar, Ibn Hazm (b. 994–d. 1064) was a follower of the Zahiri school of thought in Islamic jurisprudence. He is known for emphasizing the manifest or apparent meanings of the Qurʾan and the Sunna. This work is on religions, sects, and heresies.
  168.  
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171. Lerner, Ralph, and Muhsin Mahdi, ed. Medieval Political Philosophy: A Sourcebook. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972.
  172.  
  173. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  174.  
  175. Originally published in 1963, includes texts by al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Bajja, and Ibn Tufayl (Andulusian polymaths).
  176.  
  177. Find this resource:
  178.  
  179. al-Mulk, Nizam. The Book of Government or Rules for Kings: The Siyar Al-Muluk or Siyasat-Nama. Translated by Hubert Darke. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978.
  180.  
  181. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  182.  
  183. Written in the “mirrors for princes” genre, a didactic literary genre that gave advice for rulers, and combined the practice of statecraft with political ethics. Written by Nizām al-Mulk when he was vizier under Malik Shah (b. 1086–d. 1091).
  184.  
  185. Find this resource:
  186.  
  187. al-Rassi, al-Qasim. Majmūʿ Kutub wa-Rasāʼil al-Imām al-Qāsim Ibn Ibrāhīm al-Rassī, 169–246 H. Sanʿāʼ: Dār al-Hikma al-Yamānīyya, 2001.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. Al-Qasim al-Rassi (d. 860) was a key figure in the emergence of the Zaydi branch of Shiʿa Islam and combined Muʿtazilism and Zaydism.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195. al-Shaybani, Muhammad Ibn al-Hassan. The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani’s Siyar. Translated by Majid Khadduri. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2001.
  196.  
  197. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  198.  
  199. Al-Shaybani (b. 749–d. 805), a Hanafi jurist, discusses ethics and military jurisprudence, including military action, diplomacy, jihad, the treatment of hostages, the right of asylum, and ransom. A foundational text for the Hanafi school of law.
  200.  
  201. Find this resource:
  202.  
  203. Tusi, Nasir ad-Din. The Nasirean Ethics. Translated by G. M. Wickens. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1964.
  204.  
  205. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  206.  
  207. This work by the Persian scholar Nasir ad-Din Tusi (b. 1201–d. 1274), is a theory of government that synthesizes Hellenistic ethical literature, ancient Greek wisdom, the Qurʾan and Hadith, and other Islamic texts.
  208.  
  209. Find this resource:
  210.  
  211. Secondary Sources
  212. Watt 1998 provides an overview of Islamic political thought prior to 1258. Rosenthal’s overview (Rosenthal 2009) focuses on the influence of Greek philosophy, while Lambton’s overview (Lambton 1981) focuses on the imamate and caliphate. Fakhry 1991 focuses on the ethical dimension of political theory, and Madelung and Schidtke 2013 contains a variety of articles on a diverse range of subjects relating to religious schools. A number of texts question common assumptions about political thought in the period: Gaiser 2010 questions the assumption that Ibadi thought is exceptional; Makdisi 1990 questions the assumption that scholasticism and humanism are of European origin; Martin, et al. 1997 illustrates that Muʿtazilite thought was not totally destroyed in the 9th century; and Crone 2000 illustrates that not all classical Muslim scholars were supportive of the state.
  213.  
  214. Crone, Patricia. “Ninth-Century Muslim Anarchists.” Past and Present 167 (May 2000): 3–28.
  215.  
  216. DOI: 10.1093/past/167.1.3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  217.  
  218. Discusses relatively unexamined views that Muslim society could function without the state. Focuses on 9th century Mu’tazilites, including some Kharijites.
  219.  
  220. Find this resource:
  221.  
  222. Fakhry, Majid. Ethical Theories in Islam. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1991.
  223.  
  224. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  225.  
  226. Looks at the discursive aspect of Islamic ethical thought (but with some discussion of its political implications), and addresses thinkers such as Abu Yusuf al-Kindi (b. c. 801–d. 873); Ibn Miskawayh (b. 932–d. 1030), and Fakr al-Din al-Razi (b. 1149–d. 1209).
  227.  
  228. Find this resource:
  229.  
  230. Gaiser, Adam. Muslims, Scholars, Soldiers: The Origin and Elaboration of the Ibadi Imamate Traditions. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  231.  
  232. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199738939.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  233.  
  234. Argues for continuity between Ibadi political theory and the tradition out of which Sunni political theory developed. Traces the development of Ibadi political theory to the early and pre-Islamic periods.
  235.  
  236. Find this resource:
  237.  
  238. Lambton, Ann. State and Government in Medieval Islam: An Introduction to the Study of Islamic Political Theory: The Jurists. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981.
  239.  
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. Lambton discusses jurists from the 2nd/8th century to the 11th/17th century in the central lands of the Abbasid caliphate and North Africa. Focuses on the theory of the imamate.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246. Madelung, Wilferd, and Sabine Schidtke. Studies in Medieval Muslim Thought and History. New ed. Farnham, UK: Ashgate Variorum, 2013.
  247.  
  248. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  249.  
  250. Originally published in 1985, this is a volume of articles on religious schools, sects, Shiʿism, Sunnism, and religious and ethnic movements.
  251.  
  252. Find this resource:
  253.  
  254. Makdisi, George. The Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West: With Special Reference to Scholastics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990.
  255.  
  256. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  257.  
  258. Argues against the assumption that scholasticism and humanism are of exclusively European origin. Makdisi argues that such concepts came to Europe through Muslim Spain.
  259.  
  260. Find this resource:
  261.  
  262. Martin, Richard C., and Mark R. Woodward, with Diwi Athamaya. Defenders of Reason in Islam: Muʿtazilism: From Medieval School to Modern Symbol. Oxford: Oneworld, 1997.
  263.  
  264. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. The Muʿtazilites were a rationalist Islamic theological school. This work discusses Muʿtazilite thought, including the concepts of justice and commanding good and forbidding wrong, and gives a translation and explication of two key texts.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270. Rosenthal, Erwin I. J. Political Thought in Medieval Islam: An Introductory Outline. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
  271.  
  272. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  273.  
  274. Originally published in 1962, this work focuses on the chief traditions of Islamic political thought from the 8th to the end of the 15th century. Rosenthal focuses on Muslim philosophers who were influenced by the political thought of Plato and Aristotle.
  275.  
  276. Find this resource:
  277.  
  278. Watt, Montgomery. Islamic Political Thought. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.
  279.  
  280. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  281.  
  282. First published in 1968, this book provides an introduction to the history of Islamic political thought and to the development of politico-religious structures established by Muhammad through 1258.
  283.  
  284. Find this resource:
  285.  
  286. The Middle or Premodern Period
  287. The later period of premodern Islamic political theory, here defined as the middle period, has often been marginalized on account of the assumption that the gate of ijtihad closed around the beginning of the 10th century, and that this resulted in an emphasis upon tradition and a decline in new or original thought. While the sources here prove this assumption to be erroneous (especially Hallaq 1984, cited under Secondary Sources) and show that Islamic thought was in fact rigorous, there is still a notable lack of sources, for example, from the Ottoman period, which has often been associated with the military, economic, and intellectual decline of the Islamic world. During the period, Islamic political theory was less concerned with the caliphate, given its demise after the mid-13th century, and the idea that there would always be a divinely sanctioned head of the Muslim community diminished. From about 1269 until 1517 there was a nominal caliph, but from 1517 until the last half of the 19th century the title remained unused.
  288.  
  289. Primary Sources
  290. Many of the sources here reflect the new reality of the loss of the caliphate, particularly Ibn Khaldun 2004, which distinguishes between the caliphate and royal authority, and Ibn Taymiyya 2000 which is in part a reaction to the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. While Ibn Taymiyya has had a profound influence on modern Islamic thought, the thought of the Maliki scholar Shatibi (see Shatibi 2001) has received increased interest among contemporary Islamic thinkers. During this period one sees greater emphasis upon reform and ijtihad (Ibn Taymiyya 2000, Shatibi 2001). al-Jawziyya 1953 is the work of a Hanbali jurist; al-Suyuti 1995 that of a Shafi’i jurist, and Barani and Jahandari 1961 and Abu al-Fazl 1897–1939 represent areas and periods of the Islamic world that have often been neglected (Delhi Sultanate and the Mughals, respectively). In addition, Razi 1980 is representative of Sufi Persian political theory.
  291.  
  292. Abu al-Fazl, Ibn Mubarak. The Akbarnamah of Abu-l-Fazl. Translated from the Persian by H. Beveridge. 3 vols. New Series 910, Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1897–1939.
  293.  
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  295.  
  296. Abu al-Fazl (b. 1551–d. 1602), a leading courtier of the Mughal ruler Akbar (r. 1556–1605) gives an official history of Akbar’s reign. While a largely descriptive chronicle, it gives insight into the political thought of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300. Barani, Ziauddin, and Fatawa-i Jahandari. The Political Theory of the Delhi Sultanate. Translated by Mohammad Habib and Afsar Umar Salim Khan. Allahabad: Kitab Mahal, 1961.
  301.  
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303.  
  304. Written around 1358–1359 CE, this is a political treatise in the style of the mirrors for princes genre. The Delhi Sultanate refers to five short dynasties of Turkish or Pashtun origin in medieval India (1206–1526).
  305.  
  306. Find this resource:
  307.  
  308. Ibn Khaldun, Muhammad. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Translated by Franz Rosenthal. Edited by N. J. Dawood. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
  309.  
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311.  
  312. Originally published in 1969, and written in 1377 on the philosophy of history and political theory. Covers key themes (justice, economics, the caliphate, and royal authority), and the innovative concept of ʿasabiyya or “group feeling.”
  313.  
  314. Find this resource:
  315.  
  316. Ibn Taymiyya. Expounds on Islam: Selected Writings of Shaykh al-Islam Taqi Ad- Din Ibn Taymiyyah on Islamic Faith, Life, and Society. Translated by Muhammad ‘Abdul-Haqq Ansari. Riyadh: General Administration of Culture and Publication, 2000.
  317.  
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319.  
  320. Born in Syria in 1236, the Hanbali scholar, so influential upon modern theorists, emphasizes the need to return to the first Islamic generation as a model. Part IV focuses on Islamic government and society.
  321.  
  322. Find this resource:
  323.  
  324. al-Jawziyya, Ibn Qayyim. Al-Turuq al-Hukmiyyah fi al-Siyāsa al-Shar’iyyah. Cairo, Egypt: As-Sunna al-Muhammadiyya, 1953.
  325.  
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327.  
  328. The Hanbali jurist Ibn Qayyim (b. 1292–d. 1350) addresses economic justice, price controls, and the concept of hisba, which refers to the right of an individual to bring a case against someone if that person sees the other person neglecting what is commanded and practicing what is forbidden.
  329.  
  330. Find this resource:
  331.  
