Hijaz

Introduction

The Hijaz (Hejaz, Hedjaz), the holy land of Islam, is a geographical region that comprises most of the western part of modern-day Saudi Arabia and is centered on the two holiest Muslim cities—Mecca (also Makka, Makkah) and Madina (Medina, al-Madinah). Mecca is where the Prophet Muhammad was born and raised and is the location of the Ka’ba, which is also associated with the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), while Madina is the location of the first Muslim state and the burial site of Muhammad. God’s revelations to the Prophet Muhammad, the origins of Islam as a faith, and many of the institutions and customs associated with Islam such as the pilgrimage to Mecca are all associated historically with the Hijaz and its two holy cities. As a result, the Hijaz has been highly influential throughout the Muslim world, particularly in the 7th century and then again much later, following the development of Saudi Arabia’s vast oil resources in the 20th century. Inside western Arabia, Islam has played a predominant role in politics, society, and the economy. Briefly in the early 19th century and then from the 1920s onward, the Hijaz has been ruled by the Saudi royal family and its allies the Wahhabi ulama (religious scholars). Scholarship on the Hijaz has been influenced by the religious sensitivity and controversial nature of certain topics; Muslim and non-Muslim authors have often differed sharply in approaches and conclusions. Difficulty in gaining access to sources has limited scholarly research, while many fine Arabic-language works could not be consulted by readers who did not know Arabic. Unfortunately, the few studies of this region based on the social sciences are generally not very sophisticated from a methodological standpoint. The strongest research has been historical in nature, though the widespread interest in women’s history with regard to other Muslim regions has only very recently started to develop for the Hijaz.

General Overviews

Most general overviews of Islam and the Hijaz end with the Saudi conquest in the 1920s, probably because of perceived political sensitivity in discussing more recent times. Also, overviews tend to deal with studies of just one of the three major cities (Mecca, Madina, and Jidda), rather than the whole geographical area. An exception to this general rule is Peters 1994, which, despite its title, does deal with the whole region, but only to the 1920s. For Mecca, political history is covered by De Gaury 1951, though this book did not devote much space to religion; a better introduction is Watt, et al. 1991. Al-Sibaʿi 1999 is the standard Arabic-language work on the history of Mecca, including religion. For a book-length treatment of Madina, Hafiz 1972–1973 is adequate, though the shorter introduction provided in Watt and Winder 1986 is more critical and covers most of the Saudi period since the 1920s. Rutter 1928 can be used both for Mecca and Madina. For the early Islamic period, the best source for the advanced reader is al-Tabari 1985–1999. For a general overview of Saudi Arabia see al-Rasheed 2010, cited under The Saudi Hijaz to 1953, while for Wahhabi Islam the best beginning point is Commins 2006, an excellent synthesis; the more advanced reader should then consult the scholarly work of Natana J. DeLong-Bas cited in the Oxford Bibliographies article Wahhabism.

Commins, David. The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I. B. Tauris, 2006.
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Centers on Wahhabism from the 18th century to the early 21st century but also discusses challenges to it.
Commins, David. The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia. London: I. B. Tauris, 2006.
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De Gaury, Gerald. Rulers of Mecca. London: George G. Harrap, 1951.
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Traces the political history of the Hashimite family from the founding of Mecca to 1925, when the sharifs lost power to the Saudis. Although long out of print, English-language readers researching the subject of the relationship between religion and politics for this extensive time period will find much of interest in De Gaury’s somewhat dry overview.
De Gaury, Gerald. Rulers of Mecca. London: George G. Harrap, 1951.
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Hafiz, ʿAbd al-Salam Hashim. Al-Madinah al-Munawwarah fi al-Ta’rikh. Cairo: Dar al-Turath, 1972–1973.
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The best beginning point for Arabic-language readers seeking an overview of the history of the city of Madina.
Hafiz, ʿAbd al-Salam Hashim. Al-Madinah al-Munawwarah fi al-Ta’rikh. Cairo: Dar al-Turath, 1972–1973.
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Peters, F. E. Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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In this and numerous other works the author has laced together excerpts from original sources with his own commentary to provide the reader with a thorough picture of events. This volume covers not just Mecca but also Madina and the Hijaz from the pre-Islamic period to 1925, when the Hashimites were evicted from the Hijaz by Saudi armies.
Peters, F. E. Mecca: A Literary History of the Muslim Holy Land. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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Rutter, Eldon. The Holy Cities of Arabia. 2 vols. London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1928.
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An extensive report on the cities of Mecca and Madina as of the 1920s—their conditions, the impact of the pilgrimage, and the role of religion in society.
Rutter, Eldon. The Holy Cities of Arabia. 2 vols. London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1928.
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al-Sibaʿi, Ahmad bin Muhammad. Ta’rikh Makkah: Dirasat fi al-Siyasah wa al-ʿIlm wa al-Ijtimaʿ wa al-ʿUmran. 2 vols. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Committee for the Celebration of the 100 Years Anniversary of the Foundation of the Kingdom, 1999.
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Ends with the fall of Jidda to the Saudis in the 1920s. This often-cited work’s fourth edition was edited by ʿAtiq bin Ghayth al-Biladi, and this reprint was also examined by a committee of scholars. Al-Sibaʿi (b. 1905–d. 1983 or 1984) was a Hijazi journalist and historian.
al-Sibaʿi, Ahmad bin Muhammad. Ta’rikh Makkah: Dirasat fi al-Siyasah wa al-ʿIlm wa al-Ijtimaʿ wa al-ʿUmran. 2 vols. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Committee for the Celebration of the 100 Years Anniversary of the Foundation of the Kingdom, 1999.
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al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of al-Tabari. Vols. 1–39. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985–1999.
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The famous Muslim historian al-Tabari (b. 838–d. 923) wrote a monumental history in Arabic that served as a key source for subsequent historians. Translated into English by many different scholars, this chronicle is best used by already-knowledgeable readers. There is much discussion of the Hijaz, including Volumes 6 and 7 on the Prophet Muhammad and Volumes 8 and 9 on the early Muslim state.
al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir. The History of al-Tabari. Vols. 1–39. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985–1999.
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Watt, W. M., A. J. Wensinck, C. E. Bosworth, and R. B. Winder. “Makka.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 6. Rev. ed. Edited by C. E. Bosworth, 144–180. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1991.
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This is the best English-language introduction to the history of the city of Mecca for those seeking detailed analysis. The article includes Watt’s discussion of pre-Islam and early Islam, Wensinck and Bosworth’s examination of the Abbasid era to modern times, and Winder’s account of the modern city.
Watt, W. M., A. J. Wensinck, C. E. Bosworth, and R. B. Winder. “Makka.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 6. Rev. ed. Edited by C. E. Bosworth, 144–180. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1991.
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Watt, W. M., and R. B. Winder. “al-Madina.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 5. Rev. ed. Edited by C. E. Bosworth, 994–1007. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1986.
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A very detailed discussion of the history of Madina to 1926 was written by W. M. Watt, while R. B. Winder dealt with the modern history of the city. The article’s bibliographical citations are extremely useful.
Watt, W. M., and R. B. Winder. “al-Madina.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 5. Rev. ed. Edited by C. E. Bosworth, 994–1007. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1986.
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Reference Works and Sources

