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Christianity in China (Chinese Studies)

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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. In the early 21st century, Christianity in China is a diverse, growing, and small but resilient force. Estimates vary, but one informed report speculates that the number of Christians is perhaps 5 percent of the population, in any case giving China one of the largest Christian populations in the world. Historically, like Buddhism in earlier times and Marxism in the 20th century, both of which also came from outside China, Christianity has become Chinese in many forms: as doctrine and theology, as institutions, as communities, and as spiritual experience. In the 16th century, the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci argued for a Sino-Christian synthesis based on the natural theology that God had placed in Confucian classics as well as the Bible. After the emperor proscribed Christianity and expelled foreign missions in 1724, Catholic village communities grew by melding Christianity into local Chinese religions. In the century after the Opium Wars of the 1840s, Protestant and Catholic missionaries and Chinese Christians established a network of churches, seminaries, schools, universities, hospitals, and publishing houses, which all made key contributions to the emerging Chinese nation. At the same time, independent Chinese evangelicals attracted large followings based on their own readings of the Bible. After 1949 the new People’s Republic of China once again expelled foreign missions and campaigned to suppress or control all religions except officially sanctioned groups. Yet the number of Christians still rose, mainly in the countryside. When the post-1978 reforms brought a loss of faith in Marxism and a spiritual crisis, Catholic and mainline Protestant churches thrived, as did “underground churches,” but the fastest growing groups were independent evangelicals and Pentecostals, again especially in the countryside. In short, over the centuries there have been many and often competing Chinese Christianities. For many millions, Christianity was a spiritual experience and daily practice which gave meaning to life. Doubters saw Christianity as a foreign religion incompatible with Chinese culture, while China’s rulers, both before and after the 1949 revolution, assumed that it was their responsibility to regulate all religions, especially ones they saw as foreign. Nationalists charged that Christianity entered China by what they called imperialist “gunboat diplomacy,” accused converts of being “rice Christians,” and charged that “one more Christian is one less Chinese.” In recent decades, perhaps no other field in Chinese studies has changed more than the study of Christianity. The earliest scholars, often missionaries or their sympathizers, wrote reverentially of struggles to create a Chinese church and plant the seeds of Christianity. Recent scholarship centers on Chinese Christianities as independent and authentic entities, not as versions of western Christianity; on missions as part of Chinese society; on grassroots communities that practice Christianity as a Chinese folk or popular religion; on Christianities which enlarge rather than replace Chinese identities; and on lived experience as much as on orthodoxy and doctrine.
  4.  
  5. World Christianity, Missions, and Christianity in Asia
  6. This section provides background and comparisons for the study of Christianity in China. Gilley and Stanley 2006 and McLeod 2006 are magisterial volumes in the Cambridge History of Christianity, each containing energetic and well-informed articles on Christian institutions, movements, and social and cultural impact in all parts of the world. Fang 2008 is a pioneering survey based on wide readings in Chinese sources. Dunch 2002 incisively critiques the theory of “cultural imperialism” that emphasized Western power rather than Chinese creative adaptation. Hutchison 1987 lays out the theological issues behind American foreign missions in general. The useful discussions of the sociology of religion in Goossaert and Palmer 2011 provide a framework of analysis for religion in Chinese society. Moffett 1998–2005 is a comprehensive survey of Christianity in Asia.
  7.  
  8. Dunch, Ryan. “Beyond Cultural Imperialism: Cultural Theory, Christian Missions, and Global Modernity.” History and Theory 41.3 (2002): 301–325.
  9.  
  10. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2303.00208Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11.  
  12. Argues that the concept “cultural imperialism” wrongly assumes that cultures cannot change without losing authenticity. The concept reduces two-way interactions that change both sides and create new forms to a dichotomy between an imposing West and a passive East.
  13.  
  14. Find this resource:
  15.  
  16. Fang Hao 方豪. Zhong-xi jiaotong shi (中西交通史). 2 vols. Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2008.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. English title: History of East-West Relations. A pioneering Chinese survey of East-West relations, originally published in Taibei, 1953, which places Christian interchange in an overall context.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24. Gilley, Sheridan, and Brian Stanley, eds. World Christianities, C. 1815–C. 1914. Vol. 8 of The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  25.  
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  27.  
  28. Stimulating scholarly essays on all regions of the world. Topics range from the papacy, theology, and voluntary religion, to musical trends, the Bible, and literature. See Part I, “Christianity and Modernity” (pp. 13–217), Part II, “The Churches and National Identities” (pp. 217–429), and Part III, “The Expansion of Christianity” (pp. 429–601), which includes Daniel H. Bays and James H. Grayson’s chapter “Christianity in East Asia, China, Korea and Japan” (pp. 493–513).
  29.  
  30. Find this resource:
  31.  
  32. Goossaert, Vincent, and David A. Palmer. The Religious Question in Modern China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011.
  33.  
  34. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226304182.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  35.  
  36. This collaboration of a historian and a sociologist sets Christianity alongside Buddhism, Islam, and Chinese popular religion in the context of China’s century-long search for a new “spiritual center of gravity” to replace the “religio-political state” destroyed when the Chinese empire fell in the early 20th century.
  37.  
  38. Find this resource:
  39.  
  40. Hutchison, William R. Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
  41.  
  42. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43.  
  44. The history, social basis, and changing debates in Protestant America on the theological and practical justifications for foreign missions. Missions in China play a large role.
  45.  
  46. Find this resource:
  47.  
  48. McLeod, Hugh, ed. World Christianities C. 1914–C. 2000. Vol. 9 of The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  49.  
  50. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521815000Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  51.  
  52. Like Gilley and Stanley 2006, contains rich essays on the institutional, theological, and cultural challenges in all parts of the world: Part I, “Institutions and Movements”(pp. 29–130); Pt II, “Narratives of Change,”—such as the world wars, decolonization, and struggles around racism—(pp. 131–470), including Richard Fox Young, “East Asia” (pp. 450–470); Pt III, “Social and Cultural Impact” (pp. 471–648).
  53.  
  54. Find this resource:
  55.  
  56. Moffett, Samuel H. A History of Christianity in Asia. 2d rev. and corrected ed. 2 vols. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1998–2005.
  57.  
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  59.  
  60. Volume I covers beginnings to 1500, Volume II, 1500 to 1900. Chapters in each volume go into detail on the countries of East, Southeast, and South Asia, with abundant notes and references.
  61.  
  62. Find this resource:
  63.  
  64. Surveys and Topical Studies
  65. Bays 2012—the obvious starting place for students, general readers, and scholars alike—synthesizes the new work that has transformed the field and describes the diversity of Christianities in China rather than the expansion of (Western) Christianity. Latourette 1929, though based only on English-language sources, is still the most comprehensive survey of mission Christianity in China and a convenient reference. Wang 1940 is the first general history by a Chinese historian and it shaped the field in China. Wang himself was caught up in the independent church movement of the 1950s. Charbonnier 2007 emphasizes the Catholic experience, while Whyte 1988 surveys history as background to the confrontation of Christianity with Marxism. Other items in this section have broad views of a particular topic. Gernet 1985, conceived when Christianity in China appeared to be dead, makes the classic argument that Christianity was essentially incompatible with Chinese culture; Zürcher 1990 is a classic reply. Yamamoto 2000 is a collection of essays by a Japanese scholar who pioneered the study of Christianity in China from an Asian point of view; her essays are particularly strong on modern liberal Christians. Yang 2012 (cited under People’s Republic, 1949–) is a social scientific study, which adapts principles of economics to address religious supply and demand in an atheist state. Tao 2005 collects the essays of a younger scholar from the People’s Republic of China trained in Hong Kong.
  66.  
  67. Bays, Daniel H. A New History of Christianity in China. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
  68.  
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  70.  
  71. A lucid, well-grounded, balanced, and stimulating history from the 7th century to the early 21st century. Especially strong on the liberal “Sino-foreign Protestant establishment” and on the independent Chinese fundamentalist and Pentecostal Christianities, which earlier histories passed over. There is an abundance of references to new scholarship in Chinese and English.
  72.  
  73. Find this resource:
  74.  
  75. Charbonnier, Jean-Pierre. Christians in China: A.D. 600 to 2000. San Francisco: Ignatius, 2007.
  76.  
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  78.  
  79. Father Charbonnier’s lucid and thoughtful survey emphasizes Catholic missions and Chinese Catholics.
  80.  
  81. Find this resource:
  82.  
  83. Gernet, Jacques. China and the Christian Impact: A Conflict of Cultures. Translated by Janet Lloyd. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.
  84.  
  85. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  86.  
  87. Gernet, a specialist in Chinese Buddhism, argues that the assumptions and style of Christianity were incompatible with Chinese culture and prevented the mutual accommodation that had taken place with Buddhism. Zürcher 1990 is among those who offer detailed rebuttals, but Gernet’s arguments and references to Chinese sources still reward attention. Translation and slight revision of Chine et christianisme: Action et réaction; edited, revised and corrected edition is Chine et christianisme: La première confrontation (Paris, 1991). A German translation with additional observations is Die Begegnung Chinas mit dem Christentum. (Monumenta Serica Monograph Series LXII. Sankt Augustin, Germany: Steyler Verlag, 2012).
  88.  
  89. Find this resource:
  90.  
  91. Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christian Missions in China. New York: Macmillan, 1929.
  92.  
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94.  
  95. Also published in London by the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge, this is an encyclopedic chronicle based on mountains of English language periodical literature, reports, self-histories, memoirs, and other material, with emphasis on Protestant missions of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Various reprints have been issued.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99. Tao Feiya 陶飞亚. Bianyuan de lishi: Jidujiao yu jindai Zhongguo (边缘的历史: 基督教与近代中国). Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2005.
  100.  
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  102.  
  103. A series of essays on Christian education in China, missionaries, and the Yihetuan (Boxer) movements, which the author calls a “marginal history”; that is, history from outside the center.
  104.  
  105. Find this resource:
  106.  
  107. Wang Zhixin 王治心. Zhongguo Jidujiao shigang (中國基督教史綱). Shanghai: Qingnian xiehui shuju, 1940.
  108.  
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  110.  
  111. Titled in English. This historical outline of Christianity in China is a pioneering work that is based on deep reading in primary sources from the Tang through the Ming dynasties. It has been reprinted a number of times, most recently with an extensive historical Introduction by Edward Yihua Xu (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2004).
  112.  
  113. Find this resource:
  114.  
  115. Whyte, Bob. Unfinished Encounter: China and Christianity. London: Collins Fount, 1988.
  116.  
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  118.  
  119. A survey history that leads up to Christianity’s confrontation with Marxism and the accommodation with the Three Self Movement.
  120.  
  121. Find this resource:
  122.  
  123. Yamamoto, Sumiko. History of Protestantism in China: The Indigenization of Christianity. Tokyo: Toho Gakkai (Institute of Eastern Culture), 2000.
  124.  
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  126.  
  127. Essays on True Jesus and Little Flock; Cheng Jing-yi; Christian liberal thinkers Wu Leichuan, Wu Yaozong, and Zhao Zichen; rural reconstruction workers Y. C. James Yen, and Chang Fu-liang. Japanese title: Chūgoku Kirisutokyoshi kenkyū: Purotesutanto no “dochakuka” o chūshin to shite (中国キリスト敎史研究: プロテスタントの「土着化」を中心として) (Kindai Chugoku Kenkyu Iinkai, 1972).
  128.  
  129. Find this resource:
  130.  
  131. Zürcher, Erik. Bouddhisme, Christianisme et société Chinoise. Paris: Julliard, 1990.
  132.  
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  134.  
  135. First sketches Buddhism’s adaptation as it went from facing xenophobic rejection to acceptance, then compares this experience with the selection, adaptation, and change in Christianity. Unlike Gernet 1985, Zürcher argues that Christianity’s problems were political, not cultural.
  136.  
  137. Find this resource:
  138.  
  139. Journals and Periodicals
  140. No journal is devoted to the field as a whole but all major journals include coverage. The Bibliography of Asian Studies, although it does not include books, is the best way to find journal articles and chapters in edited volumes. China Review International reviews books in all fields and state-of-the-field articles. Sino-Western Cultural Relations Journal publishes articles, translations, and reviews mainly about the period up to 1800. Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, the outlet for missionaries from the late 19th century to 1941, included wide-ranging descriptions and debate, and is meticulously indexed in Lodwick 1986. Ching Feng is an eclectic Hong Kong journal.
  141.  
  142. Bibliography of Asian Studies. 1971–.
  143.  
  144. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  145.  
  146. Available online only, by subscription, this journal, published in Ann Arbor by the Association for Asian Studies, features extensive coverage of Western language journal articles and chapters in edited volumes, searchable by country, keyword, author, and title.
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150. China Review International. 1994–.
  151.  
  152. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  153.  
  154. Published by the University of Hawaii Press in Honolulu, this periodical includes lengthy reviews of books on China in Western and East Asian languages, frequently including those on Christianity and missions, with fair coverage of European scholarship. Featured reviews often amount to state-of-the-field essays.
  155.  
  156. Find this resource:
  157.  
  158. Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal. 1867–1941.
  159.  
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  161.  
  162. Published in Shanghai, the leading venue in the late 19th and early 20th century for debates, scholarship, and current events for the English-language missionary community in China, with a number of Chinese readers as well. In the 1920s and 1930s, under the editorship of Frank Rawlinson, it was known for its liberal theology and support for Chinese nationalism. Reprinted by National Taiwan University Press, Volumes 1–53 are available free online.
  163.  
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  165.  
  166. Ching Feng: A Journal on Christianity and Chinese Religion and Culture. 2000–.
  167.  
  168. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  169.  
  170. Published by Hong Kong’s Christian Study Centre on Chinese Religion and Culture, this periodical includes notes, articles, and reviews on Christianity and Christians in China. Continues the periodical Quarterly Notes on Christianity and Chinese Religion (1964–1999).
  171.  
  172. Find this resource:
  173.  
  174. Lodwick, Kathleen. The Chinese Recorder Index: A Guide to Christian Missions in Asia, 1867–1941. 2 vols. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1986.
  175.  
  176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  177.  
  178. Meticulous index of names, places, events, and article titles. Reprinted by National Taiwan University Press, 2012.
  179.  
  180. Find this resource:
  181.  
  182. Sino-Western Cultural Relations Journal. 1979–.
  183.  
  184. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  185.  
  186. Chinese translation: Zhong Xi wenhua jiaoliu shi zazhi (中西文化交流史杂志). Originally specializing in early Catholic missions, the journal now publishes articles and translations on a wider range of subjects in all periods, though most frequently on missions and Christianity. Continues China Mission Studies (1550–1800) Bulletin (Cedar Rapids, Iowa).
  187.  
  188. Find this resource:
  189.  
  190. Tian Feng 天風. Zhongguo Jidujiao sanzi aiguo yundong weiyuanhui (中國基督敎三自爱国运动委員会). 1945.
  191.  
  192. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  193.  
  194. A Chinese language journal, founded in 1945 in Shanghai, which, under the editorship of Y. T. Wu in the 1950s, became the outlet for the TSPM.
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198. Research Guides and Bibliographies
  199. Research on any subject must start with the indispensible two-volume Handbook of Christianity in China: Volume 1, Standaert 2001, deals with the earliest periods up to 1800, and Volume 2, Tiedemann 2010, with 1800 to the early 21st century. Each volume has acute “state-of-the-field” essays for most topics, with voluminous references to scholarship and writings in Chinese and western languages; listings of archives, with web and physical addresses; finding aids or guides; coverage of published primary sources, including general ones in which Christianity is not the focus; and detailed indexes. There are Chinese characters throughout. Individual chapters and sections are described in relevant sections of this bibliography. Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan shijie zongjiao yanjiusuo is the website for the Institute for World Religions; entirely in Chinese, it includes a rich variety of resources. Wu 2009, although it focuses on materials located in the United States, is wide in its coverage. Tiedemann 2008 is a useful standalone listing of organizations that sent missions to China, with detailed descriptions and information for researchers. Free online resources include Bibliotheca Sinica 2.0, Missions and World Christianity Research Guide, and The Ricci 21st Century Roundtable Database, each maintained at a major institution.
  200.  
  201. Bibliotheca Sinica 2.0.
  202.  
  203. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  204.  
  205. Edited by Monika Lehner and Georg Lehner, contains links and information for digitized books on China that were published up to 1939 and are now available online without charge. Easily searchable by keywords such as “Catholic mission,” “Christianity,” “Jesuit,” “Protestant mission,” and “Rites controversy.”
  206.  
  207. Find this resource:
  208.  
  209. Chinese Christian Texts Database (CCT-Database).
  210.  
  211. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  212.  
  213. A free online research catalog originating from the University of Leuven listing some 1050 primary Chinese texts along with references to more than 4,000 secondary sources concerning cultural contacts between China and Europe in from 1582 to c. 1840. References include bibliographical and content description, major library holdings, translations, secondary sources, and notes on the author or text history, but not links to the texts themselves.
  214.  
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  216.  
  217. Missions and World Christianity Research Guide.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. Maintained and updated by Martha Lund Smalley of the Day Missions Library and part of the Yale University Library, these are online catalogs of links to websites; online reference sources; primary sources; select journals, especially mission journals online; and catalogs, guides, and online databases. Sections cover print reference tools and bibliographies. Includes a section of links to online digitalized mission and Christian periodicals and yearbooks.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225. Standaert, Nicolas, ed. Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 1, 635–1800. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  226.  
  227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  228.  
  229. A fundamental resource containing sections on the Tang, Yuan, and Late Ming through mid-Qing dynasties, with authoritative summary essays on history and principal actors. There are discussions of themes that will be useful to students and listings of archives and primary sources of interest to researchers. Extensive bibliographies of scholarship and writings in Western languages and Chinese, but not Japanese.
  230.  
  231. Find this resource:
  232.  
  233. The Ricci 21st Century Roundtable Database.
  234.  
  235. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  236.  
  237. An online repository of resources that is part of the Ricci Institute for Chinese-Western Cultural History, including bibliographies, biographies, and current scholarly happenings. The section “Bibliographies” is a catalog of books, manuscripts, serials, microforms, and other source material. Includes listings for recent works, including PhD dissertations, but the strength is in early Jesuit and Chinese Christian materials, often with research notes.
  238.  
  239. Find this resource:
  240.  
  241. Tiedemann, R. G. ed. Reference Guide to Christian Missionary Societies in China: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2008.
  242.  
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  244.  
  245. Nearly five hundred entries identify both Roman Catholic and Protestant agencies that sent missionaries and related religious congregations. Extensive indexes.
  246.  
  247. Find this resource:
  248.  
  249. Tiedemann, R. G., ed. Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  250.  
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  252.  
  253. Consists of three parts: “Late Qing China,” “Republican China,” and “People’s Republic, Hong Kong, Macao Taiwan.” Each part catalogs archives and sources; provides readable encyclopedic articles on such topics as groups, themes, and trends; and supplies bibliographies of scholarship and writings in Western languages and Chinese, but not Japanese. Appendices list communities, organizations, and statistics on membership by period and location.