  332. Razi, Najm al-Din. The Path of God’s Bondsmen: From Origin to Return. Translated by Hamid Algar. North Haledon, NJ: Islamic Publications International, 1980.
  333.  
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335.  
  336. A translation Of Mirṣād al-ʻIbād min al-Mabdaʼ ilāʼl Maʻād. Razi was a 13th-century Sufi Persian, and this is a work on Sufism and Islamic theology. Razi argues that a king should possess three important qualities: justice, beneficence, and accessibility.
  337.  
  338. Find this resource:
  339.  
  340. Shatibi, Ibrahim ibn Musa. Fatāwá al-Imām al-Shātibī: Min Āthār fuqahāʼ al-Andalus. Al-Riyad: Maktabat al-ʻUbaykan, 2001.
  341.  
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343.  
  344. Shatibi (d. 1388) was an Andalusian Sunni Islamic legal scholar. His work, with its emphasis on ijtihad, is gaining renewed attention by contemporary scholars.
  345.  
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348. al-Suyuti, Jalal al-Din. The History of the Khalifahs Who Took the Right Way. 3d ed. London: Ta-Ha, 1995.
  349.  
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351.  
  352. Al-Suyuti (b. 1445–d. 1505) was an Egyptian religious scholar and jurist of the Shafiʿi school of law who emphasized the importance of ijithad (intellectual reasoning). Here he gives a history of the period of the four “Rightly-Guided Caliphs”
  353.  
  354. Find this resource:
  355.  
  356. Secondary Sources
  357. Hallaq 1984 questions assumptions that the gate of ijtihad closed in the classical period, and the other sources listed here are further illustrations of his argument. Anjum 2012 and Rapoport and Ahmed 2010 look at the importance of Ibn Taymiyya, who has had such an important influence on modern Islamic thought. Jackson 1996 looks at the 13th-century Maliki jurist al-Qarafi. Al-Azmeh 2003 provides a reading of Ibn Khaldun that is particularly sensitive to his intellectual milieu. Lambton 1988 looks at the influence of Turkish and Mongol ideas; Alam 2013 looks at the understudied Mughal case; and Moin 2012 sheds much needed light on some non-Arab geographical areas in the 15th and 16th centuries.
  358.  
  359. Alam, Mizaffar. “A Muslim State in a Non-Muslim Context: The Mughal Case.” In Mirror for the Muslim Prince: Islam and the Theory of Statecraft. Edited by Mehrzad Boroujerdi, 160–189. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2013.
  360.  
  361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  362.  
  363. The chapter looks at the Mughal Empire. Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turks that ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent (1526–1707). The volume also contains other essays that address a range of topics, including maslaha.
  364.  
  365. Find this resource:
  366.  
  367. Anjum, Ovamir. Politics, Law, and Community in Islamic Thought: The Taymiyyan Moment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  368.  
  369. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139013413Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. Illustrates the influence of Ibn Taymiyya on the development of Islamic political thought. Argues that Ibn Taymiyya redefined the theoretical relationship between the caliphate and the ummah, in turn undermining the elitism of classical political theory.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375. al-Azmeh, Aziz. Ibn Khaldun: An Essay in Reinterpretation. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003.
  376.  
  377. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378.  
  379. Originally published in 1982, this work questions the ahistorical readings of Ibn Khaldun that argue for the universal validity of his discourse. Al-Azmeh takes the approach of modern historical sciences and puts Ibn Khaldun’s thought in its cultural context, addressing the semantic fields that his ideas and terms acquired.
  380.  
  381. Find this resource:
  382.  
  383. Hallaq, Wael. “Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?” International Journal of Middle East Studies 16.1 (1984): 3–41.
  384.  
  385. DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800027598Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  386.  
  387. With a detailed look at juridical literature up to the eighteenth century, Hallaq questions the argument made by Joseph Schacht that the gate of ijtihad (intellectual reasoning) closed in the 10th century.
  388.  
  389. Find this resource:
  390.  
  391. Jackson, Sherman. Islamic Law and the State: The Constitutional Jurisprudence of Shihāb al-Dīn al-Qarāfī. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.
  392.  
  393. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  394.  
  395. Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi (b. 1228–d. 1285) was a Maliki jurist who lived in Ayyubid and Mamluk Egypt. This work looks at relations between the schools of law and the state; the legal conceptions of the relationship between power, state, and authority; and the limits on the executive authority of the state.
  396.  
  397. Find this resource:
  398.  
  399. Lambton, Ann K. S. “Concepts of Authority in Persia: Eleventh to Nineteenth Centuries A.D.” IRAN 26 (1988): 95–103.
  400.  
  401. DOI: 10.2307/4299803Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  402.  
  403. Lambton examines the influence of pre-Islamic theories of governance on Islamic thought, in addition to how conceptions of governance brought by Turkish and Mongol invaders were adapted.
  404.  
  405. Find this resource:
  406.  
  407. Moin, Ahmed Azfar. The Millenial Sovereign: Sacred Kingship and Sainthood in Islam. New York: Columbia University Press, 2012.
  408.  
  409. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  410.  
  411. Looks at kingship and sovereignty in the Timurid, Safavid, and Mughal empires of the 15th and 16th centuries in early modern India and Iran. Addresses why Muslim sovereigns in this period began to imitate the exalted nature of Sufi saints.
  412.  
  413. Find this resource:
  414.  
  415. Rapoport, Youssef, and Shabab Ahmed, eds. Ibn Taymiyya and His Times. Karachi, Pakistan: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  416.  
  417. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  418.  
  419. Various articles discussing Ibn Taymiyya’s contributions to Islamic theology, law, Qurʾanic exegesis, and political thought, and illustrating the intellectual rigor and complexity of this significant—but often misunderstood—premodern Islamic thinker.
  420.  
  421. Find this resource:
  422.  
  423. Yavari, Neguin. Advice for the Sultan: Prophetic Voices and Secular Politics in Medieval Islam. New York: Oxford University Press, 2014.
  424.  
  425. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  426.  
  427. Examines reason and moderation in pre-modern and modern Islamic political thought. Discusses the relationship between Islamic political thought and the discipline of intellectual history.
  428.  
  429. Find this resource:
  430.  
  431. Modern
  432. The “modern period” is classified here as the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. This is not to deny that “modern” Islamic thought has any continuity with thought that went before it. In addition, the term “modern” does not denote any value judgment upon the approaches or priorities of thinkers described here as modern. Rather, “modern” is used to describe a type of thinking that is a response to the modern political and economic situation of the Islamic world, which was characterized by increasing Western economic and political and cultural penetration. There is an emphasis within modern Islamic thought upon the need to reform. In most cases in Sunni thought, the early period of the Prophet and the four caliphs is used as a model example.
  433.  
  434. Primary Sources
  435. ʿAbduh 2011 and ʿAbduh 1973 are sources for the foundation of modern Islamic thought with its emphasis upon ijtihad as a way of circumventing an over-reliance on taqlid (tradition). Al-Shawkani 1976 is an example of a Yemeni thinker who in many respects is a precursor to al-Afghani and ʿAbduh. Khan 2006 (19th century), Thanvi 1976 and Maududi 1992 (early 20th century) are sources for Islamic thought in the Indian subcontinent. Maududi 1992, in particular, has had considerable influence on Islamic thought throughout the Muslim world. Al-Banna 2006 is important for understanding the thought behind the Muslim Brotherhood at the time of its foundation in 1928, and for the increased emphasis upon the political nature of Islam taken up following the Second World War.
  436.  
  437. ʿAbduh, Muhammad. Risālat al-Tawhīd. Toronto: University of Toronto Libraries, 2011.
  438.  
  439. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440.  
  441. Muhamamd ʿAbduh (b. 1849–d. 1905) emphasizes the compatibility of Islam with reason, and critiques some of the thought of the classical period emphasizing a need to return to the sources of the Qurʾan and the Hadith.
  442.  
  443. Find this resource:
  444.  
  445. ʿAbduh, Muhammad, and Rashid Rida. Tafsir al-Qurʾan al-Hakim al-shahīr bi-Tafsīr al-Manār. Beirut: Dār al-Ma‛rifah, 1973.
  446.  
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. Often referred to as Tafsīr al-Manār, as it was initially published as installments in the journal al-Manār, this exegesis of the Qurʾan includes a number of political discussions on authority, leadership, and freedom of religion.
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453. al-Banna, Hasan. Six Tracts of Hasan Al-Bannā: A Selection from the Majmū‛at Rasā’il Al-Imām Al-Shahīd Hasan Al-Bannā. Accra, Ghana: Africa for Publishing and Distribution, 2006.
  454.  
  455. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456.  
  457. A text from the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood that covers jihad, government, Islamic society, and the concepts of brotherhood, charity, patriotism, and cultural imperialism.
  458.  
  459. Find this resource:
  460.  
  461. Khan, Sayyid Ahmad. Selected Essays by Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Translated by John W. Wilder. Lahore, Pakistan: Sang-e-Meel, 2006.
  462.  
  463. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  464.  
  465. A Muslim educator, jurist, and author, Sayyid Ahmad Khan (b. 1817–d. 1898) was probably the most important Islamic revivalist in India of the 19th century. This work addresses topics such as freedom of opinion, the harms of observing customs, the rights of women, and Hindus.
  466.  
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. Kurzman, Charles. Modernist Islam, 1840–1940: A Sourcebook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Contains fifty-two key texts of the modernist Islamic movement, from the Ottoman and Russian Empires to South Africa and Southeast Asia. Includes the following authors: Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi (b. 1866–d. 1923), Ali Suavi (b. 1839–d. 1878), Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi (b. 1854–d. 1902), and Ya’qub Wang Jingzhai (b. 1879–d. 1949).
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Maududi, Abu Al-ʿAla. Towards Understanding Islam. 16th ed. London: Kazi, 1992.
  478.  
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480.  
  481. Originally written in 1932 in Urdu; the Pakistan Muslim theologian Maududi (b. 1903–d. 1979) discusses Islam and kufr (unbelief). Chapters VI and VII address the distinction between din and Sharia and the principles of Sharia.
  482.  
  483. Find this resource:
  484.  
  485. al-Shawkani, Muḥammad ibn ʿAli. Al-Qawl al-Mufīd fī Adillat al-Ijtihād wa al-Taqlīd. Al-Kuwayt: Dār al-Qalam, 1976.
  486.  
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488.  
  489. Predating Muhammad ʿAbduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, the Yemeni reformer and jurist al-Shawkani (b. 1759–d. 1834) critiques taqlid.
  490.  
  491. Find this resource:
  492.  
  493. Thanvi, Ashraf Ali. Answer to Modernism. Karachi, Pakistan: Maktaba Darululoom, 1976.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. Translation of Al-Intibahat Al-Mufeedah. The Indian Islamic Sunni scholar Ashraf Ali Thanvi (b. 1863–d. 1943) was a Sufi master of the Deobandi school. This work is made up of a series of lectures given to university students at Aligarh University. Drawing on the tradition of hikma (wisdom), Thanvi rejects rationalism and scientism.
