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Calvinism (Renaissance and Reformation)

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  1. Introduction
  2. Calvinism was a term first used by Calvin’s opponents. Calvinism has become a widely used label to describe the ideas adopted by Reformed churches across Europe. Some writers prefer to use the label “Reformed” to describe a movement that owed much to the insights of a range of reformers, and was certainly not solely reliant on John Calvin’s leadership. Calvinism was distinctive among 16th-century reform movements because of particular notions about God’s plan for the salvation of humanity, about the meaning and celebration of the sacraments, and about the danger posed by idolatry. Calvinism spread quickly across the Continent during the middle decades of the 16th century as a dynamic and an international reform movement. International connections were maintained by correspondence between reformers and by contacts between Reformed churches. A strong sense of belonging to an international religious community was felt by many Calvinists, and in particular by exiles and refugees from religious persecution. There were differences between the beliefs and practices of Reformed churches in a range of distinct political and social conditions. Reformed communities in France and the Netherlands had to fight for the right to worship. This gave Calvinism a certain reputation for political radicalism. However, Calvinism also received the support of monarchs and princes in parts of the Holy Roman Empire, central Europe, and the British Isles. Different Reformed churches developed a variety of structures. One important institution in many churches was the consistory, used to promote moral and social discipline. Historians and theologians have examined the nature of Calvinist ideas, the dynamic growth of Calvinism, the international character of Calvinism, and the complex impact of Calvinism on the political and cultural history of diverse European societies from Ulster to Transylvania.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. Calvinism’s rapid spread into a diverse range of societies has made it difficult for historians to provide a clear overview of the movement as a whole. Two important collections of articles, Prestwich 1985 and Pettegree, et al. 1994, outline the impact of Calvinism in different countries. A third collection of articles, Graham 1994, aims to provide a sense of the international scope of Calvinism after Calvin’s death. More recently, Benedict 2002 attempts to analyze the history of Calvinism as a whole in a single narrative. For a sense of context on Calvinism within the Reformation readers can consult articles in Pettegree 2000.
  6.  
  7. Benedict, Philip. Christ’s Churches Purely Reformed: A Social History of Calvinism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. This wide-ranging study offers detailed analysis of the formation of the Reformed tradition in Zurich and Geneva, and of Calvinism’s expansion into France, Scotland, the Netherlands, the Empire, the British Isles, and central Europe. The second half of the book addresses political and theological developments in the 17th century and considers the impact of Calvinism on the lives of individuals and communities.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Graham, W. Fred, ed. Later Calvinism. International Perspectives: Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies. Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal, 1994.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. The focus of the articles in this collection is on Calvinism after Calvin’s death. There are sections on Reformed churches in the Swiss lands, France, the Rhineland, the Netherlands, and England.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Pettegree, Andrew, ed. The Reformation World. London and New York: Routledge, 2000.
  26.  
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  28.  
  29. This large collection of articles includes surveys of the ways in which countries and societies were affected by reform, and a wide range of different themes of political, cultural, and social life in Reformation Europe.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Pettegree, Andrew, Alastair Duke, and Gillian Lewis, eds. Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1620. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. A number of these articles provide very helpful introductions to otherwise poorly understood subjects: for example, the piece by Jane Dawson on Calvinism in Gaelic-speaking Scotland, one by Mark Greengrass on the state reformation in Béarn, and the work of Ole Grell on the reception of Calvinism among merchants.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Prestwich, Menna, ed. International Calvinism, 1541–1715. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. This collection includes articles that reveal important insights about Calvinism in the Empire by Henry Cohn, Calvinism in central Europe by Robert Evans, and the “ambivalent face of Calvinism” in the Netherlands by Alastair Duke.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Primary Sources
  53. There are a wide range of materials available to study the thought and activity of leading reformers across the Continent. Works edited by Emil Egli (Zwingli 1982–1991) and David Laing (Knox 1846–1864) provide access to the works of Huldrych Zwingli and John Knox, respectively. Key texts by a wide range of reformers and theologians are available in the microfiche and online collections of Reformation Sources Online. Another online project, Acts and Monuments . . . The Variorum Edition, provides access to the different editions of John Foxe’s martyrology. Dennison 2008–2010 contains translated versions of the confessional statements of Reformed churches. Hippolyte 1960 and Heinrich Bullinger- Briefwechseledition are large-scale projects to provide complete editions of the correspondence of Theodore Beza and Heinrich Bullinger. Duke 1992 and Schilling 1989–1992 offer access to some important archival material about Reformed churches.
  54.  
  55. Aubert, Hippolyte, ed. Correspondance de Théodore de Bèze. 25 vols. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1960–
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. These volumes reveal the key role played by Theodore Beza not only in the life of the Genevan church but also his involvement in the Reformed church in France.
  60.  
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  62.  
  63.  