  254.  
  255. Find this resource:
  256.  
  257. Wu, Xiaoxin, ed. Christianity in China: A Scholar’s Guide to Resources in the Libraries and Archives of the United States. Foreword by Daniel Bays. 2d ed. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2009.
  258.  
  259. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260.  
  261. Resources for researching Christian activity in China, especially that of missions and missionaries, from the 8th century through 1952, when missionary activity virtually ceased. Revised and expanded from Archie R. Crouch, ed., Christianity in China: A Scholars’s Guide to Resources in the Libraries and Archives of the United States (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1989).
  262.  
  263. Find this resource:
  264.  
  265. Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan shijie zongjiao yanjiusuo 中国社科院世界宗教研究所.
  266.  
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. Website (entirely in Chinese) for the Institute for World Religions, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, which is the official national institute for the academic study of religion in the PRC. The section Jidujiao Yanjiu 基督教研究 lists the extensive publications of the Institute, current news and announcements, reference works, and links to other Chinese-language websites.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273. Biographical Dictionaries and Collections
  274. Anderson 1998 is the most scholarly and extensive reference. The detailed index, appendices, and cross-references make this essential for researchers and attractive to general readers. Sunquist, et al. 2001 offers short entries. Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity and the Biographies section of the Ricci Roundtable are online without charge, and both give sources and further reading.
  275.  
  276. Anderson, Gerald H. Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 1998.
  277.  
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279.  
  280. Scholarly entries, often based on original research, on 2,400 missionaries of all denominations to all parts of the world, from the earliest days to the present. Paperback reprint: Biographical Dictionary of Christian Missions (W. B. Eerdmans, 1999).
  281.  
  282. Find this resource:
  283.  
  284. Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity.
  285.  
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287.  
  288. A free online resource from the Global China Center. Sketches of foreign and Chinese figures in all periods, most with a list of sources. There are sister sites in English, simplified Chinese, and traditional Chinese characters, though not all entries appear in each version.
  289.  
  290. Find this resource:
  291.  
  292. Biographies. In Ricci 21st Century Roundtable Database on the History of Christianity in China, Ricci Institute, University of San Francisco.
  293.  
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  295.  
  296. Brief entries for missionaries and Chinese Christians, especially strong on Catholics. Excellent bibliographies, often including references to primary sources, and links to the site’s bibliographical section.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300. Sunquist, Scott, John Hiang Chea Chew, and David Chu Sing Wu, eds. A Dictionary of Asian Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans, 2001.
  301.  
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  303.  
  304. Brief entries on a wide range of figures, periods, and countries.
  305.  
  306. Find this resource:
  307.  
  308. Christian Dialogue with Chinese Religions
  309. Adapting Christianity to China forced both western and Chinese thinkers to examine their definitions of “religion.” Legge 1880 is a series of lectures rejecting the tendency of the author’s Victorian contemporaries to dismiss Daoism (Tâoism) and Confucianism as pagan or superstitious and defending them as religions. Taylor 1990 and Berthrong 1994 are philosophically rigorous approaches, while Küng and Ching 1989 is a well-informed dialogue for a lay audience. Ruokanen and Huang 2010 records a conference at which Chinese and western theologians and scholars candidly dispute convergence and conflict between Christian and Chinese views on original sin and the goodness of human nature; Chinese theological thinking; Christianity and folk religion; and the study of Christianity in China today. In Yeo 2002, a Biblical scholar makes a systematic comparison of the theology of St. Paul and Marxist ideology.
  310.  
  311. Berthrong, John H. All Under Heaven: Transforming Paradigms in Confucian-Christian Dialogue. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
  312.  
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  314.  
  315. Berthrong explores his own Christianity in a theological “dialogue” on the religious aspects of Confucianism with Confucian thinkers such as Zhu Xi (b. 1130–d. 1200), Mou Zongsan (b. 1905–d. 1995), and Tu Wei-ming (b. 1940–).
  316.  
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  318.  
  319. Küng, Hans, and Julia Ching. Christianity and Chinese Religions. New York: Doubleday, 1989.
  320.  
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  322.  
  323. Küng, a leading German theologian, and Ching, a scholar of Chinese religions, explore the areas of complementarity and contrast between the two traditions. Translated by Wu Hua 吳華 as Zhongguo zongjiao yu Jidujiao (中国宗教与基督教) (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1990).
  324.  
  325. Find this resource:
  326.  
  327. Legge, James. The Religions of China: Confucianism and Tâoism Described and Compared with Christianity. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1880.
  328.  
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  330.  
  331. Legge, the outstanding 19th century missionary-scholar whose translations of the Confucian classics are still standard, defends Chinese beliefs as “religions” (rather than superstition or folklore), while still maintaining the ultimate superiority of Christianity. Free online.
  332.  
  333. Find this resource:
  334.  
  335. Ruokanen, Miikka, and Paulos Zhanzhu Huang, eds. Christianity and Chinese Culture. Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans, 2010.
  336.  
  337. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  338.  
  339. Scholarly papers debate European and Chinese views on original sin and the goodness of human nature; Chinese theological thinking; Christianity and folk religion; and the study of Christianity in China today. The proceedings of the conference were first published as Miikka Ruokanen 罗明嘉, and Huang Paulos Zhanzhu 黄保罗,eds. Jidu zongjia yu Zhongguo wenhua: Guanyu Zhongguo chujing shenxue de Zhongguo—Beiou huiyi lunwenji (2003 nian 8 yue 13–17ri, Lapulan, Fenlan) (基督宗敎与中国文化: 关于中国处境神学的中国--北欧会议论文集) (2003年8月13–17日, 拉普兰, 芬兰)). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 2004.
  340.  
  341. Find this resource:
  342.  
  343. Taylor, Rodney Leon. The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1990.
  344.  
  345. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  346.  
  347. Uses Christianity as a basis for comparison in establishing Confucianism as a religion with scriptures and rituals, rather than simply a way of life or philosophy. In particular, Chapter VIII, “The Problem of Suffering: Christian and Confucian Dimensions,” (pp. 115–135) spells out differences and comparability in basic questions and categories.
  348.  
  349. Find this resource:
  350.  
  351. Yeo, K. K. Chairman Mao Meets the Apostle Paul: Christianity, Communism, and the Hope of China. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos, 2002.
  352.  
  353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  354.  
  355. Compares Chinese classical thought with Christianity and the thought of Mao Zedong to find areas of overlap and contrast.
  356.  
  357. Find this resource:
  358.  
  359. Translations and Interpretations of the Bible and Christian Texts
  360. Biblical translation was (and is) contentious. Since Catholic missions did not depend on a vernacular Bible, the problem was primarily Protestant. Yieh 2010 deftly clarifies the points of interpretation and theology needed to understand the contending positions. Eber, et al. 1999 and Starr 2008 are volumes of scholarly articles, which go into depth on how Chinese used and read Biblical texts in a variety of situations. Eber 1999b is an intellectual biography of the mid-19th century Anglican Bishop of Shanghai who made a scholarly but more readable Biblical translation. Zetzsche 1999 surveys a century of Bible translations leading up to the 1890 Conference that organized committees to establish the 1919 Chinese Union Version, still the most widely used Protestant Chinese Bible. Zhao 2010 and Eber 1999a both explain the “term question,” which is, for example, whether “God” should be translated as Shangdi 上帝, a term used in ancient Chinese texts, or Tianzhu 天主, the term adopted by the early Catholics. Pfister 2010 briefly discusses 19th century Bible translations.
  361.  
  362. Eber, Irene. “The Interminable Term Question.” In The Bible in Modern China: The Literary and Intellectual Impact. Edited by Irene Eber, Sze-kar Wan, and Knut Walf, 135–161. Institut Monumenta Serica 43. Nettetal, Germany: Steyler, 1999a.
  363.  
  364. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  365.  
  366. A well-informed discussion of the theological and cultural challenges in translating key Biblical terms and the successive debates over how to meet these dilemmas.
  367.  
  368. Find this resource:
  369.  
  370. Eber, Irene. The Jewish Bishop and the Chinese Bible: S.I.J. Schereschewsky, (1831–1906). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1999b.
  371.  
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373.  
  374. The life of Samuel Isaac Joseph Schereschewsky, his Jewish education in Lithuania, conversion to Episcopal Christianity in evangelical America, and founding of St. John’s University in Shanghai. His 1875 translation of the Hebrew Bible—that is, the Old Testament—into North China colloquial Chinese (which could be understood when read aloud) became the basis for the Chinese Union Bible of 1919.
  375.  
  376. Find this resource:
  377.  
  378. Eber, Irene, Wan Sze-kar, and Walf Knut, eds. The Bible in Modern China: The Literary and Intellectual Impact. Institut Monumenta Serica 43. Nettetal, Germany: Steyler, 1999.
  379.  
  380. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  381.  
  382. Scholarly articles on the translations, reception, and appropriations of the Bible from the 16th to 20th centuries, including into minority languages. Translated as 聖經與近代中國 (Sheng jing yu jin dai Zhongguo) (Xianggang, China: Han yu Sheng jing xie hui you xian gong si., 2003).
  383.  
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Pfister, Lauren. “Bible Translations and the Protestant ‘Term Question.’” In Handbook of Christianity In China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 361–370. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  387.  
  388. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  389.  
  390. Briefly traces successive translations: the Robert Morrison partial version in 1813; the first full translation, by William Milne, in 1823; Walter Medhurst and Karl Gützlaff’s in 1836; the Delegate’s Version of the New Testament, published in several versions; and the multiplication of versions leading up to the 1890 decision to establish a Union Bible.
  391.  
  392. Find this resource:
  393.  
  394. Starr, Chloë, ed. Reading Christian Scriptures in China. London: T&T Clark, 2008.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. Scholarly essays. Part 1 includes reading the Bible in 19th century and contemporary contexts. Part 2 has studies of Biblical hermeneutics in the May 4th Movement, Leichuan Wu’s interpretation of the Lord’s Prayer, Chinese receptions of the Sermon on the Mount and the Ten Commandments, T. C. Chao’s life of Jesus, and John C. H. Wu’s translation of the New Testament.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402. Yieh, John Y. H. “The Bible in China: Interpretations and Consequences.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Volume 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 891–913. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  403.  
  404. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  405.  
  406. Comprehensive but concise essay, with extensive references, explaining the contentious history of the translation and interpretation of the Bible from the early 1800s to post-1949 China.
  407.  
  408. Find this resource:
  409.  
  410. Zetzsche, Jost Oliver. The Bible in China: The History of the Union Version, or, The Culmination of Protestant Missionary Bible Translation in China. Sankt Augustin, Germany: Monumenta Serica Institute, 1999.
  411.  
  412. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  413.  
  414. History of century-long theological debate, linguistic challenges, and personality conflicts involved in Protestant translations of the Bible.
  415.  
  416. Find this resource:
  417.  
  418. Zhao, Xiaoyang. “In the Name of God: Translation and Transformation of Chinese Culture, Foreign Religion, and the Reproduction of ‘Tianzhu’ and ‘Shangdi.’” Journal of Modern Chinese History 4.2 (2010): 163–178.
  419.  
  420. DOI: 10.1080/17535654.2010.524378Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  421.  
  422. Competing translations of “God” from the earliest attempts of the Nestorians in the Tang dynasty, through the Jesuit debates in the 16th century, the Taiping Bible, and the century-long Protestant text.
  423.  
  424. Find this resource:
  425.  
  426. History and Theory of the Field
  427. Items in this section explore the basic changes in the recent study of Christianity in China as an academic field. The study of Christianity in China has gone from viewing Christianity as a failed foreign graft to seeing it as a creative indigenous force. Standaert 2001, Standaert 2008, and Mungello 2012 are significant accounts, with discussion of particular works. Madsen 2001 summarizes a new basic understanding: the majority of Catholics (and Protestants, one might add) live in rural areas and their beliefs are “as much folk religion as world religion.” Overmyer 2001 surveys recent academic studies of religion published in the PRC. Zhang Kaiyuan was President of Huazhong University (founded as a Christian college) and in Zhang 2001 reports on cooperation with foreign scholars and the achievements of Chinese research after the death of Mao. Peter Ng Tze Ming (Wu Ziming), of The Chinese University of Hong Kong, in Ng 2012 describes his own role. Tao and Yang 2009 is a handbook aimed at young researchers in the PRC.
  428.  
  429. Madsen, Richard. “Beyond Orthodoxy: Catholicism as Chinese Folk Religion.” In China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Edited by Stephen Uhalley Jr. and Xiaoxin Wu, 233–249. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001.
  430.  
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  432.  
  433. Seeing Catholicism in the Peoples Republic from the top-down perspective of doctrinal orthodoxy neglects the “superstitious” faith of the majority of Catholics, who live in the countryside. Their “folk-Catholicism” based on magic and myth is not an impure form of the genuine Catholic faith but an authentic form of belief and practice. This work reviews the history of Catholicism in China from this point of view.
  434.  
  435. Find this resource:
  436.  
  437. Mungello, D. E. “Reinterpreting the History of Christianity in China.” The Historical Journal 55.2 (2012): 533–552.
  438.  
  439. DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X11000574Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  440.  
  441. This historiographical review surveys recent reinterpretations and the most significant publications.
  442.  
  443. Find this resource:
  444.  
  445. Ng, Peter Tze Ming. “Introduction: My Personal Journey—From ‘Christianity in China’ to ‘Chinese Christianity’: Changing Paradigms and Changing Perspectives.” In Chinese Christianity: An Interplay between Global and Local Perspectives. By Peter Tze Ming Ng (Wu Ziming), 1–42. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  446.  
  447. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  448.  
  449. The Introduction and chapter 1 detail Ng’s experience developing a graduate research program at The Chinese University of Hong Kong, which trained scholars from the PRC and Hong Kong. This volume also reprints Ng’s essays on leaders of Chinese Christian institutions such as Jingyi Cheng, Francis C. M. Wei (Wei Zhuoming), and Y. T. Wu (Wu Yaozong).
  450.  
  451. Find this resource:
  452.  
  453. Overmyer, Daniel L. “From ‘Feudal Superstition’ to ‘Popular Beliefs’: New Directions in Mainland Chinese Studies of Chinese Popular Religion.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 12 (2001): 103–126.
  454.  
  455. DOI: 10.3406/asie.2001.1166Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456.  
  457. In the 1990s, Chinese researchers began to publish both academic and popular studies on Chinese popular religion and sects. This article reviews more than fifty of these works, which vary greatly in quality. Overmeyer observes that the studies reveal both a scholarly thrust into new territory and an ambivalence among intellectuals about the beliefs of common people.
  458.  
  459. Find this resource:
  460.  
  461. Standaert, Nicolas. “Christianity as a Religion in China. Insights from the Handbook of Christianity in China: Volume One (635–1800).” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 12 (2001): 1–21.
  462.  
  463. DOI: 10.3406/asie.2001.1163Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  464.  
  465. Standaert identifies three recent developments in the study of Christianity in China: 1) Moving from mainly missiological and Europe-centered to sinological and China-centered approaches; 2) Shifting downward from elites and missionaries at the imperial court to common Christians and itinerant missionaries in the provinces; 3) Questioning the basic concepts “religion,” “Christianity,” and “China.”
  466.  
  467. Find this resource:
  468.  
  469. Standaert, Nicolas. “Erik Zürcher’s Study of Christianity in Seventeenth-Century China: An Intellectual Portrait.” China Review International 15.4 (2008): 476–502.
  470.  
  471. DOI: 10.1353/cri.0.0210Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. A sympathetic analysis of Zürcher’s intellectual career. In effect this is also an analysis of European intellectual and scholarly study of Chinese Christianity. Includes a list of Zürcher’s publications on Christianity in China.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Tao Feiya 陶飞亚, and Yang Weihua 杨卫华, eds. Jidujiao yu Zhongguo shehui yanjiu rumen (基督教与中国社会研究入门). Shanghai: Fudan daxue chubanshe, 2009.
  478.  
  479. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  480.  
  481. An introduction to the academic study of Christianity and Chinese society.
  482.  
  483. Find this resource:
  484.  
  485. Yang, Fenggang. Religion in China: Survival and Revival under Communist Rule. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  486.  
  487. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  488.  
  489. Yang moves beyond “secularization theory,” which assumes that modern societies evolve away from religion, to a sociological theory, which examines functions of religion that continue even under totalitarian governments. Yang suggests, using concepts from economics, that Chinese Marxist atheism created a shortage of religion which is then met in “red, black, and gray markets” of religion.
  490.  
  491. Find this resource:
  492.  
  493. Zhang, Kaiyuan. “Chinese Perspective—A Brief Review of the Historical Research on Christianity in China.” In China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Edited by Stephen Uhalley Jr. and Xiaoxin Wu, 29–39. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. Pre-1949 research in China focused on early Catholic missionaries; then from 1949 to 1976 Chinese-Western cultural communication was politicized and xenophobic. In the first decades after 1978, however, more than one thousand papers and one hundred monographs on Christianity were produced, and research on China’s Christian colleges was revived.
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501. Nestorians and Christianity to 1500
  502. Nestorian Christian missionaries of the Church of the East arrived across the Silk Road from Persia in 635. Tang dynasty emperors welcomed their Jingjiao 景教 (Luminous Religion) until the suppressions of Buddhism and other religions in 845. Nestorians remained active after this date, however, especially in Central Asia. Baum and Winkler 2003 is a survey written for the general reader. Riboud 2001 and van Mechelen 2001 are state-of-the field articles on the Tang dynasty and the Mongol Yuan dynasty, respectively. Perrier and Xavier 2008 speculates that the earliest Christian in China may have been St. Thomas in the 1st century. Keevak 2008 lays out the controversies over the stele (inscribed stone tablet) of 781, which told the history of the Nestorians. Palmer and Wong 2001 is a speculative but broadly factual description and translation of a group of texts found in the so-called “library cave” at Dunhuang, the oasis on the Silk Road. Tang 2004 is a scholarly annotated translation of a further group of Nestorian texts.
  503.  
  504. Baum, Wilhelm, and Dietmar W. Winkler. The Church of the East: A Concise History. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  505.  
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507.  
  508. The story of the church from its origins in the Roman Empire and its spread through Persia and expansion along the Silk Road, making it in the Middle Ages geographically larger than any Western church. Translation of the authors’ Die Apostolische Kirche des Ostens: Geschichte der sogenannten Nestorianer (Klagenfurt, Germany: Verlag Kitab, 2000)
  509.  
  510. Find this resource:
  511.  
  512. Keevak, Michael. The Story of a Stele: China’s Nestorian Monument and Its Reception in the West, 1625–1916. Hong Kong, China: Hong Kong University Press, 2008.
  513.  