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501. Secondary Sources
  502. Levtzion and Voll 1987 is one of the few works on 18th-century African thought. Al-Uthaimin 2009 is a source for the 18th-century Arabian reform movement known as Wahhabism. Haykal 2003 analyzes the understudied 18th-century Yemeni reformer al-Shawkani. Hourani 1983 traces a trajectory of thought from the last quarter of the 19th century through the end of the Second World War that led to an increased emphasis upon the separation of religion and politics, while Kerr 1966 discusses the thinkers Muhammad Abdu and Rashid Rida. Ivanyi 2007 (cited under Religious Authority) provides a detailed reading of the exegesis of ʿAbduh and Rida as it pertains to consultation and authority. Mardin 2000 is one of the few sources on Ottoman political thought. Zaman 2007 and Sevea 2012 look at important thinkers from the Indian subcontinent (Thanvi and Muhammad Iqbal, respectively).
  503.  
  504. al-Ghazali, Muhammad. The Socio-Political Thought of Shāh Walī Allāh. Islamabad: International Institute of Islamic Thought, 2001.
  505.  
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507.  
  508. Discusses the thought of the Indian thinker Shah Wali Allah (b. 1703–d. 1762), who advocated many of the themes that would become so prominent in modern Islamic thought (e.g., Islamic unity, tawhid, purifying Islam, and religious tolerance).
  509.  
  510. Find this resource:
  511.  
  512. Haykal, Bernard. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  513.  
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515.  
  516. The intellectual biography of the Yemeni founding father of modern Islamic reformism in the eighteenth century. Al-Shawkani (b. 1759–d. 1834) was born a Zaydi and then went over to Sunni Islam.
  517.  
  518. Find this resource:
  519.  
  520. Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1878–1939. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  521.  
  522. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511801990Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. Originally published in 1962, this is a study of the modernizing trend of political and social thought in the Arab Middle East. Includes a discussion of Salim al-Bustani (b. 1848–d. 1884) and Taha Husayn (b. 1889–d. 1973).
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528. Kerr, Malcolm H. Islamic Reform: The Political and Legal Theories of Muhammad Abduh and Rashid Rida. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966.
  529.  
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531.  
  532. Discusses the essential character and significance of the classical principles that modernists used when reinterpreting Islamic constitutionalism, jurisprudence, maslaha, and the social contract.
  533.  
  534. Find this resource:
  535.  
  536. Levtzion, Nehemia, and John O. Voll, ed. Eighteenth-Century Renewal and Reform in Islam. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987.
  537.  
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539.  
  540. One of the few sources for this period and geographical area. Includes chapters on Bengali Muslim thought and 18th-century West Africa.
  541.  
  542. Find this resource:
  543.  
  544. Mardin, Şerif. The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought: A Study in the Modernization of Turkish Political Ideas. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2000.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. Originally published in 1962; Mardin discusses the motivations of the first generation of libertarian constitutionalists, such as Namik Kemal (b. 1840–d. 1888); Ziya Paşa (b. 1849–d. 1929), and Hayreddin Paşa (b. 1822–d. 1880).
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552. Sevea, Iqbal Singh. The Political Philosophy of Muhammad Iqbal: Islam and Nationalism in Late Colonial India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  553.  
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555.  
  556. Muhammad Iqbal (b. 1877–d. 1938) was a thinker in British India, and was influential in laying the intellectual foundations for the establishment of the Pakistani state. This work examines Iqbal’s critique of nationalism and the homogenizing tendencies of the modern nation-state.
  557.  
  558. Find this resource:
  559.  
  560. al-Uthaimin, Abd-Allah Sallih. Muhammad Ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhab: The Man and his Works. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009.
  561.  
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563.  
  564. Comprehensive look at the life and thought of Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the founder of modern Wahhabism in the Arabian peninsula. Contains a detailed exposition and commentary on Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s doctrines, based on his published and unpublished works.
  565.  
  566. Find this resource:
  567.  
  568. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Ashraf Ali Thanawi: Islam in Modern South Asia. Makers of the Muslim World. Oxford: Oneworld, 2007.
  569.  
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571.  
  572. This work focuses on the thought of Ashraf Ali Thanawi (b. 1863–d. 1943) and his defense of the Islamic scholarly tradition. Thanawi was an Indian Sunni scholar of the Deobani school, with an interest in fiqh, Hadith, and Sufism.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576. Contemporary
  577. The contemporary period here refers to roughly the post–World War II period. While the break is not entirely obvious in the geographical locations dealt with here, this is the beginning of the postcolonial period for—in many cases—new independent nation-states in the Islamic world. Islamic thought during this period is particularly concerned with the relationship between religion and politics, and whether Islam intends for there to be an Islamic state or a secular state.
  578.  
  579. Primary Sources
  580. There is a plethora of primary sources for this period. Kurzman 1998 provides a general overview of sources relating to such issues as the separation of church and state, democracy, the rights of women and minorities, freedom of thought, and process. Abu-Rabiʾ 2006 is a good overview for the modern period, as are Donohue and Esposito 2006 and Euben and Zaman 2009. Moaddel and Talattof 2000 and Kamrava 2006 are likewise readers that provide a broad representation of contemporary primary sources. Taha 1996 is a translation, with introduction, of a work of the Sudanese thinker Mahmoud Taha. Hanafi 1995 is by an understudied Egyptian leftist thinker. Rahman 1982 contains the thought of a Pakistan-American intellectual whose ideas have had considerable influence on contemporary exegetes, and Khomeini 1981 is a source for the Shiʿa activism that undergirds the Iranian Revolution.
  581.  
  582. Abu-Rabiʾ, Ibrahim Muhammad. The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.
  583.  
  584. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  585.  
  586. Thirty-six essays by a variety of authors, and notable for its non-Arab focus. Covers a broad range of topics, such as women, justice, secularism, and Sufism.
  587.  
  588. Find this resource:
  589.  
  590. Donohue, John J., and John L. Esposito, eds. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  591.  
  592. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  593.  
  594. Useful reader that contains short excerpts—with brief introductory backgrounds—from a wide range of writings by modern Muslim intellectuals and activists.
  595.  
  596. Find this resource:
  597.  
  598. Euben, Roxanne L., and Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds. Princeton Readings in Islamist Thought: Texts and Contexts from al-Banna to Bin Laden. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009.
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. Contains sources from the Iraqi Shiʿi cleric Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr (1935–1980), the Sudanese Islamist leader Hassan al-Turabi (b. 1932), the Taliban, and the head of the women’s branch of the Moroccan Islamist movement, Nadia Yassine (b. 1958).
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606. Hanafi, Hassan. Islam in the Modern World 2 vols. Cairo, Egypt: Dar Kebaa Bookshop, 1995.
  607.  
  608. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  609.  
  610. A collection of essays by the socialist-leaning professor of philosophy at Cairo University. Hanafi (b. 1935) is founder of the Islamic Left and of Islamic liberation theology. Volume 1, Religion, Ideology and Development; Volume 2, Tradition, Revolution, and Culture.
  611.  
  612. Find this resource:
  613.  
  614. Kamrava, Mehran, ed. The New Voices of Islam: Rethinking Politics and Modernity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.
  615.  
  616. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  617.  
  618. Reader includes texts from the Turkish Fethullah Gülen (b. 1941) and the Algerian scholar Mohamed Arkun (b. 1928–d. 2010).
  619.  
  620. Find this resource:
  621.  
  622. Khomeini, Imam. Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini (1941–1980). Translated by Hamid Algar. Berkeley, CA: Mizan, 1981.
  623.  
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. A source for the political thought (particularly the concept of wilayat al-faqih) of Ayatollah Khomeini, theorist of the Islamic government that guides the current Islamic Republic of Iran.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630. Kurzman, Charles. Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  631.  
  632. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  633.  
  634. Short passages of the thought of thirty-two prominent Muslims from a variety of underrepresented geographical contexts, including Pakistan, the Philippines, Bosnia, Indonesia, Nigeria, India, and Senegal.
  635.  
  636. Find this resource:
  637.  
  638. Moaddel, Mansoor, and Kamran Talattof, eds. Modernist and Fundamentalist Debates in Islam: A Reader. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
  639.  
  640. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  641.  
  642. A reader of translated essays by major modern Muslim thinkers from the Middle East and South Asia, including the Islamic Salvation Front of Algeria and the Iranian cleric Murtaza Mutahhari (b. 1920–d. 1979).
  643.  
  644. Find this resource:
  645.  
  646. Rahman, Fazlur. Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. Rahman (b. 1919–d. 1988) argues for the transformation of the theological, ethical, philosophical, and jurisprudential tradition of Islam.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654. Taha, Mahmoud Mohamed. The Second Message of Islam: Mahmoud Mohamed Taha. Translated by Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1996.
  655.  
  656. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  657.  
  658. Primary source for the thought of Mahmoud Taha (b. 1909–d. 1985), who was executed for opposing the application of Sharia law in the Sudan. Taha also advocated an original method for distinguishing between Meccan and Medinan suras of the Qurʾan.
  659.  
  660. Find this resource:
  661.  
  662. Secondary Sources
  663. While Abu-Rabiʾ 1996 focuses on political thought that emphasizes the political nature of Islam, Mitchell 1993 discusses the early history and ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood up to the time of Nasser. Baker 2003 and Binder 1988 present two different approaches to what has been termed “liberal Islam.” Some of the other works look at particular thinkers: Lefevre 2013 looks at the leader of the Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, and Mahmoud 2007 analyzes the work of the Sudanese thinker Mahmoud Taha. Tamini 2001 looks at the Tunisian thinker Ghannoushi, and Metcalf 2008 looks at the work of an important thinker from the Indian subcontinent. Ghamari-Tabrizi 2008 is a good secondary source on one of Iran’s most famous philosophers. Nasr 1994 examines the Pakistani Islamic group Jamaʿat-i Islami.
  664.  
  665. Abu-Rabiʾ, Ibrahim Muhammad. Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence in the Modern Arab World. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.
  666.  
  667. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  668.  
  669. A summary of the Islamic resurgence in the context of Arab and Islamic intellectual history. Includes a discussion of thinkers such as Hasan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb, Muhammad Husayn Fadlallah (the Twelver Shiʿa spritual mentor of Hezbollah, 1935–2010), and Yusuf al-Qaradawi.
  670.  
  671. Find this resource:
  672.  
  673. Baker, Raymond. Islam without Fear: Egypt and the New Islamists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. A portrait of the contemporary Egyptian Islamists known as the moderate intellectuals (Muhammad Salim al-ʿAwwa, Tariq al-Bishri, Ahmed Kamal Abu Magd, and Fahmi Huwaydi) who advocate an Islamically inspired, centrist Islamist politics that is supportive of the contemporary nation-state.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681. Binder, Leonard. Islamic Liberalism: A Critique of Development Ideologies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988.
