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FOCUS ON
Salmon...
spite of living far from the sea, salmon was the most important food to Plateau Indians. Plateau tribes depended on the annual salmon runs for survival. Salmon was eaten fresh in season, but the majority of salmon caught was smoked and dried for preservation. In this way salmon could be eaten year round, especially in the difficult winter months when food was scarce.
The salmon harvest was a sacred time for Plateau tribes. Every year tribes gathered at the same locations to catch fish. They performed sacred ceremonies and rituals to give thanks for the arrival of the salmon. Since the harvest brought faraway tribes together, it was a time of celebration, games, singing, and dancing. Thus, the salmon harvest became an important cultural event in the lives of
Plateau tribes.
▲ Spear fishing at Celilo Falls on the
Columbia River.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
The economic activities of the Plateau Indians were similar to those of their coastal neighbors. There were some major differences as well. The Plateau Indians were more skilled in animal husbandry or the caring of animals especially horses, cattle, dogs, and the like. However, their canoe building was not as skilled or elaborate as the Coastal
craftsmen.
Woodworking, woodcarving, and seashell crafts were less important to the Plateau Indian, but their beadwork and leather goods were more intricate than those made by the Coastal tribes. Adapting to their environment was critical for both the Plateau and Coastal Indians. Each faced survival under demanding natural conditions.
Diet
The Plateau Indians were not as fortunate as the Coastal Indians. Food and water were generally scarce and difficult to find. Plateau tribes often found themselves competing for food at the same fishing and hunting grounds.
The Plateau people were nomadic. Moving from place to place, they sought adequate food and water for their families and livestock. Living between the Cascade and Rocky mountains, all Plateau Indians had a harsh lifestyle. Control of those places where life's necessities existed was fiercely competitive.
The Plateau Indians were nomadic by necessity not necessarily by choice. They would hunt deer, antelope, bear, elk, buffalo, game birds, waterfowl, rabbits, mountain goat, big horn sheep, beaver, grouse, ground hogs, prairie dogs, and other meat sources. When food was scarce, they ate dog, horse, snakes, grasshoppers, crickets, and other insects. Buffalo hunting parties had to cross the Rocky Mountains to reach the Great Plains. This was a very dangerous venture.
Plateau Indians were also food gathers. They picked wild berries such as blackberries, huckleberries, chokeberries, and serviceberries. They collected nuts and seeds, especially the sunflower seed. They dug camas bulbs, and bitterroots that were cooked in earthen ovens, mashed, boiled, and then dried into flat cakes. Biscuit roots were cooked and dried into square cakes. Bitterroots were peeled and boiled before being eaten. The Plateau Indians also made pemmican from processed animal fat, berries, camas root, and fish. Pemmican was baked, boiled, or eaten
raw.
Salmon was a very important food source for the Plateau people. Salmon was abundant during the spawning season. Salmon migrated upstream in the late summer and early autumn to spawn. Driven by instinct, the salmon struggled against swift mountain stream currents in their quest to reach their original spawning grounds. The struggling salmon were a challenge to catch.



▲ Tepees, such as those shown above, were a mobile form of lodging that the Plateau Indians adopted after the arrival of the horse.
come together. Just as when bands came together, tribal gatherings often resulted in the appointment of chiefs to represent the entire tribe.
As evidenced by the complex and complicated manner in which chiefs were appointed, the Plateau Indians had a much different society than the Coastal Indians. Plateau Indians had a less strict social construction. There were no real social classes. People earned their rank in Plateau society based on their merit as hunters, warriors, leaders, and spiritual advisers. As long as a person continued to excel in one, or many, of these areas, he or she would be respected and hold a great standing in the village, band, or tribe. However, if one began to fail, then their status could decline.
Thus, Plateau society was based upon merit and accomplishment. As a result, Plateau tribes tended to be more democratic than Coastal tribes. All people of a village, band, or tribe had some say in major decisions. People came together to elect chiefs and chiefs only held power so long as the people continued to believe in them. Moreover, most villages, bands, and tribes had councils. Councils were composed of wise and respected individuals. At the village
level, councils were composed of respected elders, shamans, and chiefs. In larger gatherings, such as bands and tribes, councils had numerous chiefs and shamans. Whether at the tribal or village level, councils had great authority. Councils gave advice to chiefs and often had more decision making power than chiefs.
Initially, Plateau society was semi-nomadic. Villages were located near important food gathering centers that depended on the season. For instance, in the fall villages were located next to areas where edible plants and berries were ready for harvest. When the salmon returned to rivers, streams, and lakes to spawn, villages moved to be close to the fishing grounds. In short, people relocated villages to be near seasonal food gathering centers.
Plateau society remained in this state until the arrival of the horse during the 1700s. The arrival of the horse changed Plateau society. Suddenly, Plateau Indians could travel long distances faster and carry their belongings more easily. In addition to the change in means of transportation, Plateau Indians could now hunt big game more regularly and travel east to the Great Plains for buffalo hunting.