  514. DOI: 10.5790/hongkong/9789622098954.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515.  
  516. An accessible history of the Nestorian stele of 781, whose inscriptions in Syriac and Chinese give a short history of Nestorians, starting with Bishop Alopen (Aluoben 阿罗本), who arrived from Persia in 635. It was buried in 845, when foreign religions were suppressed. Its recovery in 1625 set off centuries of debate over deciphering its text and deciding its significance.
  517.  
  518. Find this resource:
  519.  
  520. Malek, Roman, and Peter Hofrichter, eds. Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China and Central Asia. Papers Read at a Conference Held in Salzburg, Austria, in 2003 under the Theme “Research on Nestorianism in China (Zhongguo jingjiao yanjiu 中國景教研究).” Sankt Augustin, Germany: Institut Monumenta Serica, 2006.
  521.  
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. Topics include the Tang dynasty stele, the textual problems of Nestorian documents, and Nestorians in Central Asia and in the Tang and Yuan dynasties. With extensive bibliographies.
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528. Palmer, Martin, and Eva Wong. The Jesus Sutras: Rediscovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity. New York: Ballantine, 2001.
  529.  
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531.  
  532. Written in popular style as an adventure story describing the discovery in the Dunhuang caves of Daoist texts that reflect Christian influences, with a free translation of basic texts found in the caves.
  533.  
  534. Find this resource:
  535.  
  536. Perrier, Pierre, and Walter Xavier. Thomas Fonde L’église En Chine (65–68 Ap J.-C.). Paris: Jubilé, 2008.
  537.  
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539.  
  540. Although evidence is now too sparse for firm judgment, makes a speculative but reasoned case that St. Thomas may have visited China in the Han Dynasty, which would place the origins of Christianity in China earlier than Buddhism.
  541.  
  542. Find this resource:
  543.  
  544. Riboud, Pénélope. “Tang.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 1, 635–1800. Edited by Nicolas Standaert, 1–42. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. Detailed guides to the issues and sources relating to the Tang Dynasty.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552. Tang, Li. A Study of the History of Nestorian Christianity in China and Its Literature in Chinese: Together with a New English Translation of the Dunhuang Nestorian Documents. 2d rev. ed. New York: Peter Lang, 2004.
  553.  
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555.  
  556. An introduction to and an annotated translation of documents found at Dunhuang, which give more evidence on Nestorians. Gunner Mikkelsen’s review in China Review International 14.1 (2007): 232–235.[doi: 10.1353/cri.0.0003] describes the state of the field and notes that Tang’s texts were edited unreliably.
  557.  
  558. Find this resource:
  559.  
  560. van Mechelen, Johan. “Yuan.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 1, 635–1800. Edited by Nicolas Standaert, 43–111. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  561.  
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563.  
  564. Van Mechelen focuses on the Mongol Yuan dynasty, in which Qubilai Khan’s empress and his mother were Nestorian Christians and the Vatican sent missionaries as well.
  565.  
  566. Find this resource:
  567.  
  568. Foreign Missions and Chinese Christianties, 1500–1900
  569. Mungello 2012 is an often witty overview for general readers of the cultural interactions between a rising and voracious Europe and a mature but still developing East Asia. Peterson 2011 is a lucid treatment of a shorter period told from the Chinese side. Witek 2011 features insights into the strategies and personalities of the missionaries. Laamann 2006 makes an influential analysis of successive emperors and their concerns about Christian practice after the proscription of Christianity in 1724. The government’s insistence on control of religion resonates with the situation in China today, yet Laaman shows that local Catholic Communities survived because they accommodated traditional Chinese religious practice in ways that the missionary official church had not allowed. Zürcher and Pan 2001 systematically lays out the theological issues. For academic audiences, Clark 2011 and Standaert and Dudink 2006 show the creative adaptation needed to make European Christian sacraments meaningful to Chinese Catholics.
  570.  
  571. Clark, Anthony E. China’s Saints: Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing (1644–1911). Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2011.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. Vividly recounts the martyrdoms during the Qing dynasty, culminating in the Boxer uprising of 1900. Clark presents a scholarly analysis which respects the religious motives of the martyrs, who wanted to create a visible memory of the crucified Jesus.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579. Laamann, Lars Peter. Christian Heretics in Late Imperial China: Christian Inculturation and State Control, 1720–1850. New York: Routledge, 2006.
  580.  
  581. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  582.  
  583. Finds that after European Catholic priests were forced to leave in 1724, local communities survived and even grew by practicing both Catholic liturgies and folk rituals. Emperors first questioned Christianity as an alien creed, then tolerated it as a normal popular cult. In spite of the edict of 1724, Christianity was quietly tolerated until the Opium War.
  584.  
  585. Find this resource:
  586.  
  587. Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800. 4th ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2012.
  588.  
  589. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  590.  
  591. Lively recounting of the stages of China’s initial acceptance of Western culture and Christianity, including Jesuit accommodation of Chinese thought; the Rites controversy and Christianity as a subversive sect; the “closing of Chinese minds”; the 17th-century development of anti-Christian feeling and movements.
  592.  
  593. Find this resource:
  594.  
  595. Peterson, Willard. “Learning from Heaven: The Introduction of Christianity and Other Western Ideas into Late Ming China.” In China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions. Edited by John E. Wills Jr., 78–134. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  596.  
  597. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  598.  
  599. Synthesis of scholarship on the Jesuits and an account of their initial success, with expansive treatment of the Chinese literati who associated themselves with “Learning from Heaven”—that is, Catholic Christianity. Reprinted from The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 8, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 2. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Frederick W. Mote, 789–839 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
  600.  
  601. Find this resource:
  602.  
  603. Standaert, Nicolas, and Adrianus Dudink, eds. Forgive Us Our Sins: Confession in Late Ming and Early Qing China. Sankt Augustin, Germany: Institut Monumenta Serica, 2006.
  604.  
  605. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  606.  
  607. Three substantial articles explore confession as a sacramental ritual in a country where concepts of sin and guilt were different from Europe. Texts by Giulio Aleni (b. 1582–d. 1649) and an annotated translation of the confessional manual of Portuguese Jesuit José Monteiro (b. 1661–d. 1720) show a process of adaptation.
  608.  
  609. Find this resource:
  610.  
  611. Witek, John W. “Catholic Missions and the Expansion of Christianity, 1644–1800.” In China and Maritime Europe, 1500–1800: Trade, Settlement, Diplomacy, and Missions. Edited by John E. Wills Jr., 135–182. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
  612.  
  613. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  614.  
  615. A substantial summation with extensive notes and references.
  616.  
  617. Find this resource:
  618.  
  619. Zürcher, Erik, and Pan Feng-chuan. “Key Theological Issues, Moral Ideas and Practices.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 1, 635–1800. Edited by Nicolas Standaert, 632–667. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. A précis of the theological issues including monotheism, sin, and Christ’s passion, and practices such as celibacy and concubinage. As in Zürcher’s other writings (amply referenced here), the implication is that these issues were a serious but not insurmountable problem for Chinese prospective converts. Extensive bibliography.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627. Documents and Texts
  628. The best overall descriptions and fullest listings of archives, documentary publications, and original writings are in the relevant sections of Standaert 2001 (cited under Research Guides and Bibliographies) Wang 1998 translates important 17th century “apologetics”—that is, the arguments defending and advancing Christian doctrine. Ricci 1985 translates Ricci’s most famous work in Chinese. Malek 2002–2007 surveys and presents the sophisticated visual means that missionaries used to display theological arguments about the nature of Jesus and the significance of his life.
  629.  
  630. Malek, Roman. The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ. 3 vols. Sankt Augustin, Germany: Institut Monumenta Serica & China-Zentrum, 2002–2007.
  631.  
  632. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  633.  
  634. Vol. 1 includes useful background essays on Chinese Christian history up to the Yuan, especially the Nestorians, and an anthology of documents. Vol. 2 covers the Ming and Qing Jesuit era, and Vol. 3 modern and contemporary times, each with extensive primary documents. Two further volumes are to include an annotated preliminary bibliography and an iconography from Tang to the present.
  635.  
  636. Find this resource:
  637.  
  638. Ricci, Matteo. The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (天主實義 Tianzhu Shiyi). Translated by Douglas Lancashire, Guozhen Hu and Edward Malatesta. Chinese-English ed. Series 1, Jesuit Primary Sources, in English Translations 6. St. Louis, MO: Institute of Jesuit Sources, 1985.
  639.  
  640. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  641.  
  642. Matteo Ricci 利瑪竇 produced the first important work of Christian apologetics written in Chinese. Ricci writes in elegant classical Chinese to argue the existence of a personal God and the inadequacy of Buddhist and Daoist concepts.
  643.  
  644. Find this resource:
  645.  
  646. Wang, Xiaochao. Christianity and Imperial Culture: Chinese Christian Apologetics in the Seventeenth Century and Their Latin Patristic Equivalent. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1998.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. Background and extensive translations of the apologetics written by Matteo Ricci’s first converts, the “syncretic literati”: Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, and Yang Tingyun. Wang systematically compares their rhetoric and arguments to the apologetics of the early church in Graeco-Roman culture.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654. Zürcher, Erik, ed., and trans. Kouduo Richao: Li Jiubiao’s Diary of Oral Admonitions: A Late Ming Christian Journal. 2 vols. Monumenta Serica Monograph Series 56.2. Nettetal, Germany: Steyler Verlag, 2007.
  655.  
  656. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  657.  
  658. The late 16th century Kouduo Richao 口鐸日抄 (Diary of Oral Admonitions) is the record kept by Li Jiubiao of the responses of Giulio Aleni to questions from his disciples and parishioners. This interchange reveals the spiritual concerns of rural Catholics and Aleni’s pragmatic adaptations to them. Zürcher’s 167-page introduction analyzes Aleni’s Jesuit mission in Fujian province.
  659.  
  660. Find this resource:
  661.  
  662. The Jesuit Mission, 1579–1724
  663. The rich account in Brockey 2008 covers not just the much-studied Matteo Ricci (Li Madou 利瑪竇) (b. 1552–d. 1610) but the hundreds of Jesuits who fanned out across China; they left some 200,000 converts when foreign missionaries were expelled in 1724 (these rural congregations are covered in the section Catholic Communities). A True Account of the Present State of Christianity in China with Full Satisfaction to the Behaviour of the Jesuits is a British attack on Catholic missions in China. Hsia 2010 is a lively scholarly biography of Ricci with a clear exposition of his policy of accommodation to Confucian culture and entry into the society of literati (scholar-officials) in the capital. Spence 1984 weaves Ricci’s mission strategy into an engrossing presentation of Ricci as a humanist scholar who saw the hand of a rational God in ancient Confucian classics and accepted Confucian family rites as a social practice rather than pagan religion. Lippiello and Malek 1997, a conference volume, explores the life and contributions of the Italian Giulio Aleni (Ai Rulue 艾儒略) (b. 1582–d. 1649). Aleni both made scholarly contributions and built Catholic Communities in Fujian province. Malek 1998 is a diverse collection of papers analyzing the work and influence of Ricci’s successor, Johann Adam Schall Von Bell. Schall used his technical knowledge as an astronomer and a mathematician to survive the fall of the Ming dynasty and become a close adviser to the Manchu Qing emperors—without however, converting them to Christianity. Spence 1969 is an influential essay on Schall implying that the Jesuit mission “to change China” was fundamentally illusory.
  664.  
  665. A True Account of the Present State of Christianity in China with Full Satisfaction to the Behaviour of the Jesuits. As Also the Pope’s Determination, Which Has Been Kept So Long a Secret. London: John Morphew, 1709.
  666.  
  667. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  668.  
  669. A hostile anonymous contemporary account from a British sectarian point of view. Electronic reproduction publication by Eighteenth-Century Collections Online (Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2003); access limited by licensing agreements.
  670.  
  671. Find this resource:
  672.  
  673. Brockey, Liam Matthew. Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 2008.
  674.  
  675. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  676.  
  677. The first section of this compelling study details the European origins and organization of the Jesuits. The following section moves on to a candid history of their work in China, with sharp portraits of the leading figures and a reconsideration of their technological contributions.
  678.  
  679. Find this resource:
  680.  
  681. Hsia, R. Po-chia. A Jesuit in the Forbidden City: Matteo Ricci, 1552–1610. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  682.  
  683. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199592258.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  684.  
  685. A sound, fresh, and readable biography. Hsia uses new European and Chinese sources to tell the story of Ricci’s training in Europe and Asia, his achievements in China, his contentious debates with Buddhists, and his Sino-Christian synthesis.
  686.  
  687. Find this resource:
  688.  
  689. Lippiello, Tiziana, and Roman Malek. Scholar from the West: Giulio Aleni S.J. (1582–1649) and the Dialogue between Christianity and China. Sankt Augustin, Germany: Monumenta Serica Institute, 1997.
  690.  
  691. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  692.  
  693. Articles explore the European and Chinese background, Aleni’s biography, contributions to Chinese scientific knowledge, his dialogue with Chinese colleagues, his mission strategies and experience, his writings and translations, and comparisons with the life and works of Ricci.
  694.  
  695. Find this resource:
  696.  
  697. Malek, Roman, ed. Western Learning and Christianity in China: The Contribution and Impact of Johann Adam Schall Von Bell, 1592–1666. 2 vols. Sankt Augustin, Germany: China-Zentrum & Monumenta Serica Institute, 1998.
  698.  
  699. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. Fifty-one scholarly articles on Schall, describing his accomplishments as an astronomer, mathematician, and a politician who survived the transition from the Ming to the Qing dynasty at the cost of making political enemies.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705. Spence, Jonathan D. “Schall and Verbiest: To God Through the Stars.” In To Change China: Western Advisers in China, 1620–1960. Edited by Jonathan D. Spence, 13–33. Boston: Little, Brown, 1969.
  706.  
  707. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  708.  
  709. The Jesuit strategy of using astronomy and science to lead China to Christianity failed to understand the “strength and impermeability of the Confucian moral structure” and dismissed hostility as a temporary aberration.
  710.  
  711. Find this resource:
  712.  
  713. Spence, Jonathan D. The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci. New York: Viking Penguin, 1984.
  714.  
  715. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  716.  
  717. A striking evocation of Ricci’s intellectual milieu and accomplishments, although not focusing on his Christian mission as such.
  718.  
  719. Find this resource:
  720.  
  721. Biographies of Chinese Catholics
  722. Recent biographers tend to argue that Chinese literati could integrate Catholic Christianity into their Confucian lives. Chaves 1993 is a short biography of the Christian painter and poet Wu Li with effective translations of his works. Xu Guangqi, Ricci’s prime convert and the first of the “Three Pillars of the Church,” is investigated by a group of scholars in Jami, et al. 2001. The other two pillars are Yang Tingyun, handily portrayed in Standaert 1988, and Li Zhizao, briefly portrayed in Liu 2011. King 1998 looks at the only woman among the early Christian elites, Xu’s granddaughter, Candida Xu. Spence 1989 is a poignant story of a young Chinese Catholic taken to Europe, where he is met with warm curiosity but no understanding.
  723.  
  724. Chaves, Jonathan. Singing of the Source: Nature and God in the Poetry of the Chinese Painter Wu Li. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
  725.  
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727.  
  728. Wu Li (b. 1632–d. 1718), a well-known early Qing painter, was one of the first Chinese Jesuit priests. His poetry was conventional in form but experimental in creating Chinese Christian images and content. Chaves implies that Christianity was culturally compatible with Chinese thought.
  729.  
  730. Find this resource:
  731.  
  732. Jami, Catherine, Peter M. Engelfriet, and Gregory Blue, eds. Statecraft and Intellectual Renewal in Late Ming China: The Cross-Cultural Synthesis of Xu Guangqi (1562–1633). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  733.  
  734. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  735.  
  736. Papers on Ricci’s most important convert, Xu Guangqi 徐光啟 (b. 1562–d. 1633), a Ming dynasty high official. Xu argued that Christianity was a way of “complementing Confucianism” (bu Ru 补儒) with “practical studies” (astronomy, Euclid’s mathematics, agriculture, military technology, army reform) and dismissed Buddhism as mere “Emptiness and Non-Being.”
  737.  
  738. Find this resource:
  739.  
  740. King, Gail. “Candida Xu and the Growth of Christianity in China in the Seventeenth Century.” Monumenta Serica 46 (1998): 49–66.
  741.  
  742. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  743.  
  744. Candida Xu (b. 1607–d. 1680), the granddaughter of Xu Guangqi, was the most influential Chinese Christian woman of the 17th century. She financed the work of missionaries and sponsored construction of churches.
  745.  
  746. Find this resource:
  747.  
  748. Liu, Yu. “The Spiritual Journey of an Independent Thinker: The Conversion of Li Zhizao to Catholicism.” Journal of World History 22.3 (2011): 433–453.
  749.  
  750. DOI: 10.1353/jwh.2011.0065Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751.  
  752. Li Zhizao 李之藻 (b. 1565–d. 1630) was one of Ricci’s prime collaborators but did not convert to Christianity until the end of his life. Liu explores why Li finally agreed to receive baptism in 1610 and explains that his logically deduced theistic belief included both Confucianism and Christianity.
  753.  
  754. Find this resource:
  755.  
  756. Spence, Jonathan D. The Question of Hu. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.
  757.  
  758. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759.  
  760. John Hu, a young Chinese Catholic, was brought in 1722 to France for seminary training but his quest ended with confinement in a mental asylum. Translated into Chinese as Hu Ruowang de kunhuo zhi lü: 18 shiji Zhongguo Tianzhujiao tu Faguo meng nan ji (胡若望的困惑之旅: 18世纪中国天主教徒法国蒙难记) (Shanghai: Shanghai yuandong chubanshe, 2006), by Lü Yuxin 吕玉新.
  761.  
  762. Find this resource:
  763.  
  764. Standaert, Nicolas. Yang Tingyun, Confucian and Christian in Late Ming China: His Life and Thought. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1988.
  765.  
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  767.  
  768. Yang Tingyun 杨廷筠 (b. 1557–d. 1627) was one of Ricci’s three prime converts. Standaert argues that Catholicism in the Peoples Republic reinforced Yang’s Confucian beliefs rather than diluting them. Translated into Chinese as Yang Tingyun: Mingmo Tianzhujiao ruzhe (杨廷筠: 明末天主教儒者) (Shehui kexue wenxian chubanshe, 2002).
  769.  
  770. Find this resource:
  771.  
  772. Catholic Communities
  773. The arguments in these works differ somewhat from those in works about Ricci’s elite converts cited in Biographies of Chinese Catholics. Entenmann 1996 draws from a larger research project by the same author showing that Catholicism in the Peoples Republic in the inland province of Sichuan was proscribed by the government as a heterodox sect—not because it was foreign—and that Catholic communities survived well after the departure of the foreign priests. Both Menegon 2009 and Harrison 2013 weave revelatory stories of Catholic village communities that flourished from the 16th to the 20th century, away from the supervision of either capital officials or the Church, by accommodating local beliefs and folk religion. The development of a Jesuit complex in Hangzhou, Mungello 1994 argues, likewise shows that Sino-foreign incompatibility was political, not cultural; some orthodox Confucians in Hangzhou, a local cultural center, saw Christianity as a better complement to their Confucianism than Daoism (Tâoism) or Buddhism could be. Mungello 2001 is a poignant short tale of Franciscans and Dominicans who, as mendicants, depended on local support and adapted their message.