  682.  
  683. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  684.  
  685. Binder addresses the special problems that the Islamic political community presents to the development of an indigenous liberalism.
  686.  
  687. Find this resource:
  688.  
  689. Ghamari-Tabrizi, Behrooz. Islam and Dissent in Postrevolutionary Iran: Abdolkarim Soroush, Religious Politics and Democratic Reform. London: I. B.Tauris, 2008.
  690.  
  691. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  692.  
  693. Ghamari-Tabrizi puts the thought of philosopher Abdolkarim Soroush, a leading force behind Iran’s prodemocracy movement and vocal critic of the state, into the context of the Iranian Revolution’s opening up of the public sphere to competing interpretations of Islam.
  694.  
  695. Find this resource:
  696.  
  697. Lefevre, Raphael. Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  698.  
  699. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. One of the few sources on this understudied leader of the Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, the Islamic Socialist Front. Al-Sibaʾi (b. 1915–d. 1964) was the dean of the Faculty of Islamic Jurisprudence at the University of Damascus.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705. Mahmoud, Mohamed A. Quest for Divinity: A Critical Examination of the Thought of Mahmud Muhammad Taha. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2007.
  706.  
  707. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  708.  
  709. The first critical work to examine fully the thought of the Sudanese thinker Mahmud Muhammad Taha (b. 1909–d. 1985), who was executed after being convicted for apostasy.
  710.  
  711. Find this resource:
  712.  
  713. Metcalf, Barbara D. Husain Ahmad Madani: The Jihad for Islam and India’s Freedom. Makers of the Muslim World. Oxford: Oneworld, 2008.
  714.  
  715. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  716.  
  717. Husain Ahmad Madani (b. 1879–d. 1957) was an Islamic scholar of fiqh and Hadith and a supporter of Ghandi. This work looks at his thought from a biographical perspective.
  718.  
  719. Find this resource:
  720.  
  721. Mitchell, Richard. The Society of the Muslim Brothers. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. First published in 1969, this book discusses the early history of the Muslim Brotherhood up to the time of Nasser. Part II focuses on the organization’s ideology.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729. Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza. Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jama’at-i Islami of Pakistan. London: I. B. Tauris, 1994.
  730.  
  731. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  732.  
  733. The origins, historical development, and political strategies of the Jama’at-i Islami of Pakistan. The organization was founded in British controlled India by Abu al-ʿAla Maududi in 1941
  734.  
  735. Find this resource:
  736.  
  737. Tamini, Azzam S. Rachid Ghannouchi: A Democrat within Islamism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  738.  
  739. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  740.  
  741. On the thought of the Tunisian Islamist political activist Rachid Ghannouchi (b. 1941), who co-founded the al-Nahda movement, currently very prominent in Tunisia, in 1981.
  742.  
  743. Find this resource:
  744.  
  745. Topics within Islamic Political Theory
  746. The following are works that relate to particular areas within Islamic political theory. There are, of course, many overlaps between the different categories and many of the citations given above also pertain to one or more of these categories. Primary sources and secondary sources are listed together as are sources from different time periods.
  747.  
  748. The Caliphate and the Imamate
  749. Hamid 2005 provides an overview of both Sunni and Shiʿa conceptions of the caliphate and the imamate. Madelung 1997 discusses the major debates between the religious schools concerning the caliphate in the formative period. Al-Ghazzali 1980 represents a critique of the imamate from a Sunni perspective, and Tusi 2005 represents a Shiʿa view of the imam and his infallibility. Al-Mawardi 1996 represents a vision of the caliphate that married theory and reality at a time of crisis for the caliphate in the 11th century. While the caliphate was effectively destroyed in 1258, it still remained an institution in theory—rather than in practice—until the official abolition of the caliphate by Kemal Atatürk in 1924. Shah Wali Allah 1979 and Rida 1923 represent early modern and modern defenses of the caliphate: the former in the late 18th century, and the latter shortly before its destruction in 1924. Arnold 2011 was published in the same year as the abolition. Al-Rasheed, et al. 2013 is testimony to the caliphate’s enduring importance despite its abolition.
  750.  
  751. Arnold, Thomas W. The Caliphate. Charleston, SC: Nabu, 2011.
  752.  
  753. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  754.  
  755. Written by the British orientalist and originally published in 1924 when the caliphate was abolished by Kemal Atatürk.
  756.  
  757. Find this resource:
  758.  
  759. al-Ghazzali, Abu Hamid. Freedom and Fulfillment: An Annotated Translation of al-Ghazālīʼs al-Munqith min al-Dalāl and other relevant works of al-Ghazālīʼs. Translated by Richard Joseph McCarthy. Boston: Twayne, 1980.
  760.  
  761. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  762.  
  763. Al-Ghazzali refutes the Shiʿa concept of the imamate, arguing that only Muhammad is infallible and that the basic articles are to be found in the Qurʾan and the Sunna.
  764.  
  765. Find this resource:
  766.  
  767. Hamid, Enayat. Modern Islamic Political Thought. London: I. B. Tauris, 2005.
  768.  
  769. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  770.  
  771. Originally published in 1982, focuses on the intellectual history of Shiʿa-Sunni disputes and 20th-century debates about the caliphate.
  772.  
  773. Find this resource:
  774.  
  775. Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
  776.  
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. A historical narrative that examines the early struggle over the caliphate that resulted in the schism between Sunnite and Shiʿite Islam. Argues in defense of the Shiʿi position that Ali was the legitimate caliph.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783. al-Mawardi. The Ordinances of Government (Al-Ahkām Al-Sultāniyya W’al-Wilāyat Al-Dīniyya). Translated by Wafaa H. Wahba. Great Books of Islamic Civilization. London: Garnet, 1996.
  784.  
  785. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  786.  
  787. The Sunni jurist Abu al-Hasan al-Mawardi (b. 972–d. 1058) writes on the so-called “classical theory of the caliphate” and affirms the necessity of the caliphate when the Abbasid Caliphate was its lowest ebb.
  788.  
  789. Find this resource:
  790.  
  791. al-Rasheed, Madawi, Carool Kersten, and Marat Shterin, eds. Demystifying the Caliphate. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.
  792.  
  793. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  794.  
  795. A collection of essays that looks at the caliphate’s appeal as a symbol of Muslim unity. Addresses the complexity and diversity in the ways in which the caliphate is invoked and referred to.
  796.  
  797. Find this resource:
  798.  
  799. Rida, Rashid. Al-Khilāfa aw al-Imāma al-Uzmā. Cairo, Egypt: Manār, 1923.
  800.  
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. Discusses the corruption of the caliphate, the concept of the “Rightly-Guided” caliphs and criticizes the religious scholars, the ulama.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807. Shah Wali Allah. Caliphate and Shah Waliullah. Karachi: Peermahomed Ebrahim Trust, 1979.
  808.  
  809. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  810.  
  811. A translation from the Urdu of Shah Wali Allah’s (b. 1703–d. 1762) defense of the Sunni Caliphate and refutation of Shiʿism. Argues that the caliphate is a divinely ordained foundation stone of the religion.
  812.  
  813. Find this resource:
  814.  
  815. Tusi, Nasir al-Din. Paradise of Submission: A Medieval Treatise on Ismaili Thought. Translated and edited by Jambe Jalal H. Badakhchani. London: I. B. Tauris, 2005.
  816.  
  817. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  818.  
  819. This work by the Persian scholar Nasir al-Din Tusi (b. 1201–d. 1274) is the most important primary source on Ismaili doctrines—particularly with regard to the imamate—during the Alamut period.
  820.  
  821. Find this resource:
  822.  
  823. Religious Authority
  824. The concept of religious authority, of who speaks for Islam and what relationship the religious scholars have with the ruler or the state, has been a long-standing issue of importance in Islamic thought. Brown 2000 addresses the question of the relationship between religion and state from a historical perspective. Lapidus 1975 is one of the first scholars to critique the common assumption that religion and state were unified in early and medieval Islam. Crone and Hinds 2003 gives a revisionist perspective on how religious authority was distributed in early Islam until the 9th century. Hallaq 2003–2004 provides a bridge between the premodern and the modern periods by addressing the change that the relationship between religious authority, the law, judicial authority, and the state underwent in the modern period. Ivanyi 2007 addresses the Qurʾanic interpretation of religious authority held by Muhammad ʿAbduh and Rashid Rida. Al-ʿAwwa 2003 discusses the crisis in the authority of al-Azhar in the contemporary period, and Zaman 2012 looks at how the concept of religious authority has been debated in the modern period.
  825.  
  826. al-ʿAwwa, Muhammad Salim. ʿAzmat al-Mu’assasa al-Dīniyya. 2d ed. Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Shuruq, 2003.
  827.  
  828. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  829.  
  830. Muhammad Salīm al-ʿAwwa (b. 1942) is former secretary general of the International Union of Muslim Scholars and former Egyptian presidential hopeful. Written in 1998, the book critiques the current state of al-Azhar and argues for its reform.
  831.  
  832. Find this resource:
  833.  
  834. Brown, Carl. Religion and State: The Muslim Approach to Politics. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
  835.  
  836. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  837.  
  838. Looks at the concept of the unity of religion and state both from a theoretical and historical perspective, focusing on the premodern period.
  839.  
  840. Find this resource:
  841.  
  842. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Centuries of Islam. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  843.  
  844. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  845.  
  846. Originally published in 1986, this work argues that Sunni caliphs had religious authority (in terms of being able to decide on Islamic doctrine) and political authority up to the mid-9th century. It argues that early caliphs saw themselves as the representatives of God as opposed to the later understanding that they were the representatives of the prophet of God.
  847.  
  848. Find this resource:
  849.  
  850. Hallaq, Wael B. “Juristic Authority vs. State Power: The Legal Crises of Modern Islam.” Journal of Law and Religion 19.2 (2003–2004): 243–258.
  851.  
  852. DOI: 10.2307/3649176Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  853.  
  854. Argues that premodern Islamic governance was based on the notion that the jurists carried legal authority, and that the perception that legal authority should be lodged in the state was imposed in the 19th century, with dislocating effects.
  855.  
  856. Find this resource:
  857.  
  858. Ivanyi, Katherina A. “Who’s in Charge?: The Tafsir Al-Manar on Questions of Religious and Political Authority.” Maghreb Review 32.2–3 (2007): 175–195.
  859.  
  860. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  861.  
  862. Addresses Muhammad ʿAbduh and Rashid Rida’s interpretation of Qurʾan 3:159 (“and consult them in affairs (of moment)”) and 4:59 (“Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger, and those charged with authority among you”).
  863.  
  864. Find this resource:
  865.  
  866. Lapidus, Ira. “The Separation of State and Religion in the Development of Early Islamic Society.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6.4 (1975): 363–385.
  867.  
  868. DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800025344Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  869.  
  870. Argues that religious activity emerged independently of the authority of caliphs, and therefore that distinct spheres relating to religion and state existed in early Islam.