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THE PLATEAU INDIANS
Just as the physical landscape of Western Washington differs from that of the east, so too did the Indians who inhabited Eastern Washington contrast with those living in the west. Modern scholars refer to the Indians living in Eastern Washington as Plateau. The name derives from the fact that many of these Indians lived in the vast Columbia Plateau located in Eastern Washington, Oregon, and western Idaho. However, the Plateau Indians did not just inhabit these lands, but also stretched through all of Idaho, Northern California, western Montana, and parts of southern Canada.
PLATEAU TRIBAL ORGANIZATION
Plateau society was much different from Coastal social practices. Plateau Indians grouped themselves into tribes. Just like the Coastal Indians, Plateau tribes were groups of Indians who shared a common culture and language. Plateau tribes could contain
A Plateau chief dressed in a traditional style of regalia common to all Plateau tribes.
large numbers of people and cover a large geographic inhabited specific regions within the territory of a area. Plateau tribes were divided into bands. Bands
tribe. Bands were further subdivided into extended family groups who lived in villages within a band.
A closer look at a typical Plateau tribe, the Nez Percé, will better illustrate how this social
organization functioned. The Nez Percé were a group of Plateau Indians who lived in southeastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and western Idaho. The Nez Percé tribe contained several bands. Some of these bands lived in Washington, while others resided in Oregon and Idaho. One band was the Wallowa band of Nez Percé, of whom the famous Chief Joseph was a member. Like all bands, the Wallowa were not unified, but divided into smaller clusters of villages.
This type of organization allowed Plateau Indians local independence. Villages were mostly self sufficient and able to make independent decisions. Villages only gathered into their larger bands for important religious ceremonies, celebrations, fishing, hunting, or war. Bands came together into an entire tribe only in times of necessity, such as important decisions and warfare. Thus, Plateau Indians were not as tightly organized as Coastal Indians.
PLATEAU SOCIETY
Unlike the Coastal Indians, Plateau tribes did not have a strict society. The highest social position in Plateau society, just as with the Coastal Indians, I was the chief. In Plateau tribes, chiefs were not determined by birth, but by ability. Certainly, birth did carry some weight and the son of a chief was likely to succeed to that position. However, ability I was much more valued. A person might become a chief based on his success in battle. Similarly, someone who had demonstrated great wisdom or
leadership skills could become a chief.
elected position. Chiefs existed in Plateau society at In many ways, the position of chief was like an several levels. At the lowest level, there were village own villages. But, as noted earlier, Plateau Indians chiefs. Village chiefs had authority only within their were organized into bands and tribes. Each band appointed its own chief, or sometimes several chiefs. to represent them in trade, negotiation, and warfare. Band chiefs often came from the most respected chiefs at the village level. If circumstances called for a larger response than the band, an entire tribe could



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Transportation
Before the arrival of the horse in the early 18th century, the Plateau Indians relied on walking and running to travel, hunt, and gather food. The horse increased their mobility. The horse, or pony, became their most prized possession. Some Plateau Indian tribes, such as the Klickitat, Nez Percé, and Cayuse were excellent horsemen.
The Plateau Indians often captured and broke wild horses. Frequently they increased their own herds by trading, exchanging, breeding, receiving as gifts, and stealing from other Indians and settlers. The number of horses owned was an accurate measure of wealth.
Horses and dogs were used to haul the Plateau Indians possessions. The horse or dog would drag a travois. A consisted of two long poles of unequal length. This helped maintain balance and provide a smoother ride. These poles were attached to the shoulders of the animal by leather straps. Woven mats and animal hides covered the space between the poles behind the animal. Most of the Indians' possessions were transported by the travois. In addition to material goods, Plateau Indians often used the travois to move people. The sick, wounded, elderly, or very young would travel by travois.
Religion
Like the Coastal Indians, Plateau Indians worshipped spirits of the natural world. The goal was to live in harmony with the natural world. To accomplish this objective, Plateau Indians performed important ceremonies, songs, dances, and offerings in order to promote harmony between the spirits and humans. As with Coastal Indians, the most important religious figure was the shaman, also known as the medicine man. One part healer, one part spirit guide, the shaman was the mediator between the spirits and the Indians. Finally, Plateau Indians also had sacred locations where the spirits were especially strong.
Just as Coastal Indians had a key celebration, the potlatch, so too did Plateau Indians. Throughout the year, Plateau Indians held pow wows. Pow wows were great social and religious gathering in which many villages, bands, or tribes would come together and celebrate. Unlike potlatches, pow wows were not about giving gifts or social status. Rather they were celebrations of important religious rights, births, deaths, marriages, adulthood, war victories, or the like. Pow wows always involved games, feasting, dancing, songs, and sacred ceremonies. Pow wows could last several days at a time. Pow wows were also a time to forget feuds and disputes.