  774.  
  775. Entenmann, Robert E. “Catholics and Society in Eighteenth Century Sichuan.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 8–23. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  776.  
  777. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  778.  
  779. Lively vignettes of government persecution of Catholics in 1746 and 1755 give insights into the lives and religious practice of village Catholics, a small but integrated minority.
  780.  
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783. Harrison, Henrietta. The Missionary’s Curse and Other Tales from a Chinese Catholic Village. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013.
  784.  
  785. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520273115.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  786.  
  787. A tale both engaging and analytical explores how an inland village in Shanxi province remained Catholic for three hundred years. Sources include present day folk tales, villagers’ memories, and archives in three continents.
  788.  
  789. Find this resource:
  790.  
  791. Menegon, Eugenio. Ancestors, Virgins, And Friars: Christianity as a Local Religion in Late Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
  792.  
  793. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  794.  
  795. Focusing on Dominican communities in northeast Fujian province during the Ming and Qing dynasties, this monograph explores how missionaries and their flocks, including educated elites, transformed Christianity into a local religion by rooting it in family and communal traditions, including ancestor veneration, and created active roles for women.
  796.  
  797. Find this resource:
  798.  
  799. Mungello, D. E. The Forgotten Christians of Hangzhou. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994.
  800.  
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. A lively imaginative recreation of the thoughts of Jesuit missionaries and Chinese literati in the lakeside city of Hangzhou. Before being closed down in 1724, this group built a church, a seminary for Chinese priests, a library, a publishing house, and a cemetery.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807. Mungello, D. E. The Spirit and the Flesh in Shandong, 1650–1785. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2001.
  808.  
  809. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  810.  
  811. The founder of the mission in Jinan, Shandong, spoke, ate, and dressed like a Chinese and collaborated with a local Confucian scholar who viewed Catholicism in the Peoples Republic as an ally against Daoism and Buddhism. The next generation of priests developed spiritual ties and sometimes intimate physical relations with their young charges.
  812.  
  813. Find this resource:
  814.  
  815. The Rites Controversy and the Expulsion of Missions
  816. In 1724, the newly enthroned Yongzheng emperor was annoyed that the Vatican repudiated Ricci’s accommodationism, which accepted Chinese family rites as religious practice, and insulted that a papal representative presumed to dictate, on penalty of excommunication, that Chinese Catholics could not participate in these ancestral rites. The emperor prohibited Christianity as a heterodox sect and expelled most missionaries. Standaert 2001 reviews the issues and lists archival and secondary sources, suggesting that historians who assumed that the East-West conflict was inherent have presented the controversy as inevitable, not circumstantial, exaggerating its importance and consequences. Dudink 2001 engagingly describes the Chinese and foreign critics of the Jesuits who gradually undermined the original imperial support for Christianity. He concludes that the reasons for Yongzheng’s prohibition are still not clear, as also demonstrated by the lively debates in Mungello 1994. Because the newly arrived Dominicans attacked Ricci as lax and elitist, later scholars saw the controversy as primarily among Europeans. However, Vatican documents in Standaert 2012 show that rivalries among Chinese factions were also important.
  817.  
  818. Dudink, Ad. “Opponents.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 1, 635–1800. Edited by Nicolas Standaert, 504–533. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  819.  
  820. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  821.  
  822. Buddhists, Daoists, and orthodox Confucians had long criticized Christians, as Dudink explains in detail, but the 1724 prohibition of Christianity as a heterodox sect and expulsion of foreign missionaries was more a matter of the new emperor’s expansion of state control than of ideological objections.
  823.  
  824. Find this resource:
  825.  
  826. Mungello, David E, ed. The Chinese Rites Controversy: Its History and Meaning. Papers Presented at an International Symposium on the Significance of the Chinese Rites Controversy in Sino-Western History October 16–18 1992, San Francisco. Monumenta serica monograph series 33. Nettetal, Germany: Steyler Verlag, 1994.
  827.  
  828. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  829.  
  830. Papers and addresses from a conference organized by the Ricci Institute of the University of San Francisco which presented and stimulated new research.
  831.  
  832. Find this resource:
  833.  
  834. Standaert, Nicholas. “Rites Controversy.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 1, 635–1800. Edited by Nicolas Standaert, 680–688. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  835.  
  836. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  837.  
  838. A well-informed summary article which, along with other sections of the book, addresses basic issues and gives extensive references to the secondary literature and listings of primary sources.
  839.  
  840. Find this resource:
  841.  
  842. Standaert, Nicholas, trans. Chinese Voices in the Rites Controversy: Travelling Books, Community Networks, Intercultural Arguments. Rome: Institutum Historicum Societatis Iesu, 2012.
  843.  
  844. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  845.  
  846. Reproduces and translates letters sent by Chinese literati to Rome to express Chinese views on the Rites question.
  847.  
  848. Find this resource:
  849.  
  850. Protestant Missions and Chinese Christianities, 1807–1927
  851. For general accounts and the world context, see Gilley and Stanley 2006 and Moffett 1998–2005, cited under World Christianity, Missions, and Christianity in Asia. Cohen 1978 is an older but still cogent overview. Tiedemann 2010 cites recent studies that challenge assumptions that converts were simply “rice Christians” in search of missionary support in getting a meal, a job, backing in a lawsuit, or famine relief. Wang 1997 is concerned primarily with missionaries as conveyors of modern technology, rather than Christianity, but is representative of recent work in the PRC in its evenhanded treatment of American contributions and American imperialism.
  852.  
  853. Cohen, Paul. “Christian Missions and Their Impact to 1900.” In The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 10, Late Ch’ing 1800–1911, Part 1. Edited by John K. Fairbank, 543–590. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
  854.  
  855. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521214476Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. A standard survey focusing on missionaries and their opponents in local society, which, though bypassed in certain respects by new research since its publication in 1978, is still the most detailed account of this subject.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861. Tiedemann, R. G. “The Late Qing Scene.” In Handbook of Christianity In China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 278–353. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  862.  
  863. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  864.  
  865. Includes excellent summary essays, with background on new developments in Western Christendom and the Chinese political scene. Extensive notes and bibliography. In addition, Part One, chapter 1, “Sources, 1800–1911” of the Handbook (pp. 1–114) gives nearly exhaustive listings of Chinese and Western primary and secondary sources.
  866.  
  867. Find this resource:
  868.  
  869. Wang Lixin 王立新. Meiguo chuanjiaoshi yu wan-Qing Zhongguo xiandaihua: jindai Jidu xinjiao chuanjiaoshi zai Hua shehui wenhua jiaoyu huodong yanjiu (美国传教士与晚清中国现代化: 近代基督新教传教士在华社会文化和教育活动研究). Tianjin, China: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 1997.
  870.  
  871. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  872.  
  873. English title: American Missionaries and Modernization of China in Late Qing Dynasty. A broad survey of the activities and contributions of American Protestant missionaries to intellectual and scientific change in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily concerned with missionary impact on the Foreign Affairs Movement and the Reforms of 1898.
  874.  
  875. Find this resource:
  876.  
  877. Taiping Christianity
  878. Bohr 2010 provides an historical sketch of events, background, and extensive references for the Taiping Rebellion (1849–1864), a millenarian movement that set out to overthrow not merely the Qing Dynasty but the very imperial system in the name of the Christian God. Spence 1996 engagingly presents the life and religious work of the Taiping founder and leader, Hong Xiuchuan 洪秀全 (b. 1814–d. 1864). Wagner 1982 imaginatively analyzes the Chinese and Christian religious inspirations of Taiping ideology. Reilly 2004 shows in detail that Hong, a Hakka Chinese, was a Christian and a theologian of some subtlety.
  879.  
  880. Bohr, P. Richard. “Taiping Religion and Its Legacy.” In Handbook of Christianity in China Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 371–395. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  881.  
  882. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883.  
  884. An analysis of Hong’s syncretism—selective adoption of Christian, Buddhist, and Chinese sectarian elements—with an extensive bibliography of primary and secondary sources in Chinese and western languages. Other chapters in the Handbook describe primary sources and archives.
  885.  
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888. Reilly, Thomas H. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2004.
  889.  
  890. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891.  
  892. Hong Xiuchuan aimed to abolish the imperial order, establish theocratic rule, and restore the religion of the Old Testament, which he saw as the ancient Chinese religion which Confucius had destroyed. Hong was a monotheist theologian who did not recognize the Trinity; ignored incarnation, salvation, transcendence, or resurrection; did not use the Cross; drew from Daoist and Buddhist apocalyptic prophecies of a millennial messiah.
  893.  
  894. Find this resource:
  895.  
  896. Spence, Jonathan D. God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan. New York: W. W. Norton, 1996.
  897.  
  898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899.  
  900. A full-scale biography, including accounts of how Hong became a Christian, his theology, his Biblical commentaries and revisions, and the revolutionary changes Hong made in Chinese society while the short-lived kingdom lasted.
  901.  
  902. Find this resource:
  903.  
  904. Wagner, Rudolf G. Reenacting the Heavenly Vision: The Role of Religion in the Taiping Rebellion. Berkeley, CA: Institute of East Asian Studies, 1982.
  905.  
  906. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907.  
  908. Hong’s apocalyptic vision, its cultural context, and the ways the Taiping movement carried it out.
  909.  
  910. Find this resource:
  911.  
  912. Late-19th- and Early-20th-Century Local Communities
  913. These studies explore the various and diverging attractions of Christianity and by implication the nature of anti-Christian feeling (a subject treated in Anti-Christian Thought and Movements). Some local churches in this period presaged the post-1949 “Three Self” policies of self-propagation, self-government, and self-support. Cheung 2004, Lee 2003, Tao and Liu 1994, and Sweeten 2001 are detailed histories of local communities, each showing a different set of motives and circumstances. Some Chinese indeed became Christian more in search of practical help in this world than of spiritual help in the next. Christianity offered others membership in a cohesive group which could create meaningful new identities and spiritual understanding. Many practiced Christianity as another Chinese popular religion with supernatural spirits, healing of disease, ghostly messages, and out-of-body experiences. Missionary schools had great appeal in a society obsessed with social mobility. Dunch 2001 is a model study which shows that urban elites were inspired by the Protestant “political-religious vision” in building the moral basis of the nation leading up to the 1911 Revolution. Dunch then fruitfully expounds on the counterfactual question “why did China not become a Christian nation?”
  914.  
  915. Cheung, David (Chen Yiqiang). Christianity in Modern China: The Making of the First Native Protestant Church. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
  916.  
  917. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  918.  
  919. Explains how the Banlam Church in Southern Fujian achieved self-governance in 1856, pastoral ordination in 1863, and how the union of missionary denominations made it the earliest precursor of post-1949 policies of self-propagation, self-government, self-support.
  920.  
  921. Find this resource:
  922.  
  923. Dunch, Ryan. Fuzhou Protestants and the Making of a Modern China, 1857–1927. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.
  924.  
  925. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  926.  
  927. Protestants in Fuzhou, the major port city of Fujian province, were disproportionately represented in education, professional development, and political activism; Christianity represented both progress and service to the nation. The final chapter, “Why China Did Not Become a Christian Republic,” (pp. 178–202) argues that by the mid-1920s activist Chinese had come to see Christianity in terms of imperialism and looked elsewhere for the organizational means and inspiration for progress.
  928.  
  929. Find this resource:
  930.  
  931. Lee, Joseph Tse-Hei. The Bible and the Gun: Christianity in South China, 1860–1900. New York: Routledge, 2003.
  932.  
  933. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  934.  
  935. Analyzes the social process of conversion in Chaozhou, in northeastern Guangdong, particularly the missionary strategy of targeting clan elders in order to convert whole families. The resulting Christian family lineages fought with neighboring lineages, but over water and land, not religion. Lee then narrates four dramatic communal conflicts to show the effects of local variation.
  936.  
  937. Find this resource:
  938.  
  939. Lutz, Jessie Gregory, and Rolland Ray Lutz. Hakka Chinese Confront Protestant Christianity, 1850–1900: With the Autobiographies of Eight Hakka Christians, and Commentary. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1998.
  940.  
  941. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  942.  
  943. Translates autobiographies of Chinese evangelists who were recruited by Karl Gützlaff and Theodor Hamberg and their early converts among Hakka Chinese in inland Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Fujian.
  944.  
  945. Find this resource:
  946.  
  947. Sweeten, Alan Richard. Christianity in Rural China: Conflict and Accommodation in Jiangxi Province, 1860–1900. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan, 2001.
  948.  
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  950.  
  951. Orthodox missionary objections did not long prevent parishioners and local priests from accommodation with local popular religions. Accordingly, Catholics in this locality did not form a separate or antagonistic community, although political conflict could pit Christians against non-Christians.
  952.  
  953. Find this resource:
  954.  
  955. Tao Feiya 陶飞亚, and Liu Tianlu 刘天路. Jidu jiaohui yu jindai Shandong shehui (基督教会与近代山东社会). Jinan, China: Shandong daxue chubanshe, 1994.
  956.  
  957. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  958.  
  959. Exploration of Christians in Shandong society, which notes and weighs the range of their motivations for conversion; how they functioned in local politics; and the reactions of their neighbors.
  960.  
  961. Find this resource:
  962.  
  963. Zhang Xianqing 张先清. Guanfu zongzu yu Tianzhujiao: 17–19 shiji Fu’an xiangcun jiaohui de lishi xushi (官府, 宗族与天主教: 17–19世纪福安乡村教会的历史叙事). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2009.
  964.  
  965. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  966.  
  967. Combines anthropological and historical approaches to follow Fu’an, a rural county in Fujian, from the 17th to the 19th century, tracing patterns of interaction between imperial officials, local Christian lineage groups, and Catholicism in the Peoples Republic.
  968.  
  969. Find this resource:
  970.  
  971. Anti-Christian Thought and Movements
  972. Scholars differ on the motivations of anti-Christian activists. Some officials and local elites opposed Christianity because it was foreign, some because it was heterodox, some because it was a religion. Cohen 1963, still the most useful single survey of anti-Christian writings and antiforeign feelings after the Opium Wars, sees deep-rooted antiforeignism going back to the Ming dynasty. Laamann 2002, on the other hand, shows that officials cracked down on Christianity as just another heterodox sect, one comparable to the Buddhist White Lotus Society. Ter Haar 2006 offers another important revisionist explanation based in group psychology. He argues that anti-Christian hysteria did not start from religious prejudice or xenophobia but from longstanding stereotypes of outsiders. Lü 1985 was one of the first monographs to use the Foreign Ministry archives in Taiwan to explore the jiao’an (religious or missionary cases). Lü sees anti-Christian incidents as anti-imperialist, not anti-foreign. Death Blow to Corrupt Doctrines: A Plain Statement of Facts is a translation of a major anti-Christian pamphlet (discussed in Cohen 1963) whose elements date back to the 16th century. Smith 1901 is a longtime missionary’s explanation of Chinese anti-foreignism as an almost inborn racial characteristic. For the political repercussions of the missionary cases, see the separate Oxford Bibliographies article Fall of the Qing, 1840–1912 by David Pong.
  973.  
  974. Cohen, Paul A. China and Christianity; The Missionary Movement and the Growth of Chinese Antiforeignism, 1860–1870. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.
  975.  
  976. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674283633Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  977.  
  978. First sets out the tradition of anti-Christian thought, which he sees as an extension of historical antiforeignism, with extensive quotes and illustrations from anti-Christian polemics such as “Death Blow to Corrupt Practices” (Bi Xie Ji Shi 辟邪紀實), then examines missionary aggressiveness and arrogance, and gentry and official resistance, leading to the Tianjin Massacre of 1870.
  979.  
  980. Find this resource:
  981.  
  982. “Death Blow to Corrupt Doctrines: A Plain Statement of Facts.” In HathiTrust Digital Library. Shanghai: The Gentry and The People, 1870.
  983.  
  984. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  985.  
  986. An 1870 translation of Bi Xie Ji Shi (辟邪紀實), an anonymous anti-Christian pamphlet. The pamphlet starts with sections of the Yongzheng Emperor’s Sacred Edict of 1724, which singles out Catholicism in the Peoples Republic as heterodox, then goes on to describe and excoriate Christianity in sometimes lurid detail. The pamphlet may be viewed for free at Hathi Trust but downloaded only by members of partner institutions.
  987.  
  988. Find this resource:
  989.  
  990. Laamann, Lars. “Anti-Christian Agitation as an Example of Late Imperial Anticlericalism.” Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident 24 (2002): 47–64.
  991.  
  992. DOI: 10.3406/oroc.2002.1149Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  993.  
  994. After 1724, Christian, Buddhist, and Daoist cults and clerics were equally subject to imperial restrictions, but anti-Christian neighbors harbored cultural objections to the Catholic propagation of celibacy, the missionary’s nomadic life style, alleged black magic, and rumored sexual indecency; state officials had further political suspicions of Christian clerics as potential agents for foreign intrusion.
  995.  
  996. Find this resource:
  997.  
  998. Lü Shiqiang 呂實強. Zhongguo guanshen fanjiao de yuanyin, 1860–1874 (中國官紳反敎的原因, 1860–1874). 3d ed. Taipei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, Minguo 74, 1985.
  999.  
  1000. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1001.  
  1002. English title: Origin and Cause of the Anti-Christian Movement by Chinese Officials and Gentry, 1860–1874. First published in 1966, this still sound monograph presents views of Christianity and foreign missionaries from the Chinese side, emphasizing patriotic motives rather than traditional anti-Christian or antiforeign ones.
  1003.  
  1004. Find this resource:
  1005.  
  1006. Smith, Arthur Henderson. China in Convulsion, Volume One. New York: F. H. Revell, 1901.
  1007.  
  1008. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1009.  
  1010. Smith, who spent thirty years in a Shandong village and may have coined the term “Boxer,” devotes most of Volume One of his eyewitness account of the Boxer Uprising to explaining the history of Christianity in China, the sources of Chinese antiforeignism, and the reasons for fifty years of antiforeign riots. Downloadable as a Google book online.
  1011.  
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013.  
  1014. ter Haar, B. J. Telling Stories: Witchcraft and Scapegoating in Chinese History. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
  1015.  
  1016. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1017.  
  1018. Argues, particularly in chapter 4, “Westerners as Scapegoats,” (pp. 154–178) that the mass hysteria which attacked missionaries as “dangerous magicians” in the Tianjin Massacre of 1870 and Boxer Uprising of 1900 was unprecedented only in its targets; such scares had long built on stereotypes of marginal outsiders. Social tension, imperialism, and missionary aggression aggravated this hysteria and focused the panics on Christians.