Reference materials vary chiefly according to the time period under consideration. For the early period of Islam in the Hijaz, Kennedy 2004 is the best beginning point, including bibliographic items cited therein. Arabic-language local chronicles are essential for advanced research; Wüstenfeld 1981 is one example. Although archaeological evidence has been mostly lacking in the Hijaz because of religious sensibilities, el-Hawary and Wiet 1985 does provide some information. Al-Ansari 1982 represents the genre of all-inclusive local studies found in many parts of the world; while not critical or theoretical in nature, this book does include a mine of material for the reader of Arabic. For the 19th and 20th centuries, two British government publications (Hogarth 1978 and UK Naval Intelligence Division 2005) are useful for general background information, though they contain relatively little on Islam. Saudi newspapers published in the Hijaz routinely reported religious and pilgrimage news and often included essays on religion. Among these newspapers, Umm al-Qura (Mecca) is most useful for the period of the 1920s to the 1940s; thereafter, several other local newspapers are more informative. Online resources include the catalogue of the King Fahad National Library in Riyadh, which includes a multitude of books that cover Islam in the Hijaz.

al-Ansari, ʿAbd al-Quddus. Mawsu’at Ta’rikh Madinah Jiddah. 3d ed. Vol. 1. Cairo: Dar Misr li al-Tiba’ah, 1982.
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Al-Ansari, who wrote many other items on the Hijaz, added a lot of material for the third edition of this book on Jidda, which covers a multitude of subjects including geography, history, health, water, education, social customs, rulers, judges, ulama, printing, writers, and even local fish in the Red Sea near Jidda.
al-Ansari, ʿAbd al-Quddus. Mawsu’at Ta’rikh Madinah Jiddah. 3d ed. Vol. 1. Cairo: Dar Misr li al-Tiba’ah, 1982.
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el-Hawary, Hassan Mohammed, and Gaston Wiet. Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptiorum Arabicarum. Part 4: Arabie: Inscriptions et Monuments de la Mecque, Haram et Kaʿba. Vol. 1. Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1985.
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Includes extensive quotations from sources other than inscriptions; it is useful for the period up to the beginning of Ottoman rule.
el-Hawary, Hassan Mohammed, and Gaston Wiet. Matériaux pour un Corpus Inscriptiorum Arabicarum. Part 4: Arabie: Inscriptions et Monuments de la Mecque, Haram et Kaʿba. Vol. 1. Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1985.
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Hogarth, David George. Hejaz before World War I: A Handbook. Cambridge, UK: Falcon-Oleander, 1978.
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Originally compiled by the British government to use in fighting the Ottoman forces in the Hijaz during World War I, this version includes a new introduction by Robin Bidwell. The book first appeared with the title Handbook of Hejaz, with the second edition appearing in Cairo in 1917.
Hogarth, David George. Hejaz before World War I: A Handbook. Cambridge, UK: Falcon-Oleander, 1978.
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Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Centuries. 2d ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman, 2004.
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While the author concentrates on political and economic matters, he nevertheless provides useful information on the Hijaz and religion in the pre-Islamic era, the birth of Islamic society, and the first four caliphs. The essay on sources (pp. 346–384) should be of considerable use to readers.
Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Centuries. 2d ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Longman, 2004.
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King Fahad National Library. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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This library’s website can be searched using both English and Arabic languages. It is particularly useful to the advanced researcher for its listing of unpublished dissertations and books issued in Saudi Arabia that are often not catalogued elsewhere. The library itself has obtained copies of Ottoman documents and has purchased R. B. Winder’s collection of books.
King Fahad National Library. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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UK Naval Intelligence Division. Western Arabia and the Red Sea. New York: Kegan Paul, 2005.
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A lengthy reference work originally compiled by various British sources for use in World War II. The original edition was published in London by the British government in 1946.
UK Naval Intelligence Division. Western Arabia and the Red Sea. New York: Kegan Paul, 2005.
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Umm al-Qura. 12 December 1924–.
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The first official newspaper of Saudi Arabia began publication in Mecca in Arabic just after the Saudis gained power there and has been in print ever since. This and other Saudi newspapers later published in the Hijaz contain a great deal of information about the pilgrimage in particular and religion in general.
Umm al-Qura. 12 December 1924–.
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Wüstenfeld, Ferdinand. Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka. 4 vols. Hildesheim, Germany, and New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1981.
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The German Orientalist Wüstenfeld carefully compared extant manuscripts written by five medieval Islamic historians, resulting in critical editions of their histories of the city of Mecca presented in the first three volumes of this work. The fourth volume consists of Wüstenfeld’s translation into German. Advanced researchers interested in the early and medieval religious history of Mecca will find this work, originally published between 1857 and 1861, to be of great value.
Wüstenfeld, Ferdinand. Die Chroniken der Stadt Mekka. 4 vols. Hildesheim, Germany, and New York: Georg Olms Verlag, 1981.
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Geography

The Hijaz, a region generally barren of agriculture, comprises most of the western part of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The geography, natural resources, and built environment of the Hijaz have played a substantial role in the formation and development of Islam in the region and in the world. Nomadic tribes were quite important in earlier Hijazi history, though Islam began in towns and was usually dominated by urban elites. Information on Hijazi tribes can be found in al-Biladi 1983, a more comprehensive work than Scoville 1995. The two holy cities of Mecca and Madina are illustrated in historical photos found in el-Hage 1997 and, for more recent times, Nomachi and Nasr 1997. Current images and maps of the cities are now also available online through Google Earth. Two general sources of information that cover Saudi Arabia, but include sections on the Hijaz, are Bindagji 1978 and Farsi 1989, while a study of only the Hijaz region can be found in al-Sayyid Rajab 1979.