  64. Dennison, James, ed. Reformed Confessions of the 16th and 17th Centuries in English Translation. 2 vols. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2008–2010.
  65.  
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  67.  
  68. An extremely important project that for the first time provides us with translations of the large number of different confessional statements adopted by Reformed synods. Comparative analysis of these texts offers the potential to gain great insight into the evolving doctrine of Reformed churches.
  69.  
  70. Find this resource:
  71.  
  72.  
  73. Duke, Alastair, Gillian Lewis, and Andrew Pettegree, eds. Calvinism in Europe, 1540–1610: A Collection of Documents. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1992.
  74.  
  75. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  76.  
  77. A useful selection of short extracts from a wide range of documents about the emergence and development of Reformed churches. The book is divided into four sections with coverage of printed and archival sources on Calvin and Geneva, France, the Netherlands, and international Calvinism.
  78.  
  79. Find this resource:
  80.  
  81.  
  82. . Foxe’s Book of Martyrs Variorum Edition Online. hriOnline.
  83.  
  84. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  85.  
  86. This project has drawn together the different editions of Foxe’s martyrology. Martyrologies were a very popular genre of Calvinist literature in England, France, and the Netherlands.
  87.  
  88. Find this resource:
  89.  
  90.  
  91. Heinrich Bullinger-Briefwechseledition. 14 vols. Zurich: Theologischer Verlag, 1974–.
  92.  
  93. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  94.  
  95. Zurich’s leading minister was widely consulted by reformers and churches in the Swiss lands as well as the Empire, central Europe, and the British Isles. There are around 2,000 surviving letters from Bullinger and 10,000 letters addressed to Bullinger.
  96.  
  97. Find this resource:
  98.  
  99.  
  100. Knox, John. The Works of John Knox. 6 vols. Edited by David Laing. Edinburgh: Bannatyne Society, 1846–1864.
  101.  
  102. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  103.  
  104. John Knox promoted himself as the central character in the history of the Reformation in Scotland. His connections with the Continent and experience of life in Geneva were certainly important to the Calvinist direction of reform in Scotland.
  105.  
  106. Find this resource:
  107.  
  108.  
  109. Reformation Sources Online. IDC Publishers.
  110.  
  111. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  112.  
  113. Collections include Heinrich Bullinger’s Original Publications. The Huguenots includes texts by Theodore Beza, François Hotman, Philippe de Mornay, and Pierre Viret. The Reformation in Heidelberg includes works by Thomas Erastus and Zacharias Ursinus. Reformed Protestantism: East-Friesland and North-Western Germany features texts by Marten Micronius, Christoph Pezel, and Jan a Lasco. The Hungarian Reformation has texts by Péter Méliusz Juhász and Pál Medgyesi.
  114.  
  115. Find this resource:
  116.  
  117.  
  118. Schilling, Heinz, and Klaus-Dieter Schreiber, eds. Die Kirchenratsprotokolle der reformierten Gemeinde Emden, 1557–1620. 2 vols. Cologne: Böhlau, 1989–1992.
  119.  
  120. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  121.  
  122. This edition provides a view into the process of moral discipline through records of the church at Emden, which was the hub for the spread of Calvinism into the northern Netherlands.
  123.  
  124. Find this resource:
  125.  
  126.  
  127. Zwingli, Ulrich. Huldreich Zwinglis sämtliche Werke. 14 vols. Edited by Emil Egli, et al. Zurich: Theologische Verlag, 1982–1991.
  128.  
  129. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  130.  
  131. First printed Berlin: Schwetschke, 1905–1963 (Corpus Reformatorum vols. 88–101). This collection of Huldrych Zwingli’s works in German and Latin demonstrates the contribution of the first leader of the Reformed church at Zurich to the development of German-speaking Reformed religion in the Swiss lands.
  132.  
  133. Find this resource:
  134.  
  135.  
  136. Calvinist Ideas
  137. There was broad acceptance among Reformed churches of the Second Helvetic Confession composed by Heinrich Bullinger and of the Heidelberg Catechism of Caspar Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus, discussed by Bierma 1999. However, Muller 2003 shows that ideas did vary to some degree across Reformed Europe and also changed over time.
  138.  
  139. Bierma, Lyle. The Doctrine of the Sacraments in the Heidelberg Catechism: Melanchthonian, Calvinist, or Zwinglian? Princeton, NJ: Princeton Theological Seminary, 1999.
  140.  
  141. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  142.  
  143. The 1563 Heidelberg Catechism was widely used across the Reformed world but was first developed for use in the schools of the Palatinate. This book highlights how the catechism rejected both Catholic beliefs and orthodox Lutheranism. It also demonstrates how insights drawn from different reformers found their way into the text.
  144.  
  145. Find this resource:
  146.  
  147.  
  148. Muller, Richard. After Calvin: Studies in the Development of a Theological Tradition. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.