  1019.  
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021.  
  1022. The Yihetuan Movement (Boxer Uprising)
  1023. In 1900, local bands of Yihetuan—“Fists United in Righteousness,” or so-called “Boxers”—murdered thousands of Chinese and foreign Christians. The opening section of Cohen 1997 is an up-to-date narrative of these extraordinarily complex events, although it does not address the nature of the Christian communities that were attacked. Esherick 1987 makes a conceptual step forward by analyzing the Yihetuan as popular village religion, not as rebellion. Clark 2011 disputes the interpretations of Cohen and Esherick. Litzinger 1996 and Thompson 1996 find that in two areas in North China Christians were in fact separated from their neighbors by their religion, a situation which was different from the South China villages described in the section Late-19th- and Early-20th-Century Local Communities. The social and political aspects of the Yihetuan movement are covered in the Oxford Bibliographies article Fall of the Qing by David Pong.
  1024.  
  1025. Clark, Anthony E. China’s Saints: Catholic Martyrdom During the Qing (1644–1911). Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2011.
  1026.  
  1027. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1028.  
  1029. The concluding sections concern the Boxer uprising. Clark disputes the claim that missionary arrogance was a major cause and argues that when they sacrificed themselves, the martyrs’ example made the mission strategy more comprehensible and local Catholic Churches more responsive to local society.
  1030.  
  1031. Find this resource:
  1032.  
  1033. Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997.
  1034.  
  1035. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1036.  
  1037. An influential study of the Boxer Movement, the lived experience of participants, and the range of interpretations of the movement over the following century. Some Chinese saw the Boxers as xenophobic, some as anti-imperialist or nationalist; some saw Christianity as the spawn of imperialism and incompatible with Chinese values while some saw it as a progressive influence.
  1038.  
  1039. Find this resource:
  1040.  
  1041. Esherick, Joseph. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
  1042.  
  1043. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1044.  
  1045. Argues, especially in chapter 3, “Imperialism, For Christ’s Sake” (pp. 68–95), that the power of the “Boxers” came from village cults and that their animus against Christians was in reaction to the rapid expansion and arrogance of missionaries who used their diplomatic power to support Christian converts.
  1046.  
  1047. Find this resource:
  1048.  
  1049. Litzinger, Charles A. “Rural Religion and Village Organization in North China: The Catholic Challenge in the Late Nineteenth Century.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel A. Bays, 41–52. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1050.  
  1051. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1052.  
  1053. Finds that tension between Catholics and non-Catholics in Zhili (present day Hebei) grew from 1860 to the 1890s as newly arrived missionaries insisted that the treaties, which had been forced on China after the Opium Wars, exempted Catholics from supporting village temples and operas or participating in prayer rituals, which were considered religious.
  1054.  
  1055. Find this resource:
  1056.  
  1057. Thompson, Roger R. “Twilight of the Gods in the Chinese Countryside: Christians, Confucians, and the Modernizing State, 1861–1911.” In Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 53–72. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1058.  
  1059. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1060.  
  1061. Argues that in Shanxi province the treaties of 1860 exempted Christians from village religious activities, which had long been an integral part of village identity, leading to a split between secular and sacred and friction between Christian and non-Christians.
  1062.  
  1063. Find this resource:
  1064.  
  1065. The 20th Century to 1949
  1066. The violent anti-Christian and anti-foreign Yihetuan (Boxer) Movement of 1900 and the equally violent foreign interventions and reprisals led paradoxically to a Golden Age of missions and an acceptance of Christianity as one source of tools to build a Chinese nation. Sun Yat-sen, the first President of the new Republic in 1912, was a Christian, as was Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the country after 1927. Liberal Protestant missionaries moved away from evangelism toward the Social Gospel and began to turn control over to Chinese leaders, though the Catholic Church was slower to change. At the same time, Chinese evangelicals, fundamentalists, and Pentecostals established vibrant independent churches and Chinese nationalists of the mid-1920s condemned Christianity as unscientific and imperialist. The outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937 brought all sides together into a United Front, at least for a time.
  1067.  
  1068. Catholic Missions and Chinese Churches, 1900–1949
  1069. Young 2013 is a multifaceted history showing that French interests dominated the Catholic Church in China to the detriment of Vatican control and the advancement of Chinese priests. Reforms in the 1920s brought only an initial opening to Chinese nationalism and the reassertion of papal power, setting up a confrontation with the new government in 1949. Harrison 2013, cited under Catholic Communities, continues her story into this period. Tiedemann 2010 surveys the important events and personalities, with ample references. Hayhoe and Lu 1996 describes the discrimination in the Church against Chinese priests and the successful career of a leading Chinese layman once he left the priesthood. Wiest 1988 is a more reassuring history of the Maryknolls, the first American order to send missions to China, and their success in evangelization and social welfare.
  1070.  
  1071. Hayhoe, Ruth, and Yongling Lu. Ma Xiangbo and the Mind of Modern China. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996.
  1072.  
  1073. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1074.  
  1075. Ma Xiangbo 馬相伯 (b. 1840–d. 1939), scion of a Shanghai Catholic family, was ordained in 1870 as a Jesuit priest, then driven from the priesthood by newly arrived European priests. He worked as a layman to found Université Aurore in 1903 but his synthesis of traditional Chinese shuyuan (academy) and western elements conflicted with the French Jesuits’ aim of creating a French-style curriculum taught in French. Ma then founded Fudan University in Shanghai and Fu Jen University in Beijing.
  1076.  
  1077. Find this resource:
  1078.  
  1079. Tiedemann, R. G. “The Actors.” In Handbook of Christianity In China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 516–652. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic, 2010.
  1080.  
  1081. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1082.  
  1083. In Part Two, Chapter 2, the sections “The Catholic Church in China, 1900–1949” (pp. 516–526) and “Chinese Catholics” (pp. 564–600, “Chinese Clergy” and “Catholic Religious Communities of Chinese Women”) discuss prominent individuals and institutions. These and other sections list secondary scholarship, archives, and primary sources.
  1084.  
  1085. Find this resource:
  1086.  
  1087. Wiest, Jean-Paul. Maryknoll in China: A History, 1918–1955. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1988.
  1088.  
  1089. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1090.  
  1091. Maryknoll was the first American Catholic mission to China. Wiest mined the Maryknoll archives in Ossining, New York, and Chinese sources to tell an approachable story, with due attention to overall analysis and prominent figures.
  1092.  
  1093. Find this resource:
  1094.  
  1095. Young, Ernest P. Ecclesiastical Colony: China’s Catholic Church and the French Religious Protectorate. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  1096.  
  1097. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199924622.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1098.  
  1099. The French 19th-century government used force, money, and diplomacy to establish an “ecclesiastical colony” which claimed protective jurisdiction over all Catholics in China, dominated the clergy, and prevented Popes from negotiating with China. In the 1920s Chinese Catholics such as Ying Lianzhi 英斂之 (b. 1867–d. 1926) and priests such as Vincent Lebbe (b. 1877–d. 1940) undermined but could not remove these chauvinist policies.
  1100.  
  1101. Find this resource:
  1102.  
  1103. Biographies and Memoirs
  1104. The three volumes Hamrin, et al. 2009–2011 contain sympathetic biographical essays for the general reader which form a lucid history of Christianity in modern China. Lindenfeld 2013 examines the standard biographical dictionary of Republican China, and finds that it mentions but does not analyze the Christianity of Sun Yat-sen, the “father of the Chinese nation,” and Chiang Kai-shek, his successor, nor of such figures as Feng Yuxiang, the so-called “Christian General.” Austin 2011 shows the connection between the religious identity, theological views, and practical motivation of the people she calls “Chinese business Christians.” Bae 2009 concludes that the Christian faith of Chiang Kai-shek was unorthodox but sincere. The memoirs, Lin 1959, Wei 1947, Lu 1948, and Wu 1951 are a sample of the literate, genial, but not always completely frank memoirs written in English for the general public by cosmopolitan Chinese. In addition to these items, see the section Biographical Dictionaries and Collections.
  1105.  
  1106. Austin, Denise A. Kingdom-Minded People: Christian Identity and the Contributions of Chinese Business Christians. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  1107.  
  1108. DOI: 10.1163/9789004222670Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1109.  
  1110. Argues that spiritually meaningful cosmopolitan identities provided cohesion for “Chinese business Christians” in the first half of the 20th century and that their theological understanding of the Kingdom of God led them to build institutions that included business fellowships, The Commercial Press, and Shanghai’s leading department stores, hospitals, and schools.
  1111.  
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113.  
  1114. Bae, Kyounghan. “Chiang Kai-Shek and Christianity: Religious Life Reflected from His Diary.” Journal of Modern Chinese History 3.1 (2009): 1–10.
  1115.  
  1116. DOI: 10.1080/17535650902900364Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1117.  
  1118. Chiang Kai-shek, leader of the Nationalist government after 1927, publicly converted to Christianity in 1930. While many observers questioned his motives, Bae concludes that Chiang was a sincere Christian though unorthodox from a missionary point of view.
  1119.  
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121.  
  1122. Hamrin, Carol Lee, and Stacey Bieler, eds. Salt and Light: Lives of Faith That Shaped Modern China. 3 vols. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2009–2011.
  1123.  
  1124. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1125.  
  1126. A collection of biographical essays for general readers. Chapter subjects include Yung Wing (Rong Hong), leader of the 19th century China Educational Mission; Ding Shujing, the first Chinese head of the YWCA; Mei Yiqi, wartime university president; and Wu Yifang, President of Ginling (Jinling) College and prominent figure in the Three Self Movement after 1949. Second and third volumes followed in 2010 and 2011, each with a similar selection.
  1127.  
  1128. Find this resource:
  1129.  
  1130. Lin, Yutang. From Pagan to Christian. Cleveland, OH: World Publishing, 1959.
  1131.  
  1132. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1133.  
  1134. Lin, a distinguished scholar and linguist whose genial translations introduced China to Western readers in the 1930s and 1940s, tells how he grew up in a Fujian Christian family, left the church, but returned to Christianity in the 1950s at the behest of his wife.
  1135.  
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137.  
  1138. Lindenfeld, David. “China’s Prominent Christians: A Prosopographical Analysis of the Biographical Dictionary of Republican China.” World History Connected 10.1 (2013).
  1139.  
  1140. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1141.  
  1142. Identifies the Christians included in Howard Boorman, ed., Biographical Dictionary of Republican China. 4 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press: 1967–1972), who were mostly elite, Western educated, and urban, then speculates productively on the omission of other prominent Christians, especially evangelical and rural leaders.
  1143.  
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145.  
  1146. Lu, Chêng-hsiang. Ways of Confucius and of Christ. Translated by Michael Derrick. London: Burns Oates, 1948.
  1147.  
  1148. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1149.  
  1150. Lu 陸徵祥 (b. 1871–d. 1949) a high-level Chinese diplomat, was raised as a Protestant but converted to Catholicism in the Peoples Republic and eventually retired to become a Benedictine monk in Belgium. His memoir emphasizes the power of Christianity to help China. Translated from Souvenirs Et Pensées: Suivi D’une Lettre a Mes Amis De Grande-Bretagne Et D’Amerique. (Paris: Éditions du Cerf, 1948).
  1151.  
  1152. Find this resource:
  1153.  
  1154. Wei, Francis C. M. (Wei Zhuomin). The Spirit of Chinese Culture. New York: Charles Scribner’s, 1947.
  1155.  
  1156. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1157.  
  1158. Wei, president of Huazhong University in Wuhan for more than two decades and a liberal Protestant trained in theology, here discusses the challenges in reconciling the Confucian religious heritage, modern China’s national priorities, and Christianity.
  1159.  
  1160. Find this resource:
  1161.  
  1162. Wu, John C. H. Beyond East and West. New York: Sheed and Ward, 1951.
  1163.  
  1164. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1165.  
  1166. The autobiography of Wu Jingxiong 吳經熊 (b. 1899–d. 1986), an international jurist and Nationalist government official who underwent a spiritual crisis and converted to Catholicism in 1937, just as the Sino-Japanese War broke out.
  1167.  
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169.  
  1170. Social Gospel Missions and the Sino-Foreign Protestant Establishment
  1171. After 1900, Social Gospel missionaries moved away from evangelization to work for Christian social change. For a concise account of the split between them and fundamentalists who rejected their liberalism, see Hutchison 1987, cited under World Christianity, Missions, and Christianity in Asia. Bays 2012a and Bays 2012b describe the formation of the “Sino-Foreign Protestant Establishment” and the reactions against it. Wang 2010 briefly gives a wide-ranging overview of Chinese Christians. The fullest account of liberal missionaries is Lian 1997, a well-researched and balanced monograph, while the China Centenary Missionary Conference Records: Report of the Great Conference Held at Shanghai April 5th [Read 25th] to May 8th, 1907 include debates on evangelization versus social involvement at the 1907 meeting in Shanghai. Rawlinson, et al. 1922 gathers reports and discussions from a 1922 conference organized by the National Christian Council which give an excellent contemporaneous view of the liberal Protestant movement. Rawlinson 1927 is a representative work by a liberal churchman. Chu 1995 is a scholarly biography of Wu Leichuan, a creative theologian who taught at Yenching University: his Wu 2008 (republished from the 1936 edition) deals with the problematic relation of Christianity with Chinese culture.
  1172.  
  1173. Bays, Daniel H. “The ‘Golden Age’ of Missions and the ‘Sino-Foreign Protestant Establishment,’ 1902–1927” In A New History of Christianity in China. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 92–120. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012a.
  1174.  
  1175. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1176.  
  1177. Describes the changes from a foreign mission-dominated Protestantism to a China-based network of liberal Protestant institutions.
  1178.  
  1179. Find this resource:
  1180.  
  1181. Bays, Daniel H. “The Multiple Crises of Chinese Christianity, 1927–1950.” In A New History of Christianity in China. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 121–157. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012b.
  1182.  
  1183. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1184.  
  1185. Traces the decline of foreign missions, rise of independent Chinese Christianities, especially evangelical and Pentecostal churches, and their wartime experience.
  1186.  
  1187. Find this resource:
  1188.  
  1189. China Centenary Missionary Conference Records: Report of the Great Conference Held at Shanghai April 5th [Read 25th] to May 8th, 1907. New York: American Tract Society, 1907.
  1190.  
  1191. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1192.  
  1193. These conference records discuss and debate the state of Christianity in China, the growth of the “Chinese church,” and local conditions, including detailed counting of Christians and churches.
  1194.  
  1195. Find this resource:
  1196.  
  1197. Chu, Sin-Jan. Wu Leichuan: A Confucian-Christian in Republican China. New York: Peter Lang, 1995.
  1198.  
  1199. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1200.  
  1201. Wu Leichuan 吴雷川 (b. 1870–d. 1944) was a Confucian scholar who passed the highest level of the imperial examinations, then became a Christian who debated the meaning of his faith in an imperiled China. In the 1920s he became the first Chinese to head Yenching University.
  1202.  
  1203. Find this resource:
  1204.  
  1205. Lian, Xi. The Conversion of Missionaries: Liberalism in American Protestant Missions in China, 1907–1932. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997.
  1206.  
  1207. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1208.  
  1209. Centers on missionaries who were “converted” by their experience in China from evangelical to liberal approaches grounded in a Chinese Christianity. Fundamentalist opposition at home forced each of the following to resign: Edward H. Hume (b. 1876–d. 1957), Frank Joseph Rawlinson (b. 1871–d. 1937), and Pearl S. Buck (b. 1892–d. 1973).
  1210.  
  1211. Find this resource:
  1212.  
  1213. Rawlinson, Frank Joseph. Naturalization of Christianity in China (a Study of the Relation of Christian and Chinese Idealism and Life). In HathiTrust Digital Library. Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press, 1927.
  1214.  
  1215. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1216.  
  1217. The most influential statement of Rawlinson, the leading missionary voice for liberal theology and for turning control of foreign missions and institutions over to the Chinese. Much of the material appeared in Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal (cited under Journals and Periodicals), which Rawlinson edited.
  1218.  
  1219. Find this resource:
  1220.  
  1221. Rawlinson, Frank Joseph, Helen Thoburn, D. MacGillivray, and National Christian Council of China. The Chinese Church as Revealed in the National Christian Conference Held in Shanghai, Tuesday, May 2, to Thursday, May 11, 1922. Shanghai: Oriental Press, 1922.
  1222.  
  1223. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1224.  
  1225. The deliberations of the 1922 meetings of the National Christian Council, the umbrella group for Chinese Christian churches, and a generally liberal body. There are reports on evangelical work, as well as a range of social and political activities, as well. In Open Library.
  1226.  
  1227. Find this resource:
  1228.  
  1229. Wang, Peter Chen-main, “Chinese Christians in Republican China.” In Handbook of Christianity In China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 600–612. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  1230.  
  1231. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1232.  
  1233. Introduces the “Christian revival” after the Boxer Uprising of 1900, including the visits of liberal mission figures, the formation of the NCC in 1922, liberal action social programs, and the struggle among Christian organizations to stay politically relevant in the face of the 1937–1945 Japanese invasion.
  1234.  
  1235. Find this resource:
  1236.  
  1237. Wu Leichuan 吴雷川. Jidujiao yu Zhongguo wenhua (基督敎与中囯文化). Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2008.
  1238.  
  1239. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1240.  
  1241. Wu (alternate nameWu Zhenchun 吴震春), a Yenching University theologian and Chancellor of the university, expounds on “Christianity and Chinese Culture.” He portrays Jesus as combining a Christian socialism with Confucianism. This view was opposed by T. C. Chao (Zhao Zichen), Wu’s Yenching colleague and fellow theologian. Originally published Shanghai: YMCA Press, 1936.
  1242.  
  1243. Find this resource:
  1244.  
  1245. Christian Colleges and Universities
  1246. The Social Gospel was especially strong in higher education. Lutz 1971 is still the most detailed and thoughtful history of the thirteen Protestant and three Roman Catholic universities as they developed from 19th-century small-scale institutions run by foreign missionaries to universities with national constituencies largely run by Chinese. They face political challenges: In the 1920s the Nationalist government demanded that their management become Chinese; in the 1930s they debated the value of Christian education and the meaning of Christianity in the face of Japanese expansionism. West 1976 treats these questions as they were raised at Yenching University, founded in 1919 as the capstone of the missionary school system in North China. Feng 2009, Rosenbaum 2012, and Wang 2007 highlight the human dilemmas of Christian students and faculty. After the Christian colleges were closed down in the early 1950s, their histories became obscured. In the 1980s, PRC scholars welcomed foreign scholars to collaborate in re-evaluating the record, developments described in Ng 2001 and Tao 2009. The leading Roman Catholic universities, Aurora University and Fudan University in Shanghai and Catholic University (Fu Jen) in Beijing, are also treated briefly in Hayhoe and Lu 1996 (cited under Catholic Missions and Chinese Churches, 1900–1949).