al-Biladi, ʿAtiq ibn Ghayth. Mu’jam Qaba’il al-Hijaz. 2d ed. 3 vols. Mecca, Saudi Arabia: Dar Makkah li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 1983.
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Includes tribes from pre-Islamic times to the 20th century. Especially useful for identifying the geographic origins of individuals and groups.
al-Biladi, ʿAtiq ibn Ghayth. Mu’jam Qaba’il al-Hijaz. 2d ed. 3 vols. Mecca, Saudi Arabia: Dar Makkah li al-Nashr wa al-Tawzi’, 1983.
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Bindagji, Hussein Hamza. Atlas of Saudi Arabia. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978.
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Maps and discussion of administrative divisions, social barometers, tribal groupings, economic factors, and sections on major cities of the entire kingdom, including the Hijaz.
Bindagji, Hussein Hamza. Atlas of Saudi Arabia. 3d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978.
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Farsi, Zaki M. A. National Guide and Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Maps, Information, Statistics. Jidda, Saudi Arabia: al-Madina, 1989.
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This work features information and maps regarding the history, natural features, culture, society, and economy of the various Saudi provinces, including the Hijaz.
Farsi, Zaki M. A. National Guide and Atlas of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Maps, Information, Statistics. Jidda, Saudi Arabia: al-Madina, 1989.
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Google Earth.
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Many graphic single photos taken by individuals in the three chief cities of the Hijaz are matched by satellite maps (provided in many cases by the US Geological Survey). Current geography can be adjusted to show earlier times in the 21st century. Identifying captions on photographs are chiefly in English, Arabic, and Turkish. Terms for listings: Jeddah, Makkah, Medina.
Google Earth.
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el-Hage, Badr. Saudi Arabia: Caught in Time, 1861–1939. Reading, UK: Garnet, 1997.
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See especially chapters 1 and 2 on the earliest photographs of the Hijaz for vivid images of the pilgrimage and the holy places of Islam.
el-Hage, Badr. Saudi Arabia: Caught in Time, 1861–1939. Reading, UK: Garnet, 1997.
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Nomachi, Ali Kazuyoshi, and Sayyed Hossein Nasr. Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam. New York: Aperture, 1997.
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The beautiful photographs featuring mostly Mecca and Madina were taken by Nomachi, while the renowned Iranian scholar Nasr has written a short essay on the sacred history of the two cities.
Nomachi, Ali Kazuyoshi, and Sayyed Hossein Nasr. Mecca the Blessed, Medina the Radiant: The Holiest Cities of Islam. New York: Aperture, 1997.
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al-Sayyid Rajab, ʿUmar al-Faruq. Al-Hijaz: Al-Mintaqah al-Gharbiyyah min al-Mamlakah al-’Arabiyyah al-Sa’udiyyah. Jidda, Saudi Arabia: Dar al-Sharuq, 1979.
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This geographical study discusses the land, inhabitants, and ecology of the Hijaz.
al-Sayyid Rajab, ʿUmar al-Faruq. Al-Hijaz: Al-Mintaqah al-Gharbiyyah min al-Mamlakah al-’Arabiyyah al-Sa’udiyyah. Jidda, Saudi Arabia: Dar al-Sharuq, 1979.
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Scoville, Sheila A., ed. Gazetteer of Arabia: A Geographical and Tribal History of the Arabian Peninsula. Graz, Austria: Adeva, 1995.
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While based on a British government study of 1917, Scoville considerably expanded the original study and revised much of its information to cover developments up to the 1970s. While four volumes were planned, apparently only two have been published so far—Volume 1 (A–E), Volume 2 (F–H).
Scoville, Sheila A., ed. Gazetteer of Arabia: A Geographical and Tribal History of the Arabian Peninsula. Graz, Austria: Adeva, 1995.
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Pre-Islam

The influence of the pre-Islamic Hijaz before 610 on the formation of Islam is extremely controversial, with many non-Muslim scholars arguing that it was substantial, while most Muslims have disagreed with that position. A useful summary of the general view of most Western scholars may be found in Shahid 1970. A more current evaluation, but one that centers on the whole Arabian Peninsula rather than just the Hijaz, is Hoyland 2001. The reader in search of detailed analysis should consult Peters 1998. Some non-Muslim scholars argue that the entire record of early pre-Islamic and Islamic history has been misunderstood and needs to be radically revised, as can be seen in Crone and Cook 1977 and Nevo and Koren 1990, but Muslim scholars are vehemently opposed to such interpretations. Currently, most non-Muslim scholars such as Newby (Newby 1988) and Heck (Heck 2003) seem both to reject the chief contentions of the radical revisionists while also acknowledging the need for greater care in evaluating scanty sources.

Crone, Patricia, and Michael Cook. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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This influential revisionist work argues that the basic framework of early Islamic history in the Hijaz should be rejected as based on biased and flimsy sources. Instead, the authors argue, non-Muslim sources should be employed. Most Muslim and non-Muslim scholars have ultimately rejected the radically different picture of early Islamic history that then emerged. The book is most useful for advanced students and scholars.
Crone, Patricia, and Michael Cook. Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
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Heck, Gene W. “Arabia without Spices: An Alternate Hypothesis.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 123.3 (2003): 547–576.
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According to the author the commercial environment of Mecca was not as rich as had been assumed by earlier writers, but a considerable trade inside Arabia of bulky items (not spices) did take place. This vibrant economy therefore influenced the social milieu in which the Prophet Muhammad lived and in which Islam developed.
Heck, Gene W. “Arabia without Spices: An Alternate Hypothesis.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 123.3 (2003): 547–576.
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Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs from the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001.
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Hoyland has provided a concise introduction to the political, religious, economic, cultural, and social history of the entire Arabian Peninsula before Islam. Chapter 3 on north and central Arabia and chapter 6 on religion are particularly useful. While the author does not concentrate on the Hijaz, he does paint a broad picture of the region, especially notable for its inclusion of archaeological evidence.
Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs from the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001.
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Nevo, Jehuda D., and Judith Koren. “The Origins of the Muslim Descriptions of the Jahili Meccan Sanctuary.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49.1 (1990): 23–44.
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The contention in this detailed article is that cults ascribed to Mecca actually originated in the Negev desert. Therefore, the authors claim, Muslim authors fabricated the stories associated with the Ka’ba in Mecca. Nevo and Koren subscribe to the revisionist approach advanced in Crone and Cook 1977; this article may be seen as a further elucidation of Crone and Crook’s controversial approach.
Nevo, Jehuda D., and Judith Koren. “The Origins of the Muslim Descriptions of the Jahili Meccan Sanctuary.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 49.1 (1990): 23–44.
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Newby, Gordon Darnell. A History of the Jews of Arabia: From Ancient Times to Their Eclipse under Islam. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
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A sensitive and balanced approach to a contentious topic. The author tries to move beyond polemics, while taking account both of traditional Muslim historiography and the revisionist approach espoused by Patricia Crone and others. Chapter 8 on sources is especially valuable.
Newby, Gordon Darnell. A History of the Jews of Arabia: From Ancient Times to Their Eclipse under Islam. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1988.
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Peters, F. E., ed. The Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum, 1998.
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The eighteen articles originally printed in a variety of journals and books and now collected in this volume were first printed between 1954 and 1993. Their chief theme is religion, along with discussions of tribes and nomadism. Some of the best scholars in the generation before the revisionists are well represented.
Peters, F. E., ed. The Arabs and Arabia on the Eve of Islam. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Variorum, 1998.
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Shahid, Irfan. “Pre-Islamic Arabia.” In The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1, The Central Islamic Lands. Edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, 3–29. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521219471Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The preeminent scholar of pre-Islamic Arabia is presented here in this historical sketch and in more detail elsewhere in a series of monographs with a general account of the subject, including discussions of northern and southern Arabia, the classical Arabic language, and the religious role of Mecca between the influence of Jews located in Yathrib and Christians living in Najran.
Shahid, Irfan. “Pre-Islamic Arabia.” In The Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1, The Central Islamic Lands. Edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis, 3–29. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1970.
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Muhammad the Prophet

Muhammad (also spelled Mohammed, Mahomet, etc.) was born in Mecca around 570 and died in Madina in 622; he lived almost his entire life in the Hijaz. According to Muslim belief, Muhammad was the last and greatest of the prophets who were sent revelations by God. Haykal 1976 is perhaps the best beginning point for a Muslim reader; those more knowledgeable about the life of the Prophet Muhammad should turn to Ibn Ishaq 1968. Watt 1961 is still the standard English-language account written by a non-Muslim, while Rodinson 1971 and Cook 1983 offer critical accounts, though written from different perspectives. Muslims and non-Muslims alike will find much of value in Peters 1994, which provides numerous translated original readings, along with an excellent appendix on the interpretation of controversial sources. Akkad 2005 is a sensitive film on the origins of Islam.