  871.  
  872. Find this resource:
  873.  
  874. Mavani, Hamid. Religious Authority and Political Thought in Twelver Shiʿism: From Ali to Post-Khomeini. London: Routledge, 2013.
  875.  
  876. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  877.  
  878. Discusses the doctrine of the imamate, the concept of the occultation of the imam, and the concept of the Islamic state, authority, and leadership in Shiʿi thought. Addresses the diversity of Shiʿi political theory.
  879.  
  880. Find this resource:
  881.  
  882. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age: Religious Authority and Internal Criticism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  883.  
  884. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511973062Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  885.  
  886. Examines debates among Muslim scholars about religious authority. Looks at Middle Eastern and South Asian scholars from the late 19th century on.
  887.  
  888. Find this resource:
  889.  
  890. Imperialism and the Call for Reform
  891. Sources here include initial responses to imperialism by Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (Keddie 1968), Muhammad ʿAbduh (ʿAbduh and al-Afghani 1983), and Damascene Salafis at the turn of the 20th century (Commins 1900). Sharabi 1970 addresses Christian and Muslim secularists in addition to Islamic reformists in late Ottoman Damascus. Meddeb 2003 represents a contemporary Tunisian literary response. Arslan 2004 is an illustration of the decline narrative that forms an important part of modern Islamic discourse in response to imperialism. Outside of the Arab world, Al-e Ahmad 2012 (first published 1962) is on the thought of the Iranian thinker Jalal Al-e Ahmad (b. 1923–d. 1969), Ibrahim 1996 is on the Malaysian politician and writer Anwar Ibrahim (b. 1947), and Iqbal 1962 presents the thought of the early modern Indian thinker Muhammad Iqbal.
  892.  
  893. ʿAbduh, Muhammad, and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. Al-ʿUrwa al-Wut̲qā. Beirut, Lebanon: Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi, 1983.
  894.  
  895. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  896.  
  897. Originally published as a periodical in Paris in 1884, the “firmest bond” emphasizes the struggle against imperialism and calls for pan-Islamic unity.
  898.  
  899. Find this resource:
  900.  
  901. Al-e Ahmad, Jalal. Gharbzadegi: Weststruckness. Lexington, KY: Mazda, 2012.
  902.  
  903. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  904.  
  905. Originally published in Persian in 1962; the Iranian thinker and writer Jalal Al-e Ahmad (1923–1969) is famous for his critique of “occidentosis,” which had an important influence on Khomeini.
  906.  
  907. Find this resource:
  908.  
  909. Arslan, Shakib. Our Decline: Its Causes and Remedies. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Islamic Book Trust, 2004.
  910.  
  911. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  912.  
  913. Originally published in the 1930s; this Lebanese Druze politician and writer, influenced by the ideas of al-Afghani and ʿAbduh, explains the causes of Muslim weakness.
  914.  
  915. Find this resource:
  916.  
  917. Commins, David Dean. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1900.
  918.  
  919. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  920.  
  921. Looks at how Muslim religious scholars, including the early Salafis and Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi, in turn of the century Damascus dealt with the dilemmas of identity that arose of the Ottoman Empire’s 19th-century reforms.
  922.  
  923. Find this resource:
  924.  
  925. Ibrahim, Anwar. The Asian Renaissance. Singapore: Times Editions, 1996.
  926.  
  927. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928.  
  929. Anwar Ibrahim, former deputy prime minister of Malaysia and currently the opposition party leader, argues for Asians to fight against the cultural imperialism of the West and calls for democracy, freedom, and accountability.
  930.  
  931. Find this resource:
  932.  
  933. Iqbal, Muhammad. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Lahore, Pakistan: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1962.
  934.  
  935. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  936.  
  937. Written in English in 1930, this volume contains a series of lectures, in which Iqbal (b. 1877–d. 1938), regarded as having inspired the Pakistan movement, undertakes a philosophical discussion of some of the basic ideas of Islam. Includes a discussion of the “principle of movement in the structure of Islam and the spirit of Muslim culture.”
  938.  
  939. Find this resource:
  940.  
  941. Keddie, Nikki R. An Islamic Response to Imperialism: Political and Religious Writings of Sayyid Jamāl Ad-Dīn “Al-Afghānī.” Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968.
  942.  
  943. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  944.  
  945. Includes Afghani’s writings as well as a discussion of his life and ideas. Part I is about his life and thought, and Part II contains a translation of al-Afghani’s works, including one entitled “Commentary on the Commentator.”
  946.  
  947. Find this resource:
  948.  
  949. Meddeb, Abdelwahab. The Malady of Islam. Translated by Pierre Joris and Ann Reid. New York: Basic Books, 2003.
  950.  
  951. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  952.  
  953. The Tunisian novelist, poet, and essayist Abdelwahab Meddeb (b. 1946) argues that the West should engage with Islam as part of the Western tradition.
  954.  
  955. Find this resource:
  956.  
  957. Sharabi, Hisham. Arab Intellectuals and the West: The Formative Years, 1875–1914. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1970.
  958.  
  959. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  960.  
  961. Examines the responses of thinkers and activists in Egypt and the Fertile Crescent. Includes Islamic reformists, Christians, and Muslim secularists.
  962.  
  963. Find this resource:
  964.  
  965. Islamic State
  966. The Islamic state (including whether one should be established and whether one existed in the past) is a key preoccupation of modern Islamic thought. Belkeziz 2009 and Ayubi 1999 are particularly useful for their discussion of the concept of the state within Islamic political theory, despite debates on the relevance of the term “state” in reference to premodern political entities. Afsaruddin 2006 is on the relationship between religion and state and provides an important critique of Islamism. Al-Bayyumi 2005 is a useful source for the concept of a civil Islamic state, a concept which is so popular in contemporary debates about the implications of Islamism. al-ʿAwwa 1980 and Moussalli 1993 are sources for the contemporary Islamist perspective that argues for the normativity of the union of religion and politics (Moussalli for the early Muslim Brotherhood, and al-ʿAwwa for an Egyptian Islamist sympathizer). ʿAshmawi 1987 represents a critique of political Islam, and Hallaq 2013 questions the possibility of the Islamic state project altogether. Al-Qaradawi 1997 is important for the political thought on the state expressed by one of the impost important jurists in the contemporary Islamic world.
  967.  
  968. Afsaruddin, Asma. “‘The Islamic State’: Genealogy, Facts, and Myths.” Journal of Church and State 48 (2006): 153–173.
  969.  
  970. DOI: 10.1093/jcs/48.1.153Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  971.  
  972. Questions Islamist claims about an early Islamic state.
  973.  
  974. Find this resource:
  975.  
  976. ʿAshmawi, Muhammad Saʿid. Al-Islām al-Siyāsī. Cairo, Egypt: Sina, 1987.
  977.  
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979.  
  980. ʿAshmawi (1932–) is an Egyptian judge and specialist in comparative and Islamic law. The work refutes the Islamist position in the 1980s and provoked the anger of Islamists and conservatives, including the Shaykh of al-Azhar at the time.
  981.  
  982. Find this resource:
  983.  
  984. al-ʿAwwa, Muhammad Salim. On the Political System of the Islamic State. Indianapolis, IN: American Trust, 1980.
  985.  
  986. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  987.  
  988. The most famous work of Muhammad Salim al-ʿAwwa, an Egyptian lawyer with Islamist leanings. An Arabic edition, Fī al-Nithām al-Siyāsī Lil Dawla al-Islāmiyya (Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Shuruq, 1989) contains an additional chapter on non-Muslims.
  989.  
  990. Find this resource:
  991.  
  992. Ayubi, Nazih. Over-Stating the Arab State: Politics and Society in the Middle East. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999.
  993.  
  994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995.  
  996. Originally published in 1996; Ayubi addresses the concept of the state within Islamic thought and history, and argues that Middle Eastern states are weak in terms of their institutional and ideological strength.
  997.  
  998. Find this resource:
  999.  
  1000. al-Bayyumi, ʿAbd al-Muʿti. Al-Islām wa al-Dawla al-Madaniyya. Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Hilal, 2005.
  1001.  
  1002. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1003.  
  1004. Written by the former dean of the Faculty of Usul al-Din at the University of al-Azhar, this work argues for the concept of a “civil” state in Islamic political thinking.
  1005.  
  1006. Find this resource:
  1007.  
  1008. Belkeziz, Abdelilah. The State in Contemporary Islamic Thought: A Historical Survey of the Major Muslim Political Thinkers of the Modern Era. Translated by Abdullah Richard Lux. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009.
  1009.  
  1010. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1011.  
  1012. Discusses Shiʿite and Sunni political theory with a particular focus on the concept of the state, the caliphate, and the concepts of al-hakimiyya (sovereignty), wilayat al-faqih (the sovereignty of the jurisprudence), and shura (consultation).
  1013.  
  1014. Find this resource:
  1015.  
  1016. Hallaq, Wael B. The Impossible State: Islam, Politics, and Modernity’s Moral Predicament. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.
  1017.  
  1018. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019.  
  1020. A scholar of Islamic law and intellectual history, Wael Hallaq argues that the Islamic state—including modern states deemed Islamic states—is an impossibility and a contradiction. Represents an important critique of the Islamist state-centered project.
  1021.  
  1022. Find this resource:
  1023.  
  1024. Moussalli, Ahmed. “Hasan Al-Bannā’s Islamist Discourse on Constitutional Rule and the Islamic State.” Journal of Islamic Studies 4.2 (1993): 161–174.
  1025.  
  1026. DOI: 10.1093/jis/4.2.161Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027.  
  1028. Addresses the feasibility of an Islamic state in modern times by focusing on the thought of al-Banna.
  1029.  
  1030. Find this resource:
  1031.  
  1032. al-Qaradawi, Yusuf. Min Fiqh al-Dawla Fī al-Islām. Cairo, Egypt: Dār al-Shurūq, 1997.
  1033.  
  1034. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035.  
  1036. The popular Egyptian theologian and jurist Yusuf al-Qaradawi (b. 1926) writes on the Islamic state from a jurisprudential perspective.
  1037.  
  1038. Find this resource:
  1039.  
  1040. The Separation of Religion and State
  1041. Despite common assumptions about the normativity of the Islamic state, many theorists argue for a religiously neutral state. Texts below deal with the separation of religion and state—often equated with secularism—from different perspectives. Asad 2003 explores the concepts, practices, and political formations of secularism, as well as the thought of the modern lawyer Ahmed Safwat. Many works advocate the normativity of secularism (e.g., Zakariyya 2005). Razek 2012 advocates for the separation of religion and state on the basis that this is the best reflection of how the Prophet saw the relationship between religion and politics. Khalid 1953 breaks from the juristic norms and argues for the separation of religion and politics in Egypt after the Second World War. An-Naʿim 1992 argues for secularism as the answer to Islam’s challenge with modernity, a perspective further developed in An-Naʿim 2008, which argues for secularism as a historical experience of Muslims and as a normative ideal. Sadri 2003 also defends secularism, and Bilgrami 2003 questions the level of commitment among Muslims to a complete application of the Sharia.