  1247.  
  1248. Feng, Jin. The Making of a Family Saga: Ginling College. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2009.
  1249.  
  1250. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1251.  
  1252. Life stories of individuals and families anchor this history of Ginling College, a leading women’s college. Ginling’s President, Wu Yifang, was a leading voice of liberal Christianity before and after 1949.
  1253.  
  1254. Find this resource:
  1255.  
  1256. Lutz, Jessie Gregory. China and the Christian Colleges, 1850–1950. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971.
  1257.  
  1258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1259.  
  1260. A detailed but clear history of the thirteen Protestant and three Catholic colleges. Especially good on the 1920s to the 1949 Revolution as students and faculty debated how Christian education could serve a nation that needed political strength and technical education, not theology.
  1261.  
  1262. Find this resource:
  1263.  
  1264. Ng, Peter Tze Ming. “Paradigm Shift and the State of the Field in the Study of Christian Higher Education in China.” Cahiers d’Extrême-Asie 12.1 (2001): 127–140.
  1265.  
  1266. DOI: 10.3406/asie.2001.1167Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1267.  
  1268. Detailed review of developments in the field, with extensive bibliographical notes to works in English and Chinese, as well as notes on archives and published documents.
  1269.  
  1270. Find this resource:
  1271.  
  1272. Rosenbaum, Arthur Lewis. “Christianity, Academics, and National Salvation in China: Yenching University, 1924–1949.” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 13 (2006): 25–54.
  1273.  
  1274. DOI: 10.1163/187656106793645213Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1275.  
  1276. Describes the revealing debate among faculty members at Yenching as to whether Christianity could be made Chinese in a way which would serve a nation in crisis and whether this transformation would destroy its spiritual validity.
  1277.  
  1278. Find this resource:
  1279.  
  1280. Rosenbaum, Arthur Lewis, ed. New Perspectives on Yenching University, 1916–1952: A Liberal Education for a New China. Chicago: Imprint, 2012.
  1281.  
  1282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1283.  
  1284. Essays, with a wide-ranging introduction by the editor, explore for scholars and general readers the experience of Yenching University. Many of the essays were first published in Journal of American-East Asian Relations 14: 1–4 (2004–2006).
  1285.  
  1286. Find this resource:
  1287.  
  1288. Tao, Feiya. “Christian Colleges in China: New Relations and New Perspectives since the 1980s.” In Christian Mission and Education in Modern China, Japan, and Korea. Edited by Jan A. B. Jongeneel, Peter Tze Ming Ng, Chong-gu Paek, Scott Sunquist, and Yuko Watanabe, 81–87. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2009.
  1289.  
  1290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291.  
  1292. Describes developments in the academic study of the Republican period Christian colleges, emphasizing the contributions of Zhang Kaiyuan and Peter Tze Ming Ng. Other pieces in the volume offer useful comparisons with Christian education in other Asian countries.
  1293.  
  1294. Find this resource:
  1295.  
  1296. Wang, Dong. Managing God’s Higher Learning: U.S.-China Cultural Encounter and Canton Christian College (Lingnan University) 1888–1952. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007.
  1297.  
  1298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1299.  
  1300. A thematic exploration of Canton Christian College–an evangelical, small-scale, missionary institution—which became Lingnan University, and how it debated its Christian mission in the face of Chinese nationalism in the 1920s.
  1301.  
  1302. Find this resource:
  1303.  
  1304. West, Philip. Yenching University and Sino-Western Relations, 1916–1952. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976.
  1305.  
  1306. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674863064Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1307.  
  1308. A monograph with strong sections on the collegial theological and political debates between university President John Leighton Stuart and faculty members Wu Leichuan, Zhao Zizhen (T. C. Chao), and William Hung.
  1309.  
  1310. Find this resource:
  1311.  
  1312. Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) and Young Women’s Christian Association (YWCA)
  1313. The Chinese National YMCA was the first Protestant mission institution to “indigenize,” that is, to turn control over to Chinese. The studies in this section see the Y as a modernizing force, which defined Christianity as social service and provided models for radical nationalist groups. Garrett 1970 covers this process, ending in 1926 with the rise of radical Chinese nationalism. Xing 1996 is a readable survey, which focuses on the secular contributions of these nondenominational service organizations, but includes theological and spiritual issues. The YMCA is often portrayed as a reformist and business-friendly organization, but Reilly 2012 and Wang 2011 show a drift of Y leaders to the left in the 1930s, even to Marxism. Honig 1996 argues that the YWCA in the 1920s was hospitable to radical social views.
  1314.  
  1315. Garrett, Shirley S. Social Reformers in Urban China: The Chinese Y.M.C.A., 1895–1926. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
  1316.  
  1317. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674281547Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1318.  
  1319. Lively short monograph. The Y was more concerned with social improvement and building the nation than with religious doctrine or denominational affiliation. The Y organized urban campaigns for science education, health, and literacy; those programs provided models for their more radical competitors, who, after 1926, in turn attracted some Y leaders.
  1320.  
  1321. Find this resource:
  1322.  
  1323. Honig, Emily. “Christianity, Feminism, and Communism: The Life and Times of Deng Yuzhi.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 243–262. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1324.  
  1325. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1326.  
  1327. Cora Deng (Deng Yuzhi) (b. 1900–d. 1996) worked with women factory workers for the Industrial Department of the 1920s Shanghai YWCA. She and her program of Christian social reform eventually became revolutionary.
  1328.  
  1329. Find this resource:
  1330.  
  1331. Reilly, Thomas. “Wu Yaozong and the YMCA: From Social Reform to Social Revolution, 1927–1937.” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 19.3–4 (2012): 263–287.
  1332.  
  1333. DOI: 10.1163/18765610–01904007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1334.  
  1335. Y. T. Wu (Wu Yaozong 吳耀宗) (b. 1893–d. 1979), a YMCA national secretary, studied at Union Theological Seminary in New York and there read global discussions on Christian socialism. In the 1930s he encouraged churchmen to consider progressive reform and eventually adopted a Marxist vision of social revolution. After 1949, he became a leader of the Three Self Patriotic Movement.
  1336.  
  1337. Find this resource:
  1338.  
  1339. Wang, Peter Chen-main. “Yu Rizhang: Patriot, Peacemaker, Prophet.” In Salt and Light 3: More Lives of Faith That Shaped Modern China. Edited by Carol Lee Hamrin and Stacey Bieler, 38–58. Eugene, OR: Pickwick, 2011.
  1340.  
  1341. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1342.  
  1343. David Z. T. Yui (Yu Rizhang 余日章) (b. 1882–d. 1936) headed the Chinese National YMCA from 1916 to 1932. He saw individual character as the basis for national salvation and moved the Y into social service and youth programs to strengthen China against Japan. Yui also led the National Christian Council and worked with the China Institute of Pacific Relations.
  1344.  
  1345. Find this resource:
  1346.  
  1347. Xing, Jun. Baptized in the Fire of Revolution: The American Social Gospel and the YMCA in China, 1919–1937. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 1996.
  1348.  
  1349. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1350.  
  1351. A clearly written monograph which shows the shift from “social gospel” to “revolution gospel” among YMCA secretaries and liberal Christians such as T. C. Chao (Zhao Zizhen), Kiang Wen-han, Y. T. Wu (Wu Yaozong), and David Yui (Yu Rizhang).
  1352.  
  1353. Find this resource:
  1354.  
  1355. Christian Rural Work
  1356. The logic of social service led liberal Protestants to the countryside, where the vast majority of Chinese lived. Hayford 1990 is a biographically organized study of Y. C. James Yen (Yan Yangchu 晏阳初 [b. 1890–d. 1990]), a Yale-educated Christian. In the 1920s Yen left his mass literacy work with the YMCA to organize the Rural Reconstruction Movement, which inspired and supported Christian rural projects. Thomson 1969 is a smoothly written monograph, which includes the rural projects of the National Christian Council (NCC). Price 1948 describes village projects sponsored by the NCC. Chang 1972 is a reflective memoir of another Yale-educated rural activist who worked with the NCC and Yen’s Rural Reconstruction Movement. Liu 2008 pulls a wide range of material into a series of case studies of service groups that worked to develop a distinctive Chinese Christian approach to village life.
  1357.  
  1358. Chang, Fu-liang. When East Met West: A Personal Story of Rural Reconstruction in China. New Haven, CT: Yale-in-China Association, 1972.
  1359.  
  1360. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1361.  
  1362. A relaxed but insightful memoir. Zhang Fuliang 張輔良 (b. 1889–d. 1984) was a leader in the Christian Country Life Movement and Director of Rural Welfare for the NCC in the 1930s.
  1363.  
  1364. Find this resource:
  1365.  
  1366. Hayford, Charles W. To the People: James Yen and Village China. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990.
  1367.  
  1368. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1369.  
  1370. Yen worked with the International Y during World War I, organized nationwide YMCA literacy campaigns in the 1920s, and then the Rural Reconstruction Movement of the 1920s and 1930s. The Movement was not Christian, but Yen’s nationalism and Christian ideals led him to the countryside to find an alternative to communist revolution.
  1371.  
  1372. Find this resource:
  1373.  
  1374. Liu Jiafeng 刘家峰. Zhongguo jidujiao xiangcun jianshe yundong yanjiu 1907–1950 (中国基督教乡村建设运动研究, 1907–1950). Tianjin, China: Tianjin renmin chubanshe, 2008.
  1375.  
  1376. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1377.  
  1378. Three case studies of Christian indigenization in the form of university-sponsored rural projects in north and south China that focused on rural development, not evangelizing missions. Revision of the author’s doctoral thesis at Huazhong Normal University, 2001.
  1379.  
  1380. Find this resource:
  1381.  
  1382. Price, Frank W. The Rural Church in China, a Survey. 2d ed. New York: Agricultural Missions, 1948.
  1383.  
  1384. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1385.  
  1386. Price, a China-born missionary who was close to Chiang Kai-shek, established a Rural Training Institute to train students from the Nanking Theological Seminary, supported by the NCC.
  1387.  
  1388. Find this resource:
  1389.  
  1390. Thomson, James C., Jr. While China Faced West: American Reformers in Nationalist China, 1928–1937. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
  1391.  
  1392. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1393.  
  1394. A general study of missionary participation in Nationalist government programs, such as the New Life Movement and the rural projects of the NCC.
  1395.  
  1396. Find this resource:
  1397.  
  1398. Fundamentalism and Independent Popular Churches
  1399. By the 1920s, Chinese independent evangelicals and Pentecostals were the largest Christian groups, yet until recently drew little attention from scholars. Lian 2010 offers an engaging story and strong analysis of the Chinese leaders who created independent movements. Yao 2003 shows how battles in China between conservative fundamentalist and liberal modernist missionaries affected debates in the United States. Tiedemann 2012 elegantly places revivalist campaigns in Shandong into a social background using recent Chinese and western scholarship. Wu 2002 is a rigorous historian’s sympathetic biography of Dora Yu, the charismatic woman evangelist who attracted a new generation to follow in her steps. Her style influenced Watchman Nee, whose seminal career is enthusiastically narrated in Kinnear 1990. The politics of Nee’s situation after 1949 are crisply analyzed in Lee 2005. Marcus Cheng, a leading force for an independent Chinese evangelical church, receives careful attention in Xing 2001. Tao 2012 is a systematic analysis of one of the largest Chinese Pentecostal churches, the Jesus Family, also a Shandong movement.
  1400.  
  1401. Kinnear, Angus I. Against the Tide: Story of Watchman Nee. Rev. ed. East Sussex, UK: Kingsway, 1990
  1402.  
  1403. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1404.  
  1405. Watchman Nee (Ni Tuosheng 倪柝聲) (b. 1903–d. 1972), was born into a Fuzhou Christian family. From the 1920s his Local Church (Difang jiaohui) or Little Flock (Xiaoqun) movement appealed to city middle-class professionals and was second only to the True Jesus Church among independent Protestants. Nee was arrested in 1952, ostensibly for economic crimes, and died in prison two decades later.
  1406.  
  1407. Find this resource:
  1408.  
  1409. Lee, Joseph Tse-Hei. “Watchman Nee and the Little Flock Movement in Maoist China.” Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture 74.1 (2005): 68–96.
  1410.  
  1411. DOI: 10.1017/S0009640700109667Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1412.  
  1413. Watchman Nee more than met formal post-1949 Three Self requirements for independence from foreign control, but in that politically volatile atmosphere, the government suppressed his Little Flock as “feudal” and “superstitious” and jailed Nee.
  1414.  
  1415. Find this resource:
  1416.  
  1417. Lian, Xi. Redeemed by Fire: The Rise of Popular Christianity in Modern China. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.
  1418.  
  1419. DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300123395.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1420.  
  1421. A well-grounded, lively story of the revolt against mission churches and liberal theology. Solid coverage is given to Wang Mingdao, the True Jesus Church, the Jesus Family, John Sung (Song Shangjie) and the Bethel Band, and Watchman Nee and the Little Flock. Lian traces their roots and follows them through war and revolution, and then outlines the story of the underground churches after 1949.
  1422.  
  1423. Find this resource:
  1424.  
  1425. Tao Feiya 陶飞亚. Zhongguo de Jidujiao wutuobang yanjiu: yi minguo shiqi Yesu jiating weili (中国的基督教乌托邦研究: 以民国时期耶稣家庭为例). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2012.
  1426.  
  1427. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1428.  
  1429. The Jesus Family led by Jing Dianying (b. 1890–d. 1957) created dozens of utopian Pentecostal communes with a Daoist tinge in rural Shandong starting in the 1920s. Their speaking in tongues and being possessed by the Holy Spirit may have some connection to the spirit possession of the Boxers and Eight Trigrams Buddhist sect.
  1430.  
  1431. Find this resource:
  1432.  
  1433. Tiedemann, R. G. “Protestant Revivals in China with Particular Reference to Shandong Province.” Studies in World Christianity 18.3 (2012): 213–236.
  1434.  
  1435. DOI: 10.3366/swc.2012.0022Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1436.  
  1437. Vivid history of the revival movement in Manchuria (1907–1908) and especially the great Shandong revival of the 1930s led by the Canadian Jonathan Goforth (b. 1859–d. 1936) and the Shandong evangelist Ding Limei (b. 1871–d. 1936).
  1438.  
  1439. Find this resource:
  1440.  
  1441. Wu, Silas H. L. Dora Yu and Christian Revival in 20th-Century China. Boston: Pishon River, 2002.
  1442.  
  1443. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1444.  
  1445. Dora Yu (Yu Cidu 余慈度) (b. 1873–d. 1933) first practiced medicine, but in 1910 found her métier as China’s first woman travelling evangelist. The work is translated by the author as Wu Xiuliang 吳秀良, Fuxing xianfeng: Yu Cidu yu nian shiji de Zhongguo jiaohui (復興先鋒: 余慈度舆廿世紀的中國教會). (Boston: Bixun He chubanshe, 2004.)
  1446.  
  1447. Find this resource:
  1448.  
  1449. Xing Fuzeng 邢福增 (Ying Fuk-tsang). Zhongguo jiyaozhuyizhe de shijian yu kunjing: Chen Chonggui de shenxue sixiang yu shidai (中國基要主義者的實踐與困境: 陳崇桂 的神學思想與時代). Hong Kong, China: Jiandao shenxue yuan, 2001.
  1450.  
  1451. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1452.  
  1453. Chen Chonggui 陳崇桂 (Marcus Cheng) (b. 1884–d. 1963) from the mid-1920s sought equal treatment and autonomy from foreign mission institutions, then in 1951 joined the leadership of the semiofficial Three Self Patriotic Movement and attacked missions as imperialist. In 1957 Mao Zedong attacked Chen after he publicly criticized the government’s treatment of Christians. English title: “Praxis and Predicament of a Chinese Fundamentalist.”
  1454.  
  1455. Find this resource:
  1456.  
  1457. Yao, Kevin Xiyi. The Fundamentalist Movement among Protestant Missionaries in China, 1920–1937. Dallas, TX: University Press of America, 2003.
  1458.  
  1459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1460.  
  1461. Fundamentalists stressed the unerring authority of the Bible and insisted on evangelism over social service. Furthermore, fundamentalist missionaries rejected the liberal cooperative approach to non-Christian religions, and firmly stood for the uniqueness and finality of Christ.
  1462.  
  1463. Find this resource:
  1464.  
  1465. Chinese Christian Students in North America
  1466. Bieler 2004 contains wide-ranging and clearly written case studies of so-called “returned students,” many of whom were Christian or who converted while abroad, while Liang 2010 and Tseng 1996 focus specifically on Christian students in North America. Xu 2006 explores the effect of the theologically liberal Union Theological Seminary on students who returned to China to become influential both before and after 1949. Yang 1999 is a general study that analyzes Chinese Christian students in a comparative framework.
  1467.  
  1468. Bieler, Stacey. “Patriots” or “Traitors”? A History of American-Educated Chinese Students. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2004.
  1469.  
  1470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1471.  
  1472. Synthesizes recent scholarship on Chinese students and their influence after they returned to China.
  1473.  
  1474. Find this resource:
  1475.  
  1476. Liang Guanting 梁冠霆. Liu Mei qingniande xinyang zhuixun: bei Mei Zhongguo jidujiao xuesheng yundong yanjiu: 1909–1951 (留美青年的信仰追寻: 北美中国基督教学生运动研究: 1909–1951). Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 2010.
  1477.  
  1478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1479.  
  1480. A study of American-educated Chinese students who were financed by Boxer Indemnity Scholarships and were or became Christian in the United States during the period from 1909 to 1951.
  1481.  
  1482. Find this resource:
  1483.  
  1484. Tseng, Timothy. “Religious Liberalism, International Politics, and Diasporic Realities: The Chinese Students Christian Association of North America, 1909–1951.” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 5.3–4 (1996): 305–330.
  1485.  
  1486. DOI: 10.1163/187656196X00056Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1487.  
  1488. American Christian organizations, especially the YMCA, welcomed Chinese students and supported their national organization. Tseng discusses the issues of religious liberal idealism against the realistic politics of American internationalism.
  1489.  
  1490. Find this resource:
  1491.  
  1492. Xu, Yihua. “Union Theological Seminary and the Christian Church in China.” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 13.1–4 (2006): 11–24.
  1493.  
  1494. DOI: 10.1163/187656106793645150Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1495.  
  1496. From 1914 to 1950, Union Theological Seminary in Manhattan trained some thirty-nine Chinese students in theological liberalism, including Cheng Ching-yi (Cheng Jingyi), William Hung, Liu Tingfang, K. H. Ting (Ding Guangxun), and Y. T. Wu (Wu Yaozong).
  1497.  
  1498. Find this resource:
  1499.  
  1500. Yang, Fenggang. Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
  1501.  
  1502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1503.  
  1504. A sociological study identifying demographic and economic patterns as well as spiritual attractions.
  1505.  