Akkad, Moustapha, dir. The Message: The Story of Islam, 1976. DVD. Troy, MI: Anchor Bay Entertainment, 2005.
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In keeping with Muslim custom, the Prophet Muhammad, his wives and children, and his first four successors are not shown in the film, but his other early followers are presented. The origins of Islam and its development are vividly portrayed. Separate versions of the film with different casts were made in English and in Arabic; neither version was in the Hijaz.
Akkad, Moustapha, dir. The Message: The Story of Islam, 1976. DVD. Troy, MI: Anchor Bay Entertainment, 2005.
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Cook, Michael. Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
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A simply written and short account of the life of the Prophet that emphasizes monotheism, analyzes key concepts in the Qurʿan, and adopts a critical approach toward sources.
Cook, Michael. Muhammad. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983.
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Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. The Life of Muhammad. 8th ed. Translated by Ismail al Faruqi. Philadelphia: North American Trust, 1976.
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Haykal’s Life of Muhammad is perhaps the most widely consulted modern biography of the Prophet in the Muslim world. It is available in many editions and printings.
Haykal, Muhammad Husayn. The Life of Muhammad. 8th ed. Translated by Ismail al Faruqi. Philadelphia: North American Trust, 1976.
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Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah. Edited by Abd al-Malik Ibn Hisham and translated by A. Guillaume. Oxford and Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1968.
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Ibn Ishaq was born in Madina c. 705. His work, as later edited by Ibn Hisham, is the earliest known biography of Muhammad. This is the key source for most subsequent biographies and an invaluable resource for all researchers.
Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad. The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq’s Sirat Rasul Allah. Edited by Abd al-Malik Ibn Hisham and translated by A. Guillaume. Oxford and Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1968.
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Peters, F. E. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
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As in his numerous other publications, Peters provides very extensive quotations from original sources in translation. Beginning with the Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), the author traces the origins of Islam in the Hijaz, presents the life of the Prophet Muhammad, and includes a valuable discussion of sources in an appendix on the quest for the historical Muhammad.
Peters, F. E. Muhammad and the Origins of Islam. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
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Rodinson, Maxime. Muhammad. Translated by Anne Carter. New York: Pantheon, 1971.
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In this narrative account, discusses the social influences and milieu that influenced the Prophet. This printing is a translation from the second French edition.
Rodinson, Maxime. Muhammad. Translated by Anne Carter. New York: Pantheon, 1971.
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Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. London: Oxford University Press, 1961.
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Despite its age, this book is probably the best beginning point for English-language readers. Since the author condensed two earlier works on Muhammad into the present volume, those interested in more details should consult those books and Ibn Ishaq 1968.
Watt, W. Montgomery. Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman. London: Oxford University Press, 1961.
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From the Rashidun Caliphs to the Mamluks

After the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, the Rashidun or four rightly guided caliphs (successors) led the Muslim community mostly from the Hijaz, but from 661 onward, political power clearly shifted to other geographic areas. A good overview of the whole period is provided in Landau-Tasseron 2010. The story of the Rashidun era is discussed in Dabashi 1989. The relatively short-lived Umayyad caliphate (661–750) ruled the Hijaz from Damascus but gave generous endowments to the holy cities of Mecca and Madina, including the reconstruction of the Prophet’s mosque and tomb (Sauvaget 1947). Hallaq 2005 indicates that the Hijaz, along with other regions, continued for centuries to be a center of religious life and thinking, helping give rise to Islamic law, while Kaptein 1992 shows how customs such as the celebration of the birthday of Muhammad took place in the area where he was born. The medieval Hijaz is relatively less studied than earlier or later times, but Mortel 1987 and Mortel 1994 cast light on this period, including the Mamluk era from 1250 to 1516, while Tolmacheva 1998 studies medieval Muslim women on the pilgrimage to the Hijaz. Advanced researchers will benefit from first consulting al-Hilah 1994 before reading the appropriate chronicles.