  1042.  
  1043. An-Naʿim, Abdullahi Ahmed. Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civil Liberties, Human Rights, and International Law. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press, 1992.
  1044.  
  1045. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1046.  
  1047. Argues for the incompatibility of Sharia law and human rights, with particular focus on the concept of reciprocity.
  1048.  
  1049. Find this resource:
  1050.  
  1051. An-Naʿim, Abdullahi Ahmed. Islam and the Secular State: Negotiating the Future of Shari‛a. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008.
  1052.  
  1053. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1054.  
  1055. Drawing on Islamic history and the principles of the Sharia itself, An-Naʿim argues for the institutional separation of Islam from the state.
  1056.  
  1057. Find this resource:
  1058.  
  1059. Asad, Talal. Formations of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003.
  1060.  
  1061. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1062.  
  1063. The chapter entitled “Reconfigurations of Law and Ethics in Colonial Egypt” discusses the British-trained lawyer Ahmed Safwat’s call for Sharia reform in 1917. Safwat, Asad argues, distinguished between law and morality, which Asad argues opened up a space for the secular.
  1064.  
  1065. Find this resource:
  1066.  
  1067. Bilgrami, Akeel. “The Clash within Civilizations.” Daedalus 132.3 (summer 2003): 88–93.
  1068.  
  1069. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1070.  
  1071. Bilgrami is an Indian professor of philosophy at Columbia University. He argues that there is a clash within Islam between secularists and absolutists, and he questions the assumption that most Muslims wish to live their lives in absolute observance of the Sharia.
  1072.  
  1073. Find this resource:
  1074.  
  1075. Khalid, Khalid Muhammad. From Here We Start (Min Hunā Nabda’). Ann Arbor, MI: American Council of Learned Societies, 1953.
  1076.  
  1077. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1078.  
  1079. Written in 1950 by an Azharite former member of Egypt’s Muslim Brotherhood, this text argues for the separation of religion and state in Egypt.
  1080.  
  1081. Find this resource:
  1082.  
  1083. Razek, Ali Abdel. Islam and the Foundations of Political Power. Edited by Abdou Filali-Ansary and translated by Maryam Loutfi. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012.
  1084.  
  1085. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1086.  
  1087. First published in 1925, al-Raziq’s essay, in which he argues for secularism on the basis of the Prophet Muhammad’s example, caused intense reaction on the part of al-Azhar.
  1088.  
  1089. Find this resource:
  1090.  
  1091. Sadri, Mahmoud. “Sacral Defense of Secularism: Dissident Political Theology in Iran.” In Intellectual Trends in Twentieth-Century Iran: A Critical Survey. Edited by Negin Nabavi, 180–192. Gainsville: University Press of Florida, 2003.
  1092.  
  1093. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1094.  
  1095. Sadri discusses the thought of the contemporary Iranian intellectual Abdol Karim Soroush (b. 1945), who argued for the concept of religious democracy. Here, Sadri discusses Soroush’s distinction between religion and the understanding of religion and between minimalist and maximalist interpretations of Islam.
  1096.  
  1097. Find this resource:
  1098.  
  1099. Zakariyya, Fouad. Myth and Reality in the Contemporary Islamist Movement. Translated by Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi. London: Pluto, 2005.
  1100.  
  1101. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1102.  
  1103. The Egyptian philosopher and leading Arab intellectual critiques the Islamist movement in the aftermath of Sadat’s assassination and argues for a secular and democratic civil society that is unconstrained by past interpretations of Sharia.
  1104.  
  1105. Find this resource:
  1106.  
  1107. Justice
  1108. The concept of justice has been a prominent concern throughout the history of Islamic political thought. Sources here cover a wide range of conceptions of justice. While Khadduri 2002 is a source for a more introductory overview, Lambton 1962 and Rosenthal 1982 are good for the premodern period, particularly in relation to the sovereign’s obligation to do justice. ʿAbd al Jabbar 1965–1974 provides insight into the political ramifications of Mu‛tazilite thought, of which the concept of justice forms a key part. With reference to modern writings, Abu Rabiʿ 2010 looks at Said Nursi’s theological writings on justice, with a focus on his thought on the resurrection. Qutb 2000 illustrates Qutb’s early thought relating to social and economic justice. Rahman 1970 is a brief but concise piece on social and economic justice, with particular reference to legislation in Pakistan. Johnston 2010 briefly highlights the work of three prominent contemporary Muslim thinkers on justice. Sachedina 1988 spans the classical and the modern periods with a discussion of justice and the Shiʿi imamate.
  1109.  
  1110. ʿAbd al-Jabbār. Abū al-Hasan Al-Mughnī fī Abwāb al-Tawhīd wa al-ʿAdl. Cairo, Egypt: Al-Dar al-Misriyah lil-Taʼlif wa-al-Nashr, 1965–1974.
  1111.  
  1112. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1113.  
  1114. ʿAbd al-Jabbar (b. 935–d. 1025) was a Muʿtazilite follower of the Shafiʿi school of law and was appointed chief justice (qadi) under the Buwayhids. While primarily a theological work, Part 6 is a useful source on justice.
  1115.  
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117.  
  1118. Abu-Rabiʿ, Ibrahim Muhammad, ed. Theodicy and Justice in Modern Islamic Thought: The Case of Said Nursi. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010.
  1119.  
  1120. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1121.  
  1122. Essays on the Turkish theologian Said Nursi (b. 1877–d. 1960). Contributions by Islamic Studies’ specialists and non-Muslim theologians include the political dimensions of Nursi’s writings on theodicy and justice.
  1123.  
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125.  
  1126. Johnston, David L. Evolving Muslim Theologies of Justice: Jamal Al-Banna, Mohammad Hashim Kamali and Khaled Abou El Fadl. Pulau Pinang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2010.
  1127.  
  1128. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1129.  
  1130. A compilation of three essays by Jamal al-Banna (b. 1920–d. 2013), who was Hasan al-Banna’s anti-Islamist brother; Mohammad Hashim Kamali (b. 1944), who is a professor of law at the International University of Malaysia; and Khaled Abou El Fadli (b. 1963), who is distinguished professor of law at UCLA School of Law.
  1131.  
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133.  
  1134. Khadduri, Majid. The Islamic Conception of Justice. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 2002.
  1135.  
  1136. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1137.  
  1138. Focuses on the premodern varying conceptions of justice (ethical, philosophical, juristic, legal, social, theological, and political) with a chapter on modern Islam. First published 1984.
  1139.  
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141.  
  1142. Lambton, Ann K. S. “Justice in the Medieval Persian Theory of Kingship.” Studia Islamica 17 (1962): 91–119.
  1143.  
  1144. DOI: 10.2307/1595003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1145.  
  1146. Discusses the concept of justice with reference to a range of sources, and relates it to the relationship between law, the state, and the caliph.
  1147.  
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149.  
  1150. Qutb, Sayyid. Social Justice in Islam. Translated by John B. Hardie. Oneonta, NY: Islamic Publications International, 2000.
  1151.  
  1152. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1153.  
  1154. First published in Arabic in 1949, this is a source for Qutb’s earlier political philosophy and for his thought on the question of socioeconomic justice in Islam.
  1155.  
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157.  
  1158. Rahman, Fazlur. “Islam and Social Justice.” Pakistan Forum 1.1 (1970): 4–5, 9.
  1159.  
  1160. DOI: 10.2307/2568964Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1161.  
  1162. A short article that provides useful insight to Rahman’s thought on politics, Pakistan, and social justice.
  1163.  
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165.  
  1166. Rosenthal, Franz. “Political Justice and the Just Ruler.” Israel Oriental Studies 10 (1982): 92–101.
  1167.  
  1168. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1169.  
  1170. Overview of justice and political theory in premodern Islamic thought. Emphasizes the practical importance of justice, and of justice in human social and political affairs as opposed to justice as an abstract concept.
  1171.  
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173.  
  1174. Sachedina, Abdulaziz. The Just Ruler (al-sultān al-ʿādil) in Shīʿite Islam: The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamate Jurisprudence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  1175.  
  1176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1177.  
  1178. Addresses the imamate theory of political authority, with particular reference to the deputyship of the jurists and the problem of juridical and political authority during the occultation of the 12th imam since 873.
  1179.  
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181.  
  1182. Democracy and Pluralism
  1183. Writings on the so-called “compatibility” between democracy, pluralism and Islam abound, particularly due to the fact that Islam’s position on pluralism and democracy has frequently been used to critique it. Moussalli 2003 focuses on both premodern and modern questions. Soroush 2000 is an interesting example of a secular Iranian perspective. Both al-ʿAwwa 1991 and Huwaydi 1993 undertake a jurisprudential reading that sees pluralism and democracy as essentially Qurʾanic principles. Abou El Fadl 2004 discusses constitutional democracy, also from a jurisprudential perspective. Sachedina 2001 links the theological concept of Abrahamic unity and contemporary notions of pluralism. Zaman 2005 looks at the thought of the religious scholars, which is often overlooked by modern preoccupations with Islamism. Hashmi 2002 focuses on the political implications of Islamic ethics. Majid 1996 addresses pluralism in the context of contemporary Indonesia.
  1184.  
  1185. Abou El Fadl, Khaled. Islam and the Challenge of Democracy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004.
  1186.  
  1187. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1188.  
  1189. In a lead essay, Abou El Fadl argues that a constitutional democracy that protects basic individual rights is the form of government best suited to promoting a set of social and political values central to Islam.
  1190.  
  1191. Find this resource:
  1192.  
  1193. Al-ʿAwwa, Muhammad Salim. “Al-Taʿaddudiyya al-Siyāsiyya min Manthūr Islāmī.” Minbar al-Hiwār 6.20 (1991): 129–138.
  1194.  
  1195. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1196.  
  1197. A 2012 Egyptian presidential candidate and Islamist lawyer argues for political pluralism from an Islamic perspective. Particularly interesting for his thought on non-Muslim minorities.
  1198.  
  1199. Find this resource:
  1200.  
  1201. Hashmi, Sohail H., ed. Islamic Political Ethics: Civil Society, Pluralism, and Conflict. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002.
  1202.  
  1203. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1204.  
  1205. Ten essays on the debate over how Islamic ethics and law should be manifested in modern institutions, drawing on classical writers and modern reinterpretations.
  1206.  
  1207. Find this resource:
  1208.  
  1209. Huwaydi, Fahmi. Lil Islām Dimuqrātiyya. Cairo, Egypt: Markaz al-Ahrām, 1993.
  1210.  
  1211. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1212.  
  1213. Fahmi Huwaydi (1936–) is an Egyptian columnist in the Arab press with Islamist associations. Huwaydi sets forward his vision of democracy within an Islamic framework.
  1214.  
  1215. Find this resource:
  1216.  