  1506. Find this resource:
  1507.  
  1508. Anti-Christian Movements, 1900–1949
  1509. No one work covers the entire period in depth. Lutz 2010 is a clear short overview, with abundant citations to references to the scattered scholarship in the field. Bastid-Bruguière 2002 pinpoints the imported new concepts and terms in the campaign of 1922, which marked a shift from a general critique of irrationality to a specific attack on Christianity as unscientific and imperialist. Yang 2005 deals with these changing grounds for accepting or attacking Christianity among nationalistic intellectuals in the mid-1920s. Lutz 1988 is a detailed political study of the 1920s, sensitive both to the patriotic intellectuals and to the Christian mission project.
  1510.  
  1511. Bastid-Bruguière, Marianne. “La Campagne Antireligieuse De 1922.” Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident 24 (2002): 77–94.
  1512.  
  1513. DOI: 10.3406/oroc.2002.1151Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1514.  
  1515. In 1922, Comintern agents instigated a campaign that turned into a storm of attack on religion in general and Christian institutions in particular. Students and intellectuals adopted French concepts of religion, secularism, and a vocabulary of anticlericalism.
  1516.  
  1517. Find this resource:
  1518.  
  1519. Lutz, Jessie Gregory. Chinese Politics and Christian Missions: The Anti-Christian Movements of 1920–28. Notre Dame, IN: Cross Cultural Publications, 1988.
  1520.  
  1521. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1522.  
  1523. Organized anti-Christian student movements reached a high tide in 1922–1923, followed by successive waves, but receded with the 1928 establishment of the Nationalist government headed by Chiang Kai-shek, who soon announced his conversion to Christianity.
  1524.  
  1525. Find this resource:
  1526.  
  1527. Lutz, Jessie G. “Opponents of Christianity.” In Handbook of Christianity In China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 640–652. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  1528.  
  1529. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1530.  
  1531. Follows students, nationalists, and revolutionaries who opposed Christianity from the Boxer Uprising to the 1949 revolution. Excellent listing of secondary literature. Further primary sources and archives are described in earlier chapters of this volume of the Handbook.
  1532.  
  1533. Find this resource:
  1534.  
  1535. Yang Tianhong 杨天宏. Jidujiao yu minguo zhishifenzi: 1922 nian—1927 nian Zhongguo fei-Jidujiao yundong yanjiu (基督教与民国知识分子: 1922年--1927年中国非基督教运动研究). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2005.
  1536.  
  1537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1538.  
  1539. Intellectuals in the New Culture Movement (1916–1923) first attacked Confucianism as feudal and superstitious while accepting Christianity as cosmopolitan; in 1922 student activists targeted Christianity as irrational and then added charges of imperialism. Originally published as Jidujiao yu jindai Zhongguo (基督教与近代中国) (Chengdu, China: Sichuan renmin chubanshe, 1994).
  1540.  
  1541. Find this resource:
  1542.  
  1543. War, Japanese Occupation, and Revolution, 1937–1949
  1544. Bays 2012 and Lian 2010 give useful preliminary accounts of this underexamined period. Brook 1996 argues that churches which survived the Japanese occupation of North China developed strategies for independence that they did not relinquish after 1949. Keller 2006 argues that the crisis of the oncoming Japanese invasion transformed Christian students; they did not abandon frameworks they had learned from the international Christian social reform network but extended them to justify a move toward Marxism.
  1545.  
  1546. Bays, Daniel H. “Chinese Protestantism during the War of Resistance Against Japan.” In A New History of Christianity in China. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 141–146. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
  1547.  
  1548. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1549.  
  1550. This section of chapter 6, “The Multiple Crises of Chinese Christianity, 1927–1950,” examines the political role of the North China Church of Christ League (Huabei Zhonghua Jidujiao tuan), founded in 1942, asking whether it was a “buffer,” a source of quiet resistance, or a collaborationist front.
  1551.  
  1552. Find this resource:
  1553.  
  1554. Brook, Timothy. “Toward Independence: Christianity in China under the Japanese Occupation, 1937–1945.” In Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 317–337. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1555.  
  1556. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1557.  
  1558. The Church of Christ in China (CCC), in 1937 the largest Protestant organization, in its relations with the Japanese Army went from initial obedience to accommodation, and then to subordination, but by 1945 emerged as more independent and united than would have been possible without the strategies developed under the Japanese occupation.
  1559.  
  1560. Find this resource:
  1561.  
  1562. Keller, Charles A. “The Christian Student Movement, YMCAs, and Transnationalism in Republican China.” Journal of American-East Asian Relations 13.1–4 (2006): 55–80.
  1563.  
  1564. DOI: 10.1163/187656106793645187Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1565.  
  1566. Christians were prominent in the leadership of the anti-Japanese student protests in the December 9th Movement of 1935. They had absorbed from YMCA international networks organizational techniques and social critiques of capitalism, which led them to work with or join the Communists during the war.
  1567.  
  1568. Find this resource:
  1569.  
  1570. Lian Xi, “The Indigenous Church Movement through War and Revolution.” In Redeemed by Fire: The Rise of Popular Christianity in Modern China. Edited by Xi Lian, 179–203. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2010.
  1571.  
  1572. DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300123395.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1573.  
  1574. Follows the True Jesus Church, The Jesus Family, Watchman Nee, and Wang Mingdao through the tribulations of the war and the movement’s great growth in energy and numbers from 1945 to 1949.
  1575.  
  1576. Find this resource:
  1577.  
  1578. The People’s Republic, 1949–
  1579. Christianity in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) arouses interest and controversy. Chan 2010 evenhandedly outlines the ideological, legal, and political background, and provides reference to the scholarship on the government sanctioned “patriotic churches.” The college-level text Yang 2012 develops a sociological framework along with up-to-date observations and references. The items published in the 1990s are still valid on the early years of the PRC; the translations in MacInnis 1990 form a documentary history made even more useful by the introduction and notes. Luo 1991 collects essays that reflect semiofficial points of view on Christianity, among other religions. The essays in Hunter and Chan 1993 provide wide-ranging coverage for readers who have little background and for students of religion. Dunch 2001 is an incisive short survey of mainline and independent Protestants. Lomanov 2010 is a brief overview of the Chinese Orthodox Church—that is, the Russian Orthodox Church in China.
  1580.  
  1581. Chan, Kim-Kwong. “Chinese Churches and Communist State: The ‘Patriotic’ Churches.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 867–881. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  1582.  
  1583. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1584.  
  1585. Describes Marxist-Leninist analysis of religion and the objectives of the Chinese Communist Party, with a sketch of the 1950s to 1990s and the establishment of the “patriotic” (aiguo) churches. Extensive citation of secondary literature.
  1586.  
  1587. Find this resource:
  1588.  
  1589. Dunch, Ryan. “Protestant Christianity in China Today: Fragile, Fragmented, Flourishing.” In China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Edited by Stephen Uhalley Jr. and Xiaoxin Wu, 195–216. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001.
  1590.  
  1591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1592.  
  1593. Trenchant overview that clarifies the conceptual issues behind the contradictory state of Protestant Christianity: churches flourish but are fragmented because of theological, practical, and regional diversity, and limited in the role they can play in social and cultural life.
  1594.  
  1595. Find this resource:
  1596.  
  1597. Hunter, Alan, and Kim-Kwong Chan, eds. Protestantism in Contemporary China. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
  1598.  
  1599. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511627989Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1600.  
  1601. Essays describe the Protestant community and its historical legacy; relations with Buddhists and Catholics, with especially detailed description of the reform era; and official churches, house churches, and autonomous communities. Ample footnotes and bibliography.
  1602.  
  1603. Find this resource:
  1604.  
  1605. Lomanov, Alexander. “Chinese Orthodox Church.” In Handbook of Christianity In China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 826–836. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic, 2010.
  1606.  
  1607. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1608.  
  1609. Describes rivalries between the pro-Soviet and anti-Soviet exarchs in the 1940s, the continued factionalization in the 1950s and 1960s, the decline in number of communicants to less than 10,000 in the 1980s, and the somewhat positive developments since 2000.
  1610.  
  1611. Find this resource:
  1612.  
  1613. Luo, Zhufeng, ed. Religion under Socialism in China. Translated by Donald E. MacInnis and Zheng Xi’an, introduction by Donald E. MacInnis, foreword by Bishop K. H. Ting. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991.
  1614.  
  1615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1616.  
  1617. Nine thematic essays from the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, presenting semiofficial views on religions in general, including Christianity.
  1618.  
  1619. Find this resource:
  1620.  
  1621. MacInnis, Donald E., ed. Religion in China Today: Policy and Practice. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1990.
  1622.  
  1623. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1624.  
  1625. Policy documents, newspaper and magazine articles, public statements by designated religious leaders, and interviews, with a useful Introduction. Continues the coverage from Religious Policy And Practice In Communist China: A Documentary History, edited by Donald E. MacInnis (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1967).
  1626.  
  1627. Find this resource:
  1628.  
  1629. Yang, Fenggang. Religion in China: Survival and Revival under Communist Rule. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  1630.  
  1631. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1632.  
  1633. Develops a sociological framework and presents recent data on religious groups in contemporary China, including Christians. Aimed at college students.
  1634.  
  1635. Find this resource:
  1636.  
  1637. The Three Self Patriotic Movement and Recognized Churches
  1638. Merwin and Jones 1963 is a highly useful selection of documents on the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) (Zhongguo jidujiao sanzi aiguo yundong weiyuanhui 中國基督教三自愛國運動委員會). Gao 1996 asks whether Y. T. Wu (Wu Yaozong), the long-standing liberal Protestant leader of the TSPM, established a “captive church,” or whether his tactical cooperation prevented the destruction of organized Christianity. In 1976, Wu was succeeded by Bishop K. H. Ting (Ding Guangxun). Ting 2002 is a selection of Ting’s theological writings advocating an ecumenical Chinese Christianity under socialism. Wickeri 1988 sympathetically but frankly relates the history of the TSPM to the political dilemmas of the time. Ting is the subject of an engaging biography, Wickeri 2007, which recounts his career from the 1930s to the 1990s.
  1639.  
  1640. Gao, Wangzhi. “Y.T. Wu: A Christian Leader under Communism.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 338–352. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1641.  
  1642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1643.  
  1644. Explores the controversies over Y. T. Wu (Wu Yaozong) (b. 1893–d. 1979), longtime liberal theologian and founder of TSPM, and asks whether his career after 1949 was beneficial or detrimental to a Chinese Protestant Christianity.
  1645.  
  1646. Find this resource:
  1647.  
  1648. Merwin, Wallace C., and Francis P. Jones, eds. Documents of the Three Self Movement: Source Materials for the Study of the Protestant Church in Communist China. New York: National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America, Division of Foreign Missions. Far Eastern Office, 1963.
  1649.  
  1650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1651.  
  1652. Key documents, with introduction and commentaries, including: H. H. Tsui, et al., “Message from Chinese Christians to Mission Boards Abroad” (1949); “Christian Manifesto,” (1950), signed by some 1,500 Protestants condemning Western missions as imperialist; Wang Mingdao, “We, Because of Faith” (1955), attacking the TSPM; and Chen Chonggui, “My Political Thinking Has Changed”(1950), embracing the new government.
  1653.  
  1654. Find this resource:
  1655.  
  1656. Ting, K. H. A Chinese Contribution to Ecumenical Theology: Selected Writings of Bishop K.H. Ting. Translated by Janice Wickeri, and Philip L. Wickeri. Geneva, Switzerland: WCC Publications, 2002.
  1657.  
  1658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1659.  
  1660. A selection of nineteen addresses, lectures, and sermons written from 1940 to 2000, which shows Ting’s attempts to reconcile all sides. He publicly denied the Marxist position that Christianity was the “opiate of the people” but he also criticized fundamentalist Christian positions.
  1661.  
  1662. Find this resource:
  1663.  
  1664. Wickeri, Philip L. Seeking the Common Ground: Protestant Christianity, the Three-Self Movement, and China’s United Front. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1988.
  1665.  
  1666. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1667.  
  1668. An extensive and well-informed history of the TSPM with a sympathetic interpretation of leaders such as Y. T. Wu and K. H. Ting and the political dilemmas they faced.
  1669.  
  1670. Find this resource:
  1671.  
  1672. Wickeri, Philip L. Reconstructing Christianity in China: K.H. Ting and the Chinese Church. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 2007.
  1673.  
  1674. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1675.  
  1676. Wickeri draws on his friendship with Ting and his associates to write a sympathetic but candid biography, including Ting’s study in North America, work in occupied Shanghai, return to the PRC in 1951, and establishing the TSPM. He then deals with the repression during the 1950s and Cultural Revolution, and the ups and downs in the reform era and 1989.
  1677.  
  1678. Find this resource:
  1679.  
  1680. Catholicism in the Peoples Republic
  1681. Relations in the 1950s and 1960s between the new government and the Catholic Church were implacably hostile. The Vatican ordered Catholics to refuse cooperation on pain of excommunication; foreign priests, many of whom supported the Nationalist government, dominated the Chinese Church; churches in the countryside owned land that was the target of land reform; government officials were brutal, dogmatic, and uncompromising. Madsen 1998 is a key work not only for its clear framework of analysis and attentive field research but for understanding the “spiritual crisis” created by the disillusionment with Marxism and by the development of civil society. Mariani 2011 is a dramatic life-and times-study of Bishop Kung, who led the Church in Shanghai in the turbulent and confrontational 1950s. Tang and Wiest 1993 is a thematic collage of writings, with helpful commentary. Lam and Maheu 2006 and Leung 1992 deal with official relations and legal questions. Chu 2012 is an up-to-date survey of the recent period for the interested general reader.
  1682.  
  1683. Chu, Cindy Yik-yi. The Catholic Church in China: 1978 to the Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  1684.  
  1685. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1686.  
  1687. Explains relations between China and the Vatican; tensions between the “open church” (that is, the officially sanctioned Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association) and the underground churches; relations with overseas churches; and the experiences of Chinese Catholics. Many references for further reading.
  1688.  
  1689. Find this resource:
  1690.  
  1691. Lam, Anthony S. K. and Betty Ann Maheu, eds. Power and Struggle: The Authentic Church Structure of the Catholic Diocese in China and the Abuse of Political Power. Hong Kong, China: Holy Spirit Study Centre, 2006.
  1692.  
  1693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1694.  
  1695. Contains documents and articles, especially on the legal status of the Catholic Church and the government’s strict policies.
  1696.  
  1697. Find this resource:
  1698.  
  1699. Leung, Beatrice. Sino-Vatican Relations: Problems in Conflicting Authority, 1976–1986. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  1700.  
  1701. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1702.  
  1703. Sketches the long history of relations between China and the Pope, then analyzes in detail China’s religious policies after 1976, and, in the most detail, Sino-Vatican negotiations after Mao’s death in 1976.
  1704.  
  1705. Find this resource:
  1706.  
  1707. Madsen, Richard. China’s Catholics: Tragedy and Hope in an Emerging Civil Society. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
  1708.  
  1709. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1710.  
  1711. Analysis of present-day China’s political development is interwoven with a series of vivid vignettes of Catholic Communities and independent church workers as well as the institutional Church. Especially strong on the independent local churches and controversies among Chinese Catholics over relations with the state.
  1712.  
  1713. Find this resource:
  1714.  
  1715. Mariani, Paul Philip. Church Militant: Bishop Kung and Catholic Resistance in Communist Shanghai. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011.
  1716.  
  1717. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674063174Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1718.  
  1719. Shanghai’s well-established Catholic community was a key center of autonomy. Bishop Kung (Gong Pinmei 龚品梅) (b. 1901–d. 2000) organized resistance to the Party’s goal of eliminating the Catholic Church.
  1720.  
  1721. Find this resource:
  1722.  
  1723. Tang, Edmond, Jean-Paul Wiest, eds. The Catholic Church in Modern China: Perspectives. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1993.
  1724.  
  1725. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1726.  
  1727. Testimonies, interviews, articles, and research papers on the situation of the Catholic Church in China after 1949, particularly the relations between the open, government-sanctioned public church and the underground church communities.
  1728.  
  1729. Find this resource:
  1730.  
  1731. Reform China, 1976 to the Present
  1732. Aikman 2006 is an upbeat portrait of Christianity in China today, with historical notes and colorful portraits of individuals and their churches. Wielander 2013 is a well-informed survey of the influence of Christian ideas of love, charity, and social responsibility, both as theology and as social practices leading toward democracy and human rights. From an evangelical mission point of view, Lambert 2006 gives an enthusiastic picture of the progress of Christianity and the price Christians have paid. Koesel 2013 is a scholarly article that gives an evenhanded picture of house churches (jiating jiaohui 家庭教会)—that is, unofficial, self-organized local congregations. Although the specifics have now changed, Wallis 1985 offers a still useful evocation of the defiant spirit of these house churches and how they work. Several attractive anthropological studies bring Christian communities to life based on fieldwork. Cao 2010 analyzes the business of Christian revivalism in China’s fastest growing entrepreneurial community and how “boss Christians” use their faith in business. Lozada 2001 shows in a readable story how a rural Catholic community in Guangdong responded to the growth of nationalism and then globalism over the last almost 150 years. The 1990s saw widespread village unrest; the authorities were perhaps willing to countenance new religions if they were deemed politically unchallenging. Lee and Chow 2012 explains the resurgence of Seventh Day Adventism, defined by Sabbath observance and belief that the Second Coming of Christ is at hand. Dunn 2009 shows that Eastern Lightning, the largest new religion, combines Christian and heterodox elements in a way that the government finds hard to control.
  1733.  
  1734. Aikman, David. Jesus in Beijing: How Christianity Is Transforming China and Changing the Global Balance of Power. Washington, DC: Regnery, 2006.
  1735.  
  1736. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1737.  
  1738. The former Time magazine Bureau Chief in Beijing makes effective use of his reporting skills to research and describe how China is becoming Christian and how Chinese turn to Christianity both for social and economic benefits and to fill a spiritual vacuum.
  1739.  
  1740. Find this resource:
  1741.  
  1742. Cao, Nanlai. Constructing China’s Jerusalem: Christians, Power, and Place in Contemporary Wenzhou. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010.
  1743.  
  1744. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1745.  
  1746. Wenzhou, a district in East Zhejiang, is an international hub of entrepreneurial success. This monograph explores the role of “boss Christians,” rural migrant workers, and religious revivalism as a business in recent years.
  1747.  
  1748. Find this resource:
  1749.  
  1750. Dunn, Emily C. “‘Cult,’ Church, and the CCP: Introducing Eastern Lightning.” Modern China 35.1 (2009): 96–119.
  1751.  
  1752. DOI: 10.1177/0097700408320546Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1753.  
  1754. Eastern Lightning, the largest Christian-related new religious movement, which originated in the rural north in the early 1990s, draws on deep-rooted heterodox religious traditions and teaches that Jesus returned to earth as a Chinese woman,.