Dabashi, Hamid. Authority in Islam: From the Rise of Muhammad to the Establishment of the Umayyads. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989.
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In analyzing the life of the Prophet Muhammad and his four immediate successors in the Hijaz and in Iraq until 661, Dabashi adopts an approach based upon the sociologist Max Weber and sympathetic to Shiʿi Islam.
Dabashi, Hamid. Authority in Islam: From the Rise of Muhammad to the Establishment of the Umayyads. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989.
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Hallaq, Wael B. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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In this magisterial work the author adroitly summarizes a lifetime of scholarship on the Sharia, the holy law of Islam, and its evolution to about 950. Much of the book discusses matters taking place in the Hijaz. Hallaq writes about the pre-Islamic Middle East, the Prophet Muhammad, the Qurʿan, legal ethics, judges, reasoning, and legal schools.
Hallaq, Wael B. The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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al-Hilah, Muhammad al-Habib. Al-Ta’rikh wa al-Mu’arrikhun bi Makkah min al-Qarn al-Thalith al-Hijri ila al-Qarn al-Thalith ʿAshr. Mecca, Saudi Arabia: Al-Furqan li al-Turath al-Islami, 1994.
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This Arabic source intended for specialists contains bio-bibliographies of historians, beginning about 815 and continuing until about 1882, with only a few entries on 19th-century writers.
al-Hilah, Muhammad al-Habib. Al-Ta’rikh wa al-Mu’arrikhun bi Makkah min al-Qarn al-Thalith al-Hijri ila al-Qarn al-Thalith ʿAshr. Mecca, Saudi Arabia: Al-Furqan li al-Turath al-Islami, 1994.
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Kaptein, Nico. “Materials for the History of the Prophet Muhammad’s Birthday Celebration in Mecca.” Der Islam 69.2 (1992): 193–203.
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In the Hijaz, as in most parts of the Muslim world, the anniversary of the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday was cause for a major celebration. This article considers celebrations in Mecca up to the 16th century.
Kaptein, Nico. “Materials for the History of the Prophet Muhammad’s Birthday Celebration in Mecca.” Der Islam 69.2 (1992): 193–203.
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Landau-Tasseron, Ella. “Arabia.” In New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. Edited by Chase F. Robinson, 397–447. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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This overview of Arabia from the 6th to the 11th centuries includes a discussion of the Hijaz on pp. 398–413. While centered on political history, the chapter includes religious and cultural events. A detailed bibliography on pp. 742–747 will be useful to readers.
Landau-Tasseron, Ella. “Arabia.” In New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 1. Edited by Chase F. Robinson, 397–447. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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Mortel, Richard T. “Zaydi Shi’ism and the Hasanid Sharifs of Mecca.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 19.4 (1987): 455–472.
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743800056518Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This prolific author has written a series of valuable journal articles on the history of the Hijaz in the medieval period. This article traces the political history of the local rulers of Mecca and their Shi’i religious views, concentrating on the 11th through the 14th centuries.
Mortel, Richard T. “Zaydi Shi’ism and the Hasanid Sharifs of Mecca.” International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 19.4 (1987): 455–472.
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Mortel, Richard T. “The Husaynid Amirate of Madina during the Mamluk Period.” Studia Islamica 80 (1994): 97–123.
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Another in a series of important journal articles on the history of the Hijaz in the medieval period, this particular detailed study looks at the religious and political activities of the local rulers of Madina from about 1250 until about 1500.
Mortel, Richard T. “The Husaynid Amirate of Madina during the Mamluk Period.” Studia Islamica 80 (1994): 97–123.
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Sauvaget, Jean. La Mosquée Omeyyade de Médine: Étude sur les Origines architecturales de la Mosquée et de la Basilique. Paris: Vanoest, 1947.
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While originally built by the Prophet Muhammad, the mosque was later changed and rebuilt in 706–710 by the Umayyads of Damascus; the mosque was substantially altered by still-later dynasties. Sauvaget’s book is based on an extensive survey of written historical sources and includes comparisons with other Umayyad mosques.
Sauvaget, Jean. La Mosquée Omeyyade de Médine: Étude sur les Origines architecturales de la Mosquée et de la Basilique. Paris: Vanoest, 1947.
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Tolmacheva, Marina. “Female Piety and Patronage in the Medieval Hajj.” In Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety. Edited by Gavin R. G. Hambly, 161–179. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
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The author studies elite women on the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca, considering especially their charitable activities, their piety and emotions, and their status vis-à-vis male pilgrims.
Tolmacheva, Marina. “Female Piety and Patronage in the Medieval Hajj.” In Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety. Edited by Gavin R. G. Hambly, 161–179. New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
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Ottoman Empire

Thanks to the abundance of records in the Ottoman archives, the 1517 to 1916 period, when the Ottomans ruled the Hijaz, is relatively well understood, as can be seen in an excellent discussion found in Faroqhi 1994 (cited under Pilgrimage) and also in the three detailed studies of Sufism (Islamic mysticism) presented here: Copty 2003 and Le Gall 2005 for the early Ottoman centuries, and Voll 1980 for the middle era. For an overview of the 1517–1803 period, readers will find Haykel 2010 informative. Arabic-language chronicles continued to be an important source of information, but Ottoman official publications such as Sabri 1889 are also a major source of information. Ottoman efforts to reinforce dynastic legitimacy through tighter control of the Hijaz and more direct management of Islam in the holy cities in the 19th century are discussed in Ochsenwald 1984 and Kayali 1997. Ochsenwald 1980 points out that the Hijaz Railway, leading from Ottoman Syria to Madina with a planned extension to Mecca, was presented to the Muslim world as a means of making the pilgrimage easier, while the goal of sending Ottoman troops more quickly to the Hijaz was downplayed as a motive. Vivid descriptions of the role of Islam in the life of Mecca’s 19th-century inhabitants may be found in Hurgronje 1970, one of the numerous works on the Hijaz and the pilgrimage that were written by the Dutch scholar Hurgronje.

Copty, Atallah. “The Naqshbandiyya and Its Offshoot, the Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya in the Haramayn in the 11th/17th Century.” Die Welt des Islams 43.3 (2003): 321–348.
DOI: 10.1163/157006003322682645Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The author emphasizes the links between India and the Hijaz, in this very detailed study intended for the advanced researcher.
Copty, Atallah. “The Naqshbandiyya and Its Offshoot, the Naqshbandiyya-Mujaddidiyya in the Haramayn in the 11th/17th Century.” Die Welt des Islams 43.3 (2003): 321–348.
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Haykel, Bernard. “Western Arabia and Yemen during the Ottoman Period.” In New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2. Edited by Maribel Fierro, 436–449. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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In this overview Haykel considers the period 1517 to 1803 while emphasizing political and religious subjects, including institutional developments. The author explains the need to more critically evaluate sources and stresses factors linking together the Hijaz with Yemen. Readers should consult the full bibliography on pp. 770–773.
Haykel, Bernard. “Western Arabia and Yemen during the Ottoman Period.” In New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 2. Edited by Maribel Fierro, 436–449. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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Hurgronje, C. Snouck. Mekka in the Latter Part of the 19th Century. Translated by J. H. Monahan. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1970.
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The Dutch Orientalist Hurgronje wrote this entrancing study of Ottoman Mecca, including its religious life and the effects of the pilgrimage upon it. Originally published by Brill in 1931, the volume is a translation of the second volume of Hurgronje’s two-volume work on Mecca.
Hurgronje, C. Snouck. Mekka in the Latter Part of the 19th Century. Translated by J. H. Monahan. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1970.
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Kayali, Hasan. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
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Even though the 1916 Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire began in Mecca, Arabism was relatively weak there as compared to the strength of Islamic identity. This careful political study considers loyalties and identities in the Ottoman Empire as a whole and includes an important case study of the Hijaz.
Kayali, Hasan. Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
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Le Gall, Dina. A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the Ottoman World, 1450–1700. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005.
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See especially chapter 4 on Sufism in the Hijaz and Arabia. This impressive study reminds the reader of the importance of Sufism to Islam in the Hijaz before the advent of Saudi-Wahhabi control.
Le Gall, Dina. A Culture of Sufism: Naqshbandis in the Ottoman World, 1450–1700. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005.
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Ochsenwald, William. The Hijaz Railroad. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1980.
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Emphasizes the role of religion in the planning, construction, financing, and operations of the Ottoman-built Hijaz Railroad, which connected Damascus with Madina.
Ochsenwald, William. The Hijaz Railroad. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1980.
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Ochsenwald, William. Religion, Society, and the State in Arabia: The Hijaz under Ottoman Control, 1840–1908. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984.
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An account of the role of Islam in the Ottoman Hijaz, including the pilgrimage, law, education, public health, social organization, and politics. Also available in a translation into Arabic: Al-Din wa al-Mujtama’ wa al-Dawlah fi Jazirah al-’Arab: al-Hijaz taht al-Hukm al-’Uthmani, 1840–1908, translated by Abdulrahman Alorabi (Jidda, Saudi Arabia: Jami’ah al-Malik ‘Abd al-’Aziz, 2010).
Ochsenwald, William. Religion, Society, and the State in Arabia: The Hijaz under Ottoman Control, 1840–1908. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1984.
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Sabri, Eyub. Miratűlharemeyn. 3 vols. Istanbul: Bahriye Matbaası, 1889.
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This is an extraordinarily detailed study of the history of Mecca (Volume 1), Madina (Volume 2), and the Arabian Peninsula (Volume 3), written in Ottoman Turkish and published by the Ottoman Naval Press. Volume 3 has been translated into Arabic by A. F. Mitwalli and A. A. al-Mursi with the title Mir’at Jazirah al-’Arab (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Dar al-Riyad, 1983). All three volumes are a crucial resource for the advanced researcher.
Sabri, Eyub. Miratűlharemeyn. 3 vols. Istanbul: Bahriye Matbaası, 1889.
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Voll, John O. “Hadith Scholars and Tariqahs: An Ulama Group in the 18th Century Haramayn and Their Impact in the Islamic World.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 15.3–4 (1980): 264–273.
DOI: 10.1177/002190968001500306Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The importance of this journal article reaches far beyond the history of the Ottoman Hijaz to include the whole Islamic world. Shows the intellectual and organizational linkages that bound the Islamic world together.
Voll, John O. “Hadith Scholars and Tariqahs: An Ulama Group in the 18th Century Haramayn and Their Impact in the Islamic World.” Journal of Asian and African Studies 15.3–4 (1980): 264–273.
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Pilgrimage