  1217. Majid, Nurcholish. “In Search of Islamic Roots for Modern Pluralism: The Indonesian Experiences.” In Toward a New Paradigm, Recent Developments in Indonesian Islamic Thought. Edited by Mark Woodward, 89–116. Tempe: Arizona State University, 1996.
  1218.  
  1219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1220.  
  1221. The Indonesian intellectual Nurcholish Majid (b. 1939–d. 2005) calls on Islam to embrace tolerance, democracy, and pluralism.
  1222.  
  1223. Find this resource:
  1224.  
  1225. Moussalli, Ahmed. The Islamic Quest for Democracy, Pluralism, and Human Rights. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2003.
  1226.  
  1227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1228.  
  1229. Ahmad Moussalli questions the assumption of the incompatibility between Islam and democracy, looking at both classical theory and modern thinkers.
  1230.  
  1231. Find this resource:
  1232.  
  1233. Sachedina, Abdulaziz. The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  1234.  
  1235. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195139914.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1236.  
  1237. Sachedina argues for Islam as a religion that respects human dignity and can be a source of tolerance and pluralism, questioning the validity of interpretations that emphasize Islamic supremacy, the subordination of other religions, and military jihad.
  1238.  
  1239. Find this resource:
  1240.  
  1241. Soroush, Abdolkarim. Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush. Translated and edited by Mahmoud Sadri and Ahmad Sadri. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  1242.  
  1243. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1244.  
  1245. The Iranian philosopher Abdolkarim Soroush’s most famous work in English.
  1246.  
  1247. Find this resource:
  1248.  
  1249. Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. “Pluralism, Democracy, and the ʿUlama.” In Remaking Muslim Politics. Edited by Robert W. Hefner, 60–86. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005.
  1250.  
  1251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1252.  
  1253. Challenges the assumption that the ulama are wedded to a tradition incapable of change.
  1254.  
  1255. Find this resource:
  1256.  
  1257. Equality, Freedom and Human rights
  1258. Writings on equality, freedom, and human rights are also plentiful in modern Islamic thought. Rosenthal 1960 is a classical source for the concept of freedom in premodern Islamic thought. Kamali 2002 takes a more political-philosophical approach, while Kamali 1993 focuses on the concept of haqq, or right. Delacoura 2003 and Mayer 2007 take a more comparative approach to the question of the relationship between human rights and Islam and how human rights are applied. Nettler 2007 is a useful source for a close textual reading of the thought of the understudied Azharite thinker ʿAbd al-Mutaʿal al-Saʿidi. Abu Zayd 2006 is a source for the thought of someone who was punished by his conservative Egyptian colleagues and the Egyptian legal system.
  1259.  
  1260. Abu Zayd, Nasr. Reformation of Islamic Thought: A Critical Historical Analysis. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006.
  1261.  
  1262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1263.  
  1264. The Egyptian thinker Nasr Abu Zayd (b. 1943–d. 2010) was declared an apostate on account of his hermeneutics of the Qurʾan. Taking the lens of Islamic intellectual history, Abu Zayd argues for human rights and democracy.
  1265.  
  1266. Find this resource:
  1267.  
  1268. Delacoura, Katerina. Islam, Liberalism, and Human Rights. London: I. B. Tauris, 2003.
  1269.  
  1270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1271.  
  1272. Focuses on the interaction between human rights as a value and norm in international relations and Islam as a constituent of political culture in particular societies. Includes a discussion of Egypt and Tunisia.
  1273.  
  1274. Find this resource:
  1275.  
  1276. Kamali, Mohammad H. “Fundamental Rights of the Individual: An Analysis of Haqq (Right) in Islamic Law.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 10.3 (1993): 340–366.
  1277.  
  1278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1279.  
  1280. Discusses the tendency within Islamic law to emphasize obligations as opposed to rights, while addressing Western claims that Sharia does not recognize rights.
  1281.  
  1282. Find this resource:
  1283.  
  1284. Kamali, Mohammad H. Freedom, Equality and Justice in Islam. Cambridge, UK: Islamic Texts Society, 2002.
  1285.  
  1286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1287.  
  1288. Takes a social, legal, and political perspective on these three concepts.
  1289.  
  1290. Find this resource:
  1291.  
  1292. Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam and Human Rights: Tradition and Politics. Boulder, CO: Westview, 2007.
  1293.  
  1294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1295.  
  1296. Originally written in 1991; discusses the tensions in Islamic political thinking and assesses human rights schemes that employ Islamic forms.
  1297.  
  1298. Find this resource:
  1299.  
  1300. Nettler, Ronald L. “History, Religion and Freedom: ‛Abd Al-Muta‛Al Al-Sa‛idi on Islam in the Modern World.” Maghreb Review 32.2–3 (2007): 130–148.
  1301.  
  1302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1303.  
  1304. Discusses the thought of this little-known professor of Arabic language and literature at al-Azhar University (b. 1894–d. 1971?).
  1305.  
  1306. Find this resource:
  1307.  
  1308. Rosenthal, Franz. The Muslim Concept of Freedom. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1960.
  1309.  
  1310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1311.  
  1312. Discusses the variety of Muslim understandings of freedom in political and ethical thought prior to the 19th century.
  1313.  
  1314. Find this resource:
  1315.  
  1316. Citizenship and Religious Minorities
  1317. While the “Constitution of Medina,” drawn up between Muhammad and tribes in Medina, figures in most of these sources, Bulac 1998 provides a close reading of it. Maududi 1961 gives a conservative perspective that more closely mirrors some of the prominent themes of premodern Islamic jurisprudence, Huwaydi 1999 and ʿImara 2002 take a more reformist jurisprudential perspective on the subject. Scott 2010 puts the juridical debates about the status of non-Muslims into the context of the constitutional, social, political, and legal framework of Egypt. March 2009 discusses the complex juridical debates about the role of Muslims as minorities in liberal democracies. Shafiq 1994 gives a Muslim American perspective on Muslims as minorities. Ramadan 2004, by the leading and controversial European Muslim intellectual Tariq Ramadan, contains Ramadan’s thoughts on the cultural identity of European Muslims.
  1318.  
  1319. Bulac, Ali. “The Medina Document.” In Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. Edited by Charles Kurzman, 168–178. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  1320.  
  1321. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1322.  
  1323. Bulac’s reading of the relevance of the so-called Constitution of Medina for contemporary Muslim/non-Muslim relations.
  1324.  
  1325. Find this resource:
  1326.  
  1327. Huwaydi, Fahmi. Muwātinūn Lā Dhimmiūn: Mawqi‛ Ghayr Al-Muslimīn Fī Mujtama‛a Al-Muslimīn. 3d ed. Cairo, Egypt: Dar al-Shuruq, 1999.
  1328.  
  1329. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1330.  
  1331. Work by one of the independent Islamist intellectuals, who argues that the subordination of non-Muslims is not an inevitable or necessary consequence of an increased public role for Islam.
  1332.  
  1333. Find this resource:
  1334.  
  1335. ʿImara, Muhammad. Samāhat al-Islām. Cairo, Egypt: al-Falah, 2002.
  1336.  
  1337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1338.  
  1339. Muhammad ʿImara, an Egyptian thinker with Islamist associations and a current member of al-Azhar’s Senior Ulama Council, discusses the principle of tolerance in Islamic thought.
  1340.  
  1341. Find this resource:
  1342.  
  1343. March, Andrew F. Islam and Liberal Citizenship: The Search for an Overlapping Consensus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
  1344.  
  1345. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195330960.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1346.  
  1347. The first in-depth study of both liberal and Islamic legal and doctrinal principles of citizenship in a liberal democracy.
  1348.  
  1349. Find this resource:
  1350.  
  1351. Maududi, Abul A’la. Rights of Non-Muslims in Islamic State. Translated by Khurshid Ahmad. Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publication, 1961.
  1352.  
  1353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1354.  
  1355. Details Maududi’s largely conservative views on non-Muslims. Useful for Maududi’s views on the Ahmadiyya.
  1356.  
  1357. Find this resource:
  1358.  
  1359. Ramadan, Tariq. Islam and the West: Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
  1360.  
  1361. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1362.  
  1363. Historically contextualizing concepts such as dar al-Islam and dar al-harb, Europe’s leading Muslim intellectual argues that Muslims should make the West their home.
  1364.  
  1365. Find this resource:
  1366.  
  1367. Scott, Rachel M. The Challenge of Political Islam: Non-Muslims and the Egyptian State. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010.
  1368.  
  1369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1370.  
  1371. Discusses Egyptian Islamist views of the rights and role of non-Muslims in an Islamic state.
  1372.  
  1373. Find this resource:
  1374.  
  1375. Shafiq, Muhammad. The Growth of Islamic Thought in North America: Focus on Ismail Raji Al Faruqi. Brentwood, MD: Amana, 1994.
  1376.  
  1377. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1378.  
  1379. Useful source for the thought of Ismail Faruqi (b. 1921–d. 1986), a Palestinian American philosopher.
  1380.  
  1381. Find this resource:
  1382.  
  1383. Islam and Gender
  1384. Works on Islam and gender included here contain a variety of types of writings. Maudūdi 1998 is an example of an approach to women’s rights that has been described as more traditional or conservative. In an effort to counteract such approaches, Abou El Fadl 2001 takes a modern juridical approach, as does the Tunisian al-Talbi, who emphasizes contextualizing readings of women’s rights in the Qurʾan (al-Talbi 1996). Similarly, Amina Wadud, inspired by the thought of Fazlur Rahman, undertakes a holistic reading of the Qurʾan (Wadud 1999). Other genres include Amin’s political tract (Amin 2000), which advocates a particular type of liberation for women in colonial Egypt and Bhutto’s defense of women’s involvement in politics (Bhutto 1998); Halide Edib’s first person narrative (Edib 2005); and Metcalf’s historical analysis of women’s involvement in politics in colonial India (Metcalf 2011).
  1385.  
  1386. Abou El Fadl, Khaled. Speaking in God’s Name: Islamic Law, Authority, and Women. Oxford: Oneworld, 2001.
  1387.  
  1388. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1389.  
  1390. Examines the complexity of Islamic jurisprudence regarding women and gender, and suggests that many laws that control women have been misinterpreted.
  1391.  
  1392. Find this resource:
  1393.  
  1394. Amin, Qasim. The Liberation of Women and the New Woman: Two Documents in the History of Egyptian Feminism. Translated by Samia Sidhom Petersen. Cairo, Egypt: American University of Cairo Press, 2000.
  1395.  
  1396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1397.  
  1398. The Egyptian lawyer Qasim Amin (b. 1863–d. 1908) espouses the liberation of Egyptian women by calling on them to unveil and to be educated. Amin’s views entangled the question of women’s rights in the struggle against colonialism.
  1399.  
  1400. Find this resource:
  1401.  
  1402. Badran, Margot. Gender and Islam in Africa: Rights, Sexuality, and Law. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
  1403.  
  1404. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1405.  