The above picture illustrates the horse and travois system that the Plateau Indians used to haul their possessions.



▲ A Plateau tribe gathers for a religious ceremony.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter has a single focal point, the American Indians who lived in or near the present day state of Washington. These were not truly an indigenous people because their ancestors also once migrated from the Old World to the New World. The chapter's discussion on the various migration hypotheses and theories does not support a single answer as to the basic question of who, where, when, why, and how, but offers a wide selection of possibilities to the
reader.
Once American Indians arrived in North America they formed over the millennia into ten Indian culture groups. Each group adapted their lifestyle to their natural environment. Two of the most culturally
advanced groups, the Coastal and Plateau Indians, inhabited the Pacific Northwest and Washington. The Coastal Indians actually extended from northern California to southern Alaska. They lived in a mild, moist West Coast Marine environment. Natural resources were readily available. These sedentary people lived in numerous villages along the forested waterways. A broad discussion describes the basic, special, and unique characteristics of their Coastal
culture.
In contrast the second cultural group of the region, the Plateau Indians were nomadic as they moved from area to area seeking the basic necessities to sustain life-food, water, shelter, and security. The Plateau Indians lived east of the Cascade Mountains along the leeward slopes and on the semiarid grasslands of the Columbia Plateau. These interior Indians were not farmers but hunters and food gatherers. Their culture and lifestyle were significantly different from the Coastal Indians.
These Indians lived in temporary structures called a tepee rather than the permanent longhouse of the Coastal group. The men hunted and trapped animals and fished for salmon, while the women dug and gathered berries and camas roots. Both the Plateau and Coastal Indians harvested salmon using a variety of techniques and implements. The Plateau Indian's natural environment was more challenging for their survival. Overall the Plateau Indian was mobile and less wealthy than the Coastal Indians.
The primary objective of this chapter was to help the reader gain an appreciation, understanding, and awareness of the contrasting Coastal and Plateau cultures.
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Coastal and Plateau Indians
Clothing
The Plateau Indian wore clothing made from animal skins, fur pelts, dog hair, and grass. These materials reflected their environment. Their clothing was practical. During the dry hot summer months, the Plateau Indians wore light clothing. Males wore light breechcloths, leather moccasins, and leather leggings to protect their legs from thorny plants. Females wore decorative dresses made from animal skins, woven grass, or dog hair. They wore moccasins to protect their feet. In winter, they wore heavy garments made from animal skins and fur pelts. These protected them from snow, long cold spells, and the strong bitter cold winds. Tough leather moccasins, heavy leggings, and clothing designed to help keep them warm and dry were necessary during the cold winters.
The Plateau Indians made brightly colored feather headdresses. These were worn at tribal ceremonies, special celebrations, and during times of war. They wore accessories such as feathers, bear claws, necklaces, earrings, nose rings, bones, scalps, and very colorful stones, shells, and beads. The most prized accessories were eagle feathers, which were believed to have important spiritual qualities. They also wore hair ornaments made from wood, bone, shells, copper, and other metals.
Shelter
Nomadic people required a form of shelter that was quick and easy to put up and take down. The majority of the Plateau Indians lived in tepees. The tepee is a cone frame shelter supported by several long poles. Woven mats or hides of animals covered the poles. A tepee had no windows and usually one hide or mat flap for an entrance. Smoke escaped through an opening at the top of the tepee.
During the cold winters, the Plateau Indians sought refuge from the snow and extreme winds by living in caves or constructing a pit house. A pit house was usually five to six feet deep and perhaps 30 feet in diameter. The framework above the pit was covered with animal skins, hides, and earthen materials. Normally, the pit house was constructed on the leeward slope of hills away from the penetrating winter winds.
Plateau tribes also constructed sweat lodges. Sweat lodges were buildings with wooden frames and mud walls. These were not living quarters, but buildings where ritual cleansing took place. Plateau Indians believed that sweating was good for the body and soul. As a result, they filled sweat lodges with hot rocks, poured water over the rocks to create steam, and sat inside to sweat. Sweat lodges were typically reserved for men only.
FOCUS ON
The Tepee
T
he tepee was an important form of shelter to Plateau Indians. Tepees were highly portable and easy to move. They consisted of a series of poles held together by rope and then covered with animal hide or tule mats. The tops were open to allow smoke to escape from indoor fires. Tepees were convenient for spring, summer,
and fall, but were generally not used in the winter.
Although tepees have long been associated with Plateau Indians, they were not always a part of Plateau cultures. The tepee actually originated amongst the Great Plains Indians. When the horse arrived in the 1700s, the Plateau Indians adopted many customs of the Plains Indians. Tepees are one such example. They were adopted to provide a more mobile and easy to carry shelter.
A partially constructed tule
mat tepee.
Fully constructed tule mat tepee.
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