  1755.  
  1756. Find this resource:
  1757.  
  1758. Koesel, Karrie J. “The Rise of a Chinese House Church: The Organizational Weapon.” China Quarterly 215 (2013): 572–589.
  1759.  
  1760. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741013000684Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1761.  
  1762. A scholarly article comparing the House Church movement today to the early underground period of the Chinese Communist Party in the 1920s.
  1763.  
  1764. Find this resource:
  1765.  
  1766. Lambert, Tony. China’s Christian Millions. Revised and updated ed. Oxford: Monarch, 2006.
  1767.  
  1768. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1769.  
  1770. An enthusiastic account, full of personal anecdotes gathered in visits to China, emphasizing the possibilities for evangelization and the bright future for Christians. Lambert gives especially detailed attention to the House Church movement.
  1771.  
  1772. Find this resource:
  1773.  
  1774. Lee, Joseph Tse-hei, and Christie Chui-Shan Chow. “Christian Revival from Within: Seventh-Day Adventism in China.” In Christianity in Contemporary China: Sociocultural Perspectives. Edited by Francis Khek Gee Lim, 45–58. New York: Routledge, 2012.
  1775.  
  1776. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1777.  
  1778. Adventism survived Maoist suppression and rejected official supervision to become a now thriving, if diffuse movement. Its congregational, spiritual, psychological, and material attractions positioned it in relation to the government and other religious groups as both transcendental and transnationally modern.
  1779.  
  1780. Find this resource:
  1781.  
  1782. Lozada, Eriberto P. God Aboveground: Catholic Church, Postsocialist State, and Transnational Processes in a Chinese Village. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  1783.  
  1784. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1785.  
  1786. Field study of “Little Rome,” a Hakka community in rural Guangdong that became Catholic in the mid-19th century. Lozada argues that Catholic life cycle and community ritual created innovative modern identities that wove together traditional ancestor rituals, nationalism, participation in global labor markets, and transnational popular culture, while remaining faithful to Catholic traditions.
  1787.  
  1788. Find this resource:
  1789.  
  1790. Wallis, Arthur. China Miracle: A Voice to the Church in the West. East Sussex, UK: Kingsway, 1985.
  1791.  
  1792. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1793.  
  1794. Sees beleaguered underground or House Churches as a rebuke to and model for Western churches, which have become soft and lost touch with their spiritual missions.
  1795.  
  1796. Find this resource:
  1797.  
  1798. Wielander, Gerda. Christian Values in Communist China. New York: Routledge, 2013.
  1799.  
  1800. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1801.  
  1802. An up-to-date and accessible survey of the key moral issues, political challenges, and spiritual questions facing Christians in China. One chapter addresses online Protestant Christianity.
  1803.  
  1804. Find this resource:
  1805.  
  1806. Documentary Films
  1807. Xu 2005 focuses on the life of a rural community to show the role of Christians. Herman and Rubin 2008 is a well-produced PBS special which visits several dissident Christian leaders, without, however, describing their doctrines or denominations. Hinton and Gordon 1985 is a widely admired documentary showing village religious practices in the 1980s, including a Catholic doctor of traditional Chinese medicine in action. Yuan and Xie 2003 and Sumpton, et al. 2008 are supportive, even partisan, in their presentation of the history of Christianity in China. In addition to these items, a search of YouTube will yield a constantly changing roster of free titles, including scholarly lectures, on-the-spot videos from China, and documentaries.
  1808.  
  1809. Herman, Cassandra, and Joe Rubin, prods. Jesus in China. DVD. New York: Frontline World, PBS Video, 2008.
  1810.  
  1811. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1812.  
  1813. Focuses on underground church and dissident ministers, although without any differentiation of Catholic, Protestant, or Pentecostal churches. 25 minutes.
  1814.  
  1815. Find this resource:
  1816.  
  1817. Hinton, Carma, and Richard Gordon, prods. All Under Heaven: Life in a Chinese Village. 1985. VHS. Brookline, MA: Long Bow Group and New Day Films. Public Broadcasting System, 2012.
  1818.  
  1819. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1820.  
  1821. Features an extensive view of Dr. Shen, a village practitioner of traditional medicine and member of a longtime Catholic family. A 58-minute segment of “One Village in China,” a three-part series first issued in 1985, on Long Bow Village in Shanxi province during the early years of reform.
  1822.  
  1823. Find this resource:
  1824.  
  1825. Sumpton, Christopher, Robin Benger, et al., prods. The Bamboo Cross: Chinese Christianity on the Rise. DVD. New York: Filmoption International. Films Media Group, 2008.
  1826.  
  1827. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1828.  
  1829. Uses borrowed footage and original art to present an enthusiastic portrait of Christians today and the history of Christianity. Topics include divisions between nationalist Catholics and those who obeyed Rome; the Three Self Patriotic Movement and House Church leaders; social and economic changes. 53 minutes.
  1830.  
  1831. Find this resource:
  1832.  
  1833. Xu Xin 徐辛, dir. Fangshan Jiao Tang (Fangshan Church). DVD. Brooklyn, NY: dGenerate Films, 2005.
  1834.  
  1835. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1836.  
  1837. Low-key documentary follows churchgoers and church activity in Fangshan, Jiangsu, where a church was built in the early 21st century with financial support of relatives from Taiwan. 80 minutes.
  1838.  
  1839. Find this resource:
  1840.  
  1841. Yuan Zhiming 遠志明, and Xie Wenjie 謝文杰, dir. and exec prod. The Cross: Jesus in China (Shizijia Yesu zai Zhongguo 十字架 耶穌在中國). DVD. Petaluma, CA: China Soul for Christ Foundation, 2003.
  1842.  
  1843. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1844.  
  1845. Documentary film in three episodes and one short subject. Focuses on the history of Chinese Christians and the Chinese church during the second half of the 20th century. Two discs, 240 minutes.
  1846.  
  1847. Find this resource:
  1848.  
  1849. Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao
  1850. Lo 2011 is a clear summary for the general reader of the histories and present state of Christian churches in Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macao. Rubinstein 1991 is a broad, careful, and clearly written survey of the stages of development of Taiwan’s Protestant community, which Wang 2001 surveys thoughtfully and briefly. Rubinstein 1996 notes that mainstream Protestants in Taiwan regard the Pentecostal movement as marginal, but roughly a third of the 300,000 Protestants are Pentecostals. Smith 2005 (first published in 1985) is a series of foundational essays on the role of Christians and the Protestant church in 19th-century Hong Kong. Leung and Chan 2003 is a detailed scholarly analysis. Constable 1994 offers an animated picture of Hakka Christian identities in a minority community in Hong Kong.
  1851.  
  1852. Constable, Nicole. Christian Souls and Chinese Spirits: A Hakka Community in Hong Kong. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
  1853.  
  1854. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1855.  
  1856. Based both on anthropological field work and archival research, traces Hakka villagers’ attempts to be “good Chinese” and “good Christians” from the 19th century to the late 20th. Available online UC Press E-Books.
  1857.  
  1858. Find this resource:
  1859.  
  1860. Leung, Beatrice. “The Catholic Church in Post-1997 Hong Kong: Dilemma in Church-State Relations.” In China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Edited by Stephen Uhalley Jr. and Xiaoxin Wu, 301–321. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001.
  1861.  
  1862. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1863.  
  1864. Leung, a leading specialist on the subject, summarizes the issues, outlines the history, and describes the present situation.
  1865.  
  1866. Find this resource:
  1867.  
  1868. Leung, Beatrice, and Chan Shun-hing. Changing Church and State Relations in Hong Kong, 1950–2000. Hong Kong, China: Hong Kong University Press, 2003.
  1869.  
  1870. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1871.  
  1872. Institutional and political relations of the Hong Kong government with both Catholic and Protestant churches and implications for relations with the PRC.
  1873.  
  1874. Find this resource:
  1875.  
  1876. Lo, Lung-kwong. “Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau.” In Christianities in Asia. Edited by Peter C. Phan, 173–194. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.
  1877.  
  1878. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1879.  
  1880. A thoughtful essay, with brief observations comparing the three situations.
  1881.  
  1882. Find this resource:
  1883.  
  1884. Rubinstein, Murray A. The Protestant Community on Modern Taiwan: Mission, Seminary, and Church. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1991.
  1885.  
  1886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1887.  
  1888. A balanced and clearly written survey, which expands the earlier scholarship in the field with the author’s observation and research.
  1889.  
  1890. Find this resource:
  1891.  
  1892. Rubinstein, Murray A. “Holy Spirit Taiwan: Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity in the Republic of China.” In Christianity in China: From the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 353–366. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1893.  
  1894. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1895.  
  1896. History and assessment of the current situation based on both fieldwork and archival research.
  1897.  
  1898. Find this resource:
  1899.  
  1900. Smith, Carl T. Chinese Christians: Élites, Middlemen, and the Church in Hong Kong. Hong Kong, China: Hong Kong University Press, 2005.
  1901.  
  1902. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1903.  
  1904. Studies of Protestant advisory, business, and professional elites in Hong Kong in the 19th and early 20th century who turned to public service as a Christian duty and to gain respect from the colonial government. First published in 1985.
  1905.  
  1906. Find this resource:
  1907.  
  1908. Wang, Peter Chen-main. “Christianity in Modern Taiwan: Struggling Over the Path of Contextualization.” In China and Christianity: Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. Edited by Stephen Uhalley Jr. and Xiaoxin Wu, 321–343. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2001.
  1909.  
  1910. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1911.  
  1912. An historian’s reflections on the development of Christianity and its place in modern Chinese society.
  1913.  
  1914. Find this resource:
  1915.  
  1916. Christianity among Ethnic Minorities
  1917. The items in this section offer differing explanations for the success or frustration of Christianity among ethnic minority groups. These groups are some 8 percent of China’s population but occupy more than half the country’s landmass, mainly in border areas. Covell 2010 introduces the field and gives expert advice on readings and sources. Catholic and Protestant missionaries before 1949 had little success among traditionally Islamic and Buddhist peoples of Central Asia, but were relatively more successful among the mountain peoples of Taiwan and Southeast China. Covell 1995, the best full-length survey, explores the practical reasons why minority peoples welcomed or refused the Gospel. Shepherd 1996 sees a calculation of utility rather than spiritual attraction in the mass conversions of Taiwan plains aborigines who were more than half the membership of Protestant and Catholic churches in 19th century Taiwan. In Tian 1993 a senior scholar from the PRC emphasizes political explanations, for instance that Christianity liberated groups from wasteful spending and feudal superstition. The Miao (also known as Hmong), although officially classified in the PRC as one group, are actually a number of related groups; Cheung 1995 finds that differences in the social structure of two Miao groups explain acceptance or resistance to conversion. Diamond 1996 links conversion of the Hua Miao group to the spiritual attractions of Christianity but also to the practical benefits of the writing system introduced by Samuel Pollard early in the 20th century. Yang 2010 is a detailed analysis of the 1939–1955 mission of the Border Service of the Church of Christ in China, a Chinese evangelical group.
  1918.  
  1919. Cheung, Siu-woo. “Millenarianism, Christian Movement, and Ethnic Change Among the Miao in Southwestern China.” In Cultural Encounters On China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Edited by Stevan Harrell, 217–247. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1995.
  1920.  
  1921. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1922.  
  1923. In the early 20th century, the Hua Miao (Flowery Miao) converted to a form of Christianity that tapped into their millenarian traditions. This Christianity became key to their ethnic identity and enlisted Western missionaries against their traditional adversary, the Chinese state. Hei Miao (Black Miao), however, did not convert. Their interactions with Chinese markets divided their society, which could not adopt the unified identity needed for Christian conversion.
  1924.  
  1925. Find this resource:
  1926.  
  1927. Covell, Ralph R. The Liberating Gospel in China: The Christian Faith among China’s Minority Peoples. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995.
  1928.  
  1929. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1930.  
  1931. Based on research and on experience as a missionary in Taiwan among the Sediq high mountain people and in Southwest China among the Nosu, Lahu, Wa, and Miao. Covell finds that demoralized peoples saw the Christian God as more powerful than their native deities. Converting them as families formed group identities that could withstand outside landlords and officials.
  1932.  
  1933. Find this resource:
  1934.  
  1935. Covell, Ralph R. “Christian Communities and China’s Ethnic Minorities.” In Handbook of Christianity in China. Vol. 2, 1800–Present. Edited by R. G. Tiedemann, 717–732. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  1936.  
  1937. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1938.  
  1939. Authoritative summary article on missionary and indigenous Christianity among ethnic minorities, including Tibetans, before and after 1949, with bibliographic references to further secondary coverage, biographies, and memoirs.
  1940.  
  1941. Find this resource:
  1942.  
  1943. Diamond, Norma. “Christianity and the Hua Miao: Writing and Power.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 138–157. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1944.  
  1945. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1946.  
  1947. The writing system created by the missionary Samuel Pollard (b. 1864–d. 1915) created a Hua Miao group identity and thus power to resist outside pressure. But political utility does not entirely explain the spiritual power that carried the Miao through the Cultural Revolution (after which the Miao revived the suppressed Pollard System).
  1948.  
  1949. Find this resource:
  1950.  
  1951. Shepherd, John R. “From Barbarians to Sinners: Collective Conversion among Plains Aborigines in Qing Taiwan, 1859–1895.” Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 120–137. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1952.  
  1953. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1954.  
  1955. Sees the mass conversion of these marginal and deprived groups as utilitarian. They flocked to powerful non-Chinese missionaries whose Christian teachings were less attractive than their political connections.
  1956.  
  1957. Find this resource:
  1958.  
  1959. Tian, Rukang (T’ien Ju-K’ang). Peaks of Faith: Protestant Mission in Revolutionary China. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1993.
  1960.  
  1961. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1962.  
  1963. Based on fieldwork among highland ethnic groups in Yunnan—Miao, Yi (Nosu), Wa, Lisu, and Jingpo (Kachin)—who maintained faith during the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s. Tian explores the practical factors that led them to Christianity, especially long domination by outsiders and the model set by “self-denying missionaries.”
  1964.  
  1965. Find this resource:
  1966.  
  1967. Yang Tianhong 杨天宏. Jiushu yu zijiu: Zhonghua jidujiaohui bianjiang fuwu yanjiu (救赎与自救：中华基督教会边疆服务研究). Beijing: San lian shu dian, 2010.
  1968.  
  1969. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1970.  
  1971. This study of “salvation and self-salvation” follows the Church of Christ in China from 1939, when it began evangelizing Tibetan and Yi minorities, until 1955, to show that these Chinese missionaries were as much interested in “self-salvation” through evangelization as in salvation of these border peoples, who continued to resist both Christianity and China.
  1972.  
  1973. Find this resource:
  1974.  
  1975. Chinese Christianity and Women
  1976. Kwok 1992 is a pioneering and quite approachable survey of early Chinese Protestant women summarized and updated in Kwok 1996. The articles in Lutz 2010 go into more detail on particular women, with a wide-ranging introduction by the editor. Entenmann 1996 tells the revealing history of the Institute of Christian Virgins, women who acted much like nuns, though without the officials sanction or support of the church. Shemo 2011 is a biographical study of two famous Chinese women doctors and theoretical background for their stories. Other biographies of Chinese Christian women are King 1998 (cited under Biographies of Chinese Catholics), Feng 2009 (cited under Christian Colleges and Universities), and Wu 2002 (cited under Fundamentalism and Independent Popular Churches).
  1977.  
  1978. Entenmann, Robert E. “Christian Virgins in Eighteenth Century Sichuan.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 180–193. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1979.  
  1980. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1981.  
  1982. The Institute of Christian Virgins was an unofficial group who stayed with their families rather than going into cloisters but otherwise played much the same role as nuns. At first they evangelized, but the Church soon restricted them to teaching in schools for girls. In 1925, there were nearly 2,500 of these Christian Virgins in Sichuan.
  1983.  
  1984. Find this resource:
  1985.  
  1986. Kwok, Pui-lan. Chinese Women and Christianity, 1860–1927. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1992.
  1987.  
  1988. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1989.  
  1990. Surveys major trends and evokes the personalities of 19th and 20th century Chinese Protestant women in the context both of the adaptation of Christianity to China and of the changing roles of women in Chinese society. Kwok sympathetically but objectively probes their motives for joining the church and the costs and benefits to them.
  1991.  
  1992. Find this resource:
  1993.  
  1994. Kwok, Pui-lan. “Chinese Women and Protestant Christianity at the Turn of the Twentieth Century.” In Christianity in China from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Edited by Daniel H. Bays, 194–207. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  1995.  
  1996. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1997.  
  1998. A summary of the themes in her own Kwok 1992, with updated material and discussion of sources and methodological issues.
  1999.  
  2000. Find this resource:
  2001.  
  2002. Lutz, Jessie Gregory, ed. Pioneer Chinese Christian Women: Gender, Christianity, and Social Mobility. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2010.
  2003.  
  2004. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2005.  
  2006. Articles describe Chinese Christian women early Qing through the 1930s, including women and the Church in Qing China; Bible women and evangelists, such as Candida Xu; medical professionals, including Shi Meiyu (Mary Stone); Christian education for women and Chinese nationalism, including Mary Gao (Gao Meiyu).
  2007.  
  2008. Find this resource:
  2009.  
  2010. Shemo, Connie Anne. The Chinese Medical Ministries of Kang Cheng and Shi Meiyu, 1872–1937: On a Cross-Cultural Frontier of Gender, Race, and Nation. Bethlehem, PA: Lehigh University Press, 2011.
  2011.  
  2012. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2013.  
  2014. The two friends Kang Cheng (Kang Aide or Ida Kahn) (b. 1873–d. 1931) and Shi Meiyu (Mary Stone) (b. 1873–d. 1954) were raised bilingual and, as Christians, graduated from American medical school together and then returned to China. In 1920 Shi left the Methodist mission because it separated social service from evangelism. She then organized the Bethel Band, which attracted John Sung and many others.
  2015.  
  2016. Find this resource:
  2017.  
  2018. Christianity in China’s Foreign Relations
  2019. Wang 2013 includes an up-to-date survey of American relations with China and includes coverage of missions and Chinese Christianity as an issue in United States-China relations. The essays in Kindopp and Hamrin 2004 look at PRC government policies and ask whether foreign governments can affect them. For relations with the Vatican, see the section Catholicism in the Peoples Republic.
  2020.  
  2021. Kindopp, Jason, and Carol Lee Hamrin, eds. God and Caesar in China: Policy Implications of Church-State Tensions. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2004.
  2022.  
  2023. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2024.  
  2025. General interest essays on church-state relations in China written by well-informed scholars with American policy in mind.
  2026.  
  2027. Find this resource:
  2028.  
  2029. Wang, Dong. The United States and China: A History from the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.
  2030.  
  2031. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  2032.  
  2033. An energetic survey, with attention to the role of Christianity as an issue for the United States public and problem for policymakers. Extensive bibliography.
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