  1406. Addresses the ways in which Muslim African women are interpreting Islamic concepts. Badran argues that from the 19th century up to today, African women have promoted equality, human rights, and democracy within the framework of Islamic thought.
  1407.  
  1408. Find this resource:
  1409.  
  1410. Bhutto, Benazir. “Politics and the Muslim Woman.” In Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook. Edited by Charles Kurzman, 107–111. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
  1411.  
  1412. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1413.  
  1414. In this speech, Benazir Bhutto (b. 1953–d. 2007), twice prime minister of Pakistan (1988–1990 and 1993–1996), critiques the assumption that Islamic law holds that women are incapable of leadership.
  1415.  
  1416. Find this resource:
  1417.  
  1418. Edib, Halidé Adivar. Memoirs of Halide Edib. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias, 2005.
  1419.  
  1420. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1421.  
  1422. Halidé Adivar Edib (1882–1964) was a political activist in Turkey’s fight for independence and a firm critic of women’s status. Her memoirs bridge the late Ottoman period and the early Turkish state and emphasize the central role of women in fighting for Turkish independence.
  1423.  
  1424. Find this resource:
  1425.  
  1426. Maudūdi, Abu Al-ʿAla. Purdah and the Status of Woman in Islam. Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publications, 1998.
  1427.  
  1428. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1429.  
  1430. Originally published in Urdu in 1939, the Pakistan Muslim theologian Maududi (b. 1903–d. 1979) presents his view of the correct relationship between men and women in social life, and critiques the moral concepts underlying the social system in the West.
  1431.  
  1432. Find this resource:
  1433.  
  1434. Metcalf, Barbara. “Islam and Power in Colonial India: The Making and Unmaking of a Muslim Princess.” American Historical Review 116.1 (February 2011): 1–30.
  1435.  
  1436. DOI: 10.1086/ahr.116.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1437.  
  1438. Discusses British support for women rulers (particularly Nawab Shah Begum, 1838–1901) in the colonial state of Bhopal, and how the question of women’s authority got caught up in questions of colonial rule and Islamic reformism.
  1439.  
  1440. Find this resource:
  1441.  
  1442. al-Talbi, Muhammad. Ummat al-Wasat: Al-Islām wa Tahaddiyāt al-Mu’āsira. Tunis, Tunisia: Ceres Editions, 1996.
  1443.  
  1444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1445.  
  1446. Muhammad al-Talbi is a contemporary Tunisian historian of North Africa who is concerned with interreligious dialogue. The work contains a discussion of religious freedom and of Qurʾan 4:34, sometimes referred to as the “hitting verse.”
  1447.  
  1448. Find this resource:
  1449.  
  1450. Wadud, Amina. Qurʾan and Woman. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  1451.  
  1452. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1453.  
  1454. Employing a “holistic” approach to reading the Qurʾan, with a particular emphasis on its historical context, the American scholar of Islam Amina Wadud (b. 1952) argues that the Qurʾan has the potential to be a force for women’s empowerment.
  1455.  
  1456. Find this resource:
  1457.  
  1458. War, Rebellion, and Military Jihad
  1459. Khadduri 1962 provides a historical and juridical overview focusing on a theoretical approach to war, peace and jihad. Al-Qaradawi 2009 is by an author whose popularity might mean that he represents the most mainstream position on the topic of jihad. Peters 1996 contains a mixture of sources on jihad, including premodern texts on jihad and modern texts such as one on Ottoman jihad and one on the thought of Shaykh Mahmud Shaltut. Kepel 2003 and Sivan 1990 look at the origins of the military jihadism and political rebellion that characterized political Islam in the 1970s. Qutb 2007 is a translation of the author’s magnum opus, and is vital for understanding the shift to radicalism that occurred in the 1960s. ʿAbd al-Salam Faraj 1986 is an important primary source for the thought of the group that assassinated Sadat in 1981. Lawrence 2005 is a source for the thought of Osama Bin Laden, whose ideological genealogy can be traced back to Faraj.
  1460.  
  1461. ʿAbd al-Salam Faraj, Muhammad. “The Neglected Duty (Al-Farīda Al-Ghā’iba).” In The Neglected Duty: the Creed of Sadat’s Assassins and Islamic Resurgence in the Middle East. Edited by Johannes J. G. Jansen, 159–230. London: Macmillan, 1986.
  1462.  
  1463. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1464.  
  1465. Abd al-Salam Faraj’s views on jihad, which inspired the assassination of Sadat in 1981 and subsequent attempted Islamic revolution. Faraj makes frequent references to the thought of Ibn Taymiyya.
  1466.  
  1467. Find this resource:
  1468.  
  1469. Jad al-Haq, Jad al-Haq Ali. “Kuta’ib al-Farīda al-Ghā’iba wa al-Rad ‛Alayhi.” al-Fatāwā al-Islāmiyya 10.31 (1983): 3726–3761.
  1470.  
  1471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1472.  
  1473. A refutation of the Islamist group that assassinated Sadat, from the then Mufti and subsequent Shaykh of al-Azhar.
  1474.  
  1475. Find this resource:
  1476.  
  1477. Kepel, Gilles. Muslim Extremism in Egypt: The Prophet and Pharaoh. With a New Preface. Translated by Jon Rothschild. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
  1478.  
  1479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1480.  
  1481. Originally published in 1985; charts the development of Islamist thought in 1970s Egypt and situates that thought within its social and political context.
  1482.  
  1483. Find this resource:
  1484.  
  1485. Khadduri, Majid. War and Peace in the Law of Islam. Baltimore: John Hopkins, 1962.
  1486.  
  1487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1488.  
  1489. Khadduri analyzes classical Islamic doctrine concerning war and peace and its adaptation to modern conditions.
  1490.  
  1491. Find this resource:
  1492.  
  1493. Lawrence, Bruce, ed. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. London and New York: Verso, 2005.
  1494.  
  1495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1496.  
  1497. Annotated and with an introduction by Bruce Lawrence, contains twenty-four translated public statements by Osama Bin Laden.
  1498.  
  1499. Find this resource:
  1500.  
  1501. Peters, Rudolph. Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader. Princeton: Markus Wiener, 1996.
  1502.  
  1503. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1504.  
  1505. Contains six translations of Arabic texts (including Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyya, an Ottoman fatwa, and Mahmud Shaltut) and two of the author’s own articles.
  1506.  
  1507. Find this resource:
  1508.  
  1509. al-Qaradawi, Yusuf. Fiqh al-Jihād: Dirāsa Muqārana L-Ihkāmihi wa Falsafatihi fī Dau’i al-Qurʾān wa al-Sunna. 2 vols. Cairo, Egypt: Maktaba Wahba, 2009.
  1510.  
  1511. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1512.  
  1513. Yusuf al-Qaradawi, one of the contemporary Islamic world’s most important and popular thinkers, on jihad.
  1514.  
  1515. Find this resource:
  1516.  
  1517. Qutb, Seyyid. Milestones. Chicago: Kazi, 2007.
  1518.  
  1519. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1520.  
  1521. Text for Sayyid Qutb’s (b. 1906–d. 1966) later—and so influential—radical thought. Includes his discussion of jihad, and concepts of al-hakimiyya (sovereignty) and al-Jahiliyya (the age/state of ignorance).
  1522.  
  1523. Find this resource:
  1524.  
  1525. Sivan, Emmanuel. Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990.
  1526.  
  1527. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1528.  
  1529. Originally published in 1985; focuses on the development of Sunni political Islam in the 1970s and 1980s and argues for concept of the “conservative periphery.”
  1530.  
  1531. Find this resource:
  1532.  
  1533. Islam and the Economy
  1534. Abu Yusuf 1933 is an early classical text on Islamic law, taxation, and the economy. al-Ghazali 2006a and al-Ghazali 2006b are two useful primary source books not only on the socialist leanings of the early Muslim Brotherhood, but also for socialism in the Arab world in general shortly after the Second World War. Kuran 1989 is an overview of the concept of economic justice in Islamic thinking, and Tripp 2006 is a work on modern Islamic thinking on capitalism. Shariʾati 2005 takes a socialist and critical view of the West. Ermis 2013 looks at Ottoman economic thought.
  1535.  
  1536. Abu Yusuf, Yaʿqub. Kitāb al-Kharāj. Cairo, Egypt: al-Matbaʿah al-Salafiyah, 1933.
  1537.  
  1538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1539.  
  1540. Abu Yusuf (b. 732–d. 798), a Muslim jurist of the Hanafi school of law, discusses land value, taxation, the fiscal patterns of the state, and the Abbasid caliphate. This was written at the behest of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rasid (r. 786–809).
  1541.  
  1542. Find this resource:
  1543.  
  1544. Ermis, Faith. A History of Ottoman Economic Thought: Developments before the 19th century. London: Routledge, 2013.
  1545.  
  1546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1547.  
  1548. Examines economic thinking in the context of religion and politics in the classical period and addresses the question of whether economic thinking is possible in a noncapitalist society.
  1549.  
  1550. Find this resource:
  1551.  
  1552. al-Ghazali, Muhammad. Al-Islām al-Muftarā ‛Alayhi Bayn al-Shuyū‛iyīn wa al-Ra’smāliīn. 7th ed. Cairo, Egypt: Nahdat Misr, 2006a.
  1553.  
  1554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1555.  
  1556. Originally published shortly before the 1952 revolution, this is a source for the early political thought of the famous preacher and former Muslim Brotherhood member Muhammad al-Ghazali.
  1557.  
  1558. Find this resource:
  1559.  
  1560. al-Ghazali, Muhammad. Al-Islām wa al-Awdā’ al-Iqtisādiyya. 3d ed. Cairo, Egypt: Nahdat Misr, 2006b.
  1561.  
  1562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1563.  
  1564. Originally published in 1947, this is a source for the early socialist thought of Muhammad al-Ghazali, who at the time was a member of the Muslim Brotherhood.
  1565.  
  1566. Find this resource:
  1567.  
  1568. Kuran, Timur. “On the Notion of Economic Justice in Contemporary Islamic Thought.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 21 (1989): 171–191.
  1569.  
  1570. DOI: 10.1017/S002074380003227XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1571.  
  1572. Focuses on justice and conflict and on Islamic economics as a discipline.
  1573.  
  1574. Find this resource:
  1575.  
  1576. Shariʾati, Ali. What Is to Be Done. North Haledon, NJ: Islamic Publications International, 2005.
  1577.  
  1578. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1579.  
  1580. The Iranian thinker Ali Shariati (b. 1933–d. 1977) discusses social justice and social, political, and economic change.
  1581.  
  1582. Find this resource:
  1583.  
  1584. Tripp, Charles. Islam and the Moral Economy: The Challenge of Capitalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  1585.  
  1586. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511617614Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1587.  
  1588. Analyzes modern Islamic thinking on capitalism, addressing Islamic socialism, economics, and Islamic banking.
  1589.  
  1590. Find this resource:
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