For a chronological approach to the study of the Muslim pilgrimage to the holy places in Mecca and Madina, a physical and spiritual journey incumbent upon every Muslim capable of making the trip to the Hijaz, one should start with the Qurʿan as discussed in Hawting 2001–2006. The most informative overall historical account is Peters 1994, which for the early modern period should be read alongside Faroqhi 1994 and Pearson 1995, which deal, respectively, with the Ottoman overlords of the Hijaz and the pilgrimage from India. The best general study of the modern pilgrimage is Long 1979, although it is now somewhat dated. A genre of Islamic literature was the rihlah or account of a pilgrim’s journey to the Hijaz; non-Muslims who secretly entered Mecca in disguise also wrote accounts, with perhaps the most famous example being Burton 1964. Although Michael Wolfe and Robert Bianchi describe their own pilgrimages, their books are more useful in other ways—Wolfe 1997 for its historical accounts, and Bianchi 2004 for the organization of the pilgrimage in various Muslim countries. Piscatori 2005 examines the political ramifications of the pilgrimage for Saudi Arabia (see The Saudi Hijaz since 1953).

Bianchi, Robert. Guests of God: Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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The author includes the story of his own hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca as he talks about the history of the pilgrimage, but he concentrates on its contemporary role in world affairs. The center of this valuable book consists of national case studies of the organization of the pilgrimage in Pakistan, Malaysia, Turkey, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Bianchi’s work can be seen as a sequel to Long 1979.
Bianchi, Robert. Guests of God: Pilgrimage and Politics in the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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Burton, Richard F. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Meccah. New York: Dover, 1964.
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Burton, a non-Muslim English explorer, performed the pilgrimage in disguise. He subsequently wrote a lively account of Islamic rituals and the social circumstances of the two holy cities, originally published in London in 1855–1856.
Burton, Richard F. Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Meccah. New York: Dover, 1964.
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Faroqhi, Suraiya. Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans 1517–1683. London: I. B. Tauris, 1994.
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The single-best account of the pilgrimage to Mecca during the early Ottoman period, this book is based upon extensive use of the Ottoman archives in Istanbul.
Faroqhi, Suraiya. Pilgrims and Sultans: The Hajj under the Ottomans 1517–1683. London: I. B. Tauris, 1994.
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Hawting, Gerald. “Pilgrimage.” In Encyclopaedia of the Qurʿān. Vol. 4. Edited by Jane Damman McAuliffe, 91–100. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2001–2006.
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Hawting analyzes sections of the Qurʿan that pertain to the Muslim institution of the pilgrimage to Mecca.
Hawting, Gerald. “Pilgrimage.” In Encyclopaedia of the Qurʿān. Vol. 4. Edited by Jane Damman McAuliffe, 91–100. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2001–2006.
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Long, David Edwin. The Hajj Today: A Survey of the Contemporary Makkah Pilgrimage. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1979.
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Though somewhat out of date, Long’s book remains an excellent historical review and analysis of the pilgrimage and its effects on the Hijaz. For a more current version of some of these topics see Long and Maisel 2010 (cited under Pilgrimage). For a work that concentrates on the countries from which the pilgrims came, see Bianchi 2004.
Long, David Edwin. The Hajj Today: A Survey of the Contemporary Makkah Pilgrimage. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1979.
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Pearson, M. N. Pilgrimage to Mecca: The Indian Experience, 1600–1800. Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner, 1995.
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This work covers all aspects of the pilgrimage from India to Mecca, including transportation of the pilgrims. As interest in the history of trade in the Indian Ocean has grown recently, Pearson’s book has become increasingly useful as a resource.
Pearson, M. N. Pilgrimage to Mecca: The Indian Experience, 1600–1800. Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner, 1995.
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Peters, F. E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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This should be the first book consulted for the historical evolution of the pilgrimage. The author has linked together original sources in translation with his own commentary to present a graphic picture of the hajj up to about 1925. For more recent pilgrimages see Wolfe 1997.
Peters, F. E. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994.
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Wolfe, Michael, ed. One Thousand Roads to Mecca: Ten Centuries of Travelers Writing about the Muslim Pilgrimage. New York: Grove, 1997.
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The editor provides an introduction and useful explanatory notes for twenty-three accounts of the pilgrimage, ranging in time from 1050 to 1990, including the story of his own experiences in Mecca. While there are some specific similarities with Peters 1994, this book includes more recent pilgrimages and emphasizes some accounts written by female pilgrims.
Wolfe, Michael, ed. One Thousand Roads to Mecca: Ten Centuries of Travelers Writing about the Muslim Pilgrimage. New York: Grove, 1997.
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The Saudi Hijaz to 1953

Saudi King ʿAbd al-’Aziz ruled the Hijaz from his conquest of the Hijaz in the mid-1920s until his death in 1953, when growing revenues from oil began to transform all parts of his kingdom. While the Saudis continued to foster the pilgrimage, they also undertook the imposition of Wahhabi Islam upon the cosmopolitan holy cities of Mecca and Madina. To understand this era one should begin by reading al-Rasheed 2010, a general survey of Saudi Arabia, before turning to Ochsenwald 2009, which examines the Hijaz more particularly. Readers of German should then consult Steinberg 2002, which, although dealing mostly with the Najd region of Saudi Arabia, still contains the most thorough study of Wahhabi Islam and the Hijaz available in any language for this time. More specialized studies include Ende 1997, Philby 1946, and Sayyid Ahmad 1994. Sedgwick 1997, a revisionist work on Sufism, illustrates the potential for reversing long-held interpretations of this era as historians of religion adopt a more critical approach.

Ende, Werner. “The Nakhawila, a Shiite Community in Medina Past and Present.” Die Welt des Islams 37.3 (1997): 263–348.
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Discusses the origins, minority status, and history of the small Shiʿi population of Madina, concentrating on the 19th and 20th centuries.
Ende, Werner. “The Nakhawila, a Shiite Community in Medina Past and Present.” Die Welt des Islams 37.3 (1997): 263–348.
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Ochsenwald, William. “The Annexation of the Hijaz.” In Religion and Politics in Saudi Arabia. Edited by Mohammed Ayoob and Hasan Kosebalaban, 75–89. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2009.
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Considers Saudi religious policy in the Hijaz, 1924–1939, including the building of dynastic legitimacy, selection of religious officials, control of behavior, propagation of Wahhabism, opposition to the regime, and the development of secular state symbols. Some of these themes are continued for later times in the Hijaz in Yamani 2004 (cited in The Saudi Hijaz since 1953).
Ochsenwald, William. “The Annexation of the Hijaz.” In Religion and Politics in Saudi Arabia. Edited by Mohammed Ayoob and Hasan Kosebalaban, 75–89. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2009.
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Philby, H. St. John. A Pilgrim in Arabia. London: R. Hale, 1946.
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Philby was an English diplomat, explorer, convert to Islam, writer, and adviser to Saudi King ʿAbd al-’Aziz. Set in the early 1930s, this book, along with many of his other works, provides an account of Saudi Arabia that is highly sympathetic to King ʿAbd al-’Aziz.
Philby, H. St. John. A Pilgrim in Arabia. London: R. Hale, 1946.
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al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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This is the most widely consulted English-language general history of the Saudi kingdom. The author’s critical comments on the links between religion and state for the 20th century are particularly important. For the second edition the author has added two lengthy chapters dealing with the years 2000–2010.
al-Rasheed, Madawi. A History of Saudi Arabia. 2d ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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Sayyid Ahmad, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, and ʿAbduh ibn Ahmad al-’Alawi. Muhammad Nasif: Hayatuh wa Atharuh. Beirut, Lebanon: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1994.
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This lengthy biography of the life of Muhammad Nasif (b. 1885–d. 1971), the Jidda notable, scholar, and cultural leader, casts light on the intellectual and religious history of the Hijaz.
Sayyid Ahmad, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, and ʿAbduh ibn Ahmad al-’Alawi. Muhammad Nasif: Hayatuh wa Atharuh. Beirut, Lebanon: al-Maktab al-Islami, 1994.
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Sedgwick, Mark J. R. “Saudi Sufis: Compromise in the Hijaz, 1925–40.” Die Welt des Islams 37.3 (1997): 349–368.
DOI: 10.1163/1570060972597039Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Contrary to the general view that Saudi rule completely destroyed Sufism (Islamic mysticism) in the Hijaz, Sedgwick advances detailed evidence to suggest a compromise between the regime and some Sufis.
Sedgwick, Mark J. R. “Saudi Sufis: Compromise in the Hijaz, 1925–40.” Die Welt des Islams 37.3 (1997): 349–368.
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Steinberg, Guido. Religion und Staat in Saudi-Arabien: Die wahhabitischen Gelehrten, 1902–1953. Würzburg, Germany: Ergon, 2002.
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Steinberg’s lengthy study of the Saudi ulama (religious scholars) includes a great deal of information on the Hijaz, though the book is centered on the province of Najd. This extraordinary work of scholarship explores most aspects of Islam in Saudi Arabia for the period in question.
Steinberg, Guido. Religion und Staat in Saudi-Arabien: Die wahhabitischen Gelehrten, 1902–1953. Würzburg, Germany: Ergon, 2002.
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The Saudi Hijaz since 1953

After the death of King ʿAbd al-’Aziz, his sons continued to rule the Hijaz as well as the rest of his kingdom. For a general review of this period, turn first to Long and Maisel 2010 and al-Rasheed 2010 (the latter cited under The Saudi Hijaz to 1953); for a more detailed and updated picture of events, Lacey 2009 is an excellent supplement. Growing prosperity from oil allowed a massive expansion of the two Harams in Mecca and Madina, as discussed on the King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz website, while increasing wealth also allowed the Saudi religious establishment to use the Hijaz as a base for propagating Wahhabi Islam abroad, as discussed in Schulze 1990. Al-Yassini 1985 contains a fine review of the interconnections of religion and state, but it is somewhat dated and has relatively little on the Hijaz. Piscatori 2005 illuminates the political utility of good management of the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca. Both Nevo 1998 and Yamani 2004 analyze the role of religion in the creation of identity, with Nevo 1998 more concerned with the Saudi national level and the ulama, and Yamani 2004 concentrating on the Hijaz region and local elites.

King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz. Sponsored by Dr. Fouad Al Farsy.
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Created in 2006, this website deals with the life of the Saudi ruler King Fahd (r. 1982–2005). The sections on holy mosques and support for Islam are of interest in regard to the Hijaz.
King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz. Sponsored by Dr. Fouad Al Farsy.
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Lacey, Robert. Inside the Kingdom: Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists, and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia. New York: Viking, 2009.
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The author, a popular British writer, begins the book with the Mecca events of 1979 and continues through to the suppression of Saudi religious insurgents in the middle portion of the 2001–2010 decade. While residing in the Hijaz for years, Lacey conducted numerous interviews that serve as the basis for his account.
Lacey, Robert. Inside the Kingdom: Kings, Clerics, Modernists, Terrorists, and the Struggle for Saudi Arabia. New York: Viking, 2009.
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Long, David, and Sebastian Maisel. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2d ed. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2010.
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This general history of Saudi Arabia emphasizes the importance of family and religion. See especially chapter 6 on the pilgrimage, which can serve as an update of Long 1979 (cited under Pilgrimage). For the second edition the authors have updated the entire text of the 1997 edition.
Long, David, and Sebastian Maisel. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 2d ed. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 2010.
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Nevo, Joseph. “Religion and National Identity in Saudi Arabia.” Middle Eastern Studies 34.3 (1998): 34–53.
DOI: 10.1080/00263209808701231Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The author analyzes how the royal family has mobilized religion to protect the state and its legitimacy. He examines the ulama, especially the role of muftis, and also concludes that regional identity has remained strong.
Nevo, Joseph. “Religion and National Identity in Saudi Arabia.” Middle Eastern Studies 34.3 (1998): 34–53.
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Piscatori, James. “Managing God’s Guests: The Pilgrimage, Saudi Arabia, and the Politics of Legitimacy.” In Monarchies and Nations: Globalisation and Identity in the Arab States of the Gulf. Edited by Paul Dresch and James Piscatori, 222–245, 273–275. London: I. B. Tauris, 2005.
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Explores Saudi attempts to control the number and internal influence of the pilgrims, with excellent descriptions of the rebuilding of Mecca and Madina and basic information on the hajj’s political consequences.
Piscatori, James. “Managing God’s Guests: The Pilgrimage, Saudi Arabia, and the Politics of Legitimacy.” In Monarchies and Nations: Globalisation and Identity in the Arab States of the Gulf. Edited by Paul Dresch and James Piscatori, 222–245, 273–275. London: I. B. Tauris, 2005.
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Schulze, Reinhard. Islamischer Internationalismus im 20. Jahrhundert: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Islamischen Weltliga. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1990.
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Saudi Arabia founded the World Muslim League in 1962 and established its headquarters in the Hijaz. Along with the Organization of the Islamic Conference, in which Saudi Arabia also plays a large role, the World Muslim League has helped coordinate Islamic activities, but its activities have also sparked much controversy, as pointed out in this book.
Schulze, Reinhard. Islamischer Internationalismus im 20. Jahrhundert: Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Islamischen Weltliga. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1990.
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Yamani, Mai. Cradle of Islam: The Hijaz and the Quest for an Arabian Identity. London: I. B. Tauris, 2004.
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By looking at the culture, social rites, customs, and religious values of elite families in the late 20th century, the author attempts to clarify what constitutes modern Hijazi identity.
Yamani, Mai. Cradle of Islam: The Hijaz and the Quest for an Arabian Identity. London: I. B. Tauris, 2004.
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al-Yassini, Ayman. Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985.
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The best 20th-century English-language account of the subject, this work is now somewhat dated. For more recent developments see Long and Maisel 2010 and Commins 2006 (the latter cited under General Overviews).
al-Yassini, Ayman. Religion and State in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1985.
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Challenges to Saudi Islam in the Hijaz

Saudi political and religious control over the Hijaz in the 1920s was somewhat shaky. Kramer 1985 shows that Pan-Islamists in India and elsewhere hoped for international control of the pilgrimage, but King ʿAbd al-’Aziz was able to squelch such initiatives. Later, oil wealth and adroit political management of the Hijaz long delayed major challenges to Wahhabi Islam, but Hegghammer and Lacroix 2007, Lacroix 2011, and Trofimov 2007 demonstrate that young extremist Wahhabis and foreign Muslim Brothers came to oppose what they regarded as the immorality, secularism, and pro-Western policies of the monarchs, culminating in several violent upheavals that were ultimately suppressed by armed force. Osama bin Laden, who was born and raised in the Hijaz, came to share this view of the Saudi regime as he created in Pakistan and Afghanistan al-Qaeda (the Base), an international terrorist organization that launched attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001. Although there is as yet no satisfactory biography of bin Laden, Bergen 2006 and Lawrence 2005 provide the foundations for understanding him, and Coll 2008 sets his life into the context of his numerous and influential Hijaz-based family. Within the Hijaz and Saudi Arabia, bin Laden’s violent influence on religion, politics, and identity is examined in Hegghammer 2010, while al-Rasheed 2007 shows a range of domestic Muslim alternatives to the religious ideas of al-Qaeda.

Bergen, Peter L. The Osama bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of al Qaeda’s Leader. New York: Free Press, 2006.
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Based on interviews of people who knew bin Laden. Chapter 1 on Arabia is particularly pertinent to his life in the Hijaz.
Bergen, Peter L. The Osama bin Laden I Know: An Oral History of al Qaeda’s Leader. New York: Free Press, 2006.
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Coll, Steve. The Bin Ladens: An Arabian Family in the American Century. New York: Penguin, 2008.
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A detailed yet gripping account of the wealthy bin Laden family headquartered in the Hijaz. The author juxtaposes the secular and cosmopolitan lifestyles of many of the bin Ladens with the views and actions of their most famous member, the terrorist Osama bin Laden, the founder of al-Qaeda (the Base), who was later killed by American forces in Pakistan in 2011.
Coll, Steve. The Bin Ladens: An Arabian Family in the American Century. New York: Penguin, 2008.
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Hegghammer, Thomas. Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism since 1979. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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According to the author, who compiled an exhaustive record of Saudis involved in violent activities motivated by radical Sunni Islamism, Hijazis played a particularly large role in the period 1979 to 1995. This is the best social science study of anti-royal-family, religiously inspired opposition in the Hijaz and elsewhere in Saudi Arabia currently available.
Hegghammer, Thomas. Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism since 1979. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
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Hegghammer, Thomas, and Stéphane Lacroix. “Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-’Utaybi Revisited.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 39.1 (2007): 103–122.
DOI: 10.1017/S0020743807002553Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
For the details of the 1979 uprising in Mecca led by Juhayman, one should first read Trofimov 2007. However, this article provides a clearer grasp of the religious origins and consequences of the movement than is found in Trofimov’s book.
Hegghammer, Thomas, and Stéphane Lacroix. “Rejectionist Islamism in Saudi Arabia: The Story of Juhayman al-’Utaybi Revisited.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 39.1 (2007): 103–122.
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Kramer, Martin. Islam Assembled: The Advent of the Muslim Congresses. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.
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The author recounts the activities of Pan-Islamic congresses, some of which met in the Hijaz in the 1920s, that tried to control the pilgrimage and management of Mecca and Madina. Saudi King ʿAbd al-’Aziz (sometimes known as Ibn Saud) successfully resisted these attempts to limit his power and the influence of Wahhabi ulama (clerics) in the Holy Cities.
Kramer, Martin. Islam Assembled: The Advent of the Muslim Congresses. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.
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Lacroix, Stéphane. Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia. Translated by George Holoch. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
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While covering the period from 1979 to 2010 the author concentrates on the origins and development of the Sahwa (“awakening”) religious-political movement of the 1980s and 1990s, thus serving to provide an introduction to the topics covered in Hegghammer 2010. The original French-language version of this book was published in 2010.
Lacroix, Stéphane. Awakening Islam: The Politics of Religious Dissent in Contemporary Saudi Arabia. Translated by George Holoch. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
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Lawrence, Bruce, ed. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. Translated by James Howarth. London: Verso, 2005.
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Twenty-four statements issued by bin Laden between 1994 and 2004. Numerous notes and the introduction help put these pronouncements into context.
Lawrence, Bruce, ed. Messages to the World: The Statements of Osama Bin Laden. Translated by James Howarth. London: Verso, 2005.
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al-Rasheed, Madawi. Contesting the Saudi State: Islamic Voices from a New Generation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Using contemporary discussions among young people, al-Rasheed shows the wide variety of Islamic thought in the Hijaz and Saudi Arabia.
al-Rasheed, Madawi. Contesting the Saudi State: Islamic Voices from a New Generation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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Trofimov, Jaroslav. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam’s Holiest Shrine. New York: Anchor, 2007.
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A vivid study of Juhayman al-Utaybi’s seizure of the Ka’ba in Mecca, by a journalist who employed numerous interviews and declassified US and British documents to discuss the background of the events, the fighting in central Mecca, and some of the consequences for the Hijaz, Saudi Arabia, and the world. For a short but important analysis of the same items, see Hegghammer and Lacroix 2007.
Trofimov, Jaroslav. The Siege of Mecca: The 1979 Uprising at Islam’s Holiest Shrine. New York: Anchor, 2007.
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