  149.  
  150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  151.  
  152. This book provides an authoritative view of how Calvinism developed after Calvin’s death. It tries to challenge misconceptions about Calvinism that owe much to the overlay of more recent periods.
  153.  
  154. Find this resource:
  155.  
  156.  
  157. Eucharist
  158. The great issue that divided Christian Europe was the Eucharist, as shown in Wandel 2006. How ought the sacrament to be celebrated? In what way did God present Himself to believers in the material elements of Communion? Calvinists were clear in their rejection of the medieval idea of transubstantiation and did not think that Christ’s body could be held to be ubiquitous in the world. As Elwood 1999 shows, many Calvinists thought God was spiritually present in the bread and wine although some thought of Communion as a mere commemoration of the events of the Last Supper.
  159.  
  160. Elwood, Christopher. The Body Broken: The Calvinist Doctrine of the Eucharist and the Symbolization of Power in Sixteenth-Century France. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  161.  
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  163.  
  164. This study analyzes the ideas in French Calvinist propaganda about the Eucharist. It also considers the diffusion and reception of Calvinist ideas about the sacrament and their social and political significance.
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168.  
  169. Wandel, Lee Palmer. The Eucharist in the Reformation: Incarnation and Liturgy. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  170.  
  171. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. This work offers a comparative view of Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed attitudes toward the Eucharist. The author reflects on Calvin’s ideas as well as on how those ideas were negotiated and developed in different Reformed churches through confessions and catechisms.
  174.  
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  176.  
  177.  
  178. Iconoclasm
  179. The destruction of crosses, statues, and images in and around churches often accompanied the spread of Calvinism. Crew 1978, Christin 1991, Eire 1986, and Wandel 1995 study iconoclastic riots, which were a particular feature of the emergence of Reformed religion in the Swiss lands, France, and the Netherlands. In some areas, as studied in Aston 1988, images were removed in an orderly way by civic authorities and by state governments. Many ordinary Calvinists showed great hostility toward objects that they had previously venerated, although some imagery and decoration did survive in Reformed churches, as Spicer 2007 shows.
  180.  
  181. Aston, Margaret. England’s Iconoclasts. Oxford: Clarendon, 1988.
  182.  
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  184.  
  185. An exhaustive account of the outcome of official policies and local initiatives against images in English churches and communities from the 1520s. It highlights the wide range of material objects associated with religion that iconoclasts believed had to be destroyed.
  186.  
  187. Find this resource:
  188.  
  189.  
  190. Christin, Olivier. Une révolution symbolique: l’iconoclasme huguenot et la reconstruction catholique. Paris: Editions du minuit, 1991.
  191.  
  192. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  193.  
  194. A very thoughtful analysis of popular iconoclasm in France during the 1560s and 1570s in the context of the civil wars. It analyzes the theological and social meaning of iconoclasm as well as the responses of Catholics to the destruction of their sacred objects.
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198.  
  199. Crew, Phyllis Mack. Calvinist Preaching and Iconoclasm in the Netherlands, 1544–1569. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
  200.  
  201. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  202.  
  203. A clear study of how iconoclasm played such a dramatic part in the spread of Calvinism into the Netherlands. Popular violence against images and statues seems to provide evidence of the resonance of Calvinist ideas about the need to clear churches of idols to allow for the true worship of God.
  204.  
  205. Find this resource:
  206.  
  207.  
  208. Eire, Carlos. War against the Idols: The Reformation of Worship from Erasmus to Calvin. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  209.  
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211.  
  212. An authoritative view of how iconoclasm was associated with the spread of Reformed religion from the 1530s. It is extremely helpful in tracing antipathy toward images, crosses, and statues as ideas about reform spread across German- and French-speaking communities in the Swiss lands.
  213.  
  214. Find this resource:
  215.  
  216.  
  217. Spicer, Andrew. Calvinist Churches in Early Modern Europe. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2007.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. An account of the material culture of early modern Reformed churches. While Reformed churches seemed very plain to their opponents, this book reconstructs the different forms of decoration that survived the anger of iconoclasts. It engages with a broad range of material from Scotland to Hungary and considers how Reformed congregations related to their church buildings.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225.  
  226. Wandel, Lee Palmer. Voracious Idols and Violent Hands: Iconoclasm in Reformation Zurich, Strasbourg, and Basel. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  227.  
  228. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  229.  
  230. This text looks at the role played by iconoclasm in the emergence of Reformed religion in south German and Swiss towns. It highlights the degree of popular anger against idols, which at times boiled over during iconoclastic riots.
  231.  
  232. Find this resource:
  233.  
  234.  
  235. Predestination
  236. How might a Calvinist know if she or he was destined for heaven? Calvin’s answer was that God alone knew since He was the author of salvation. Calvin the preacher encouraged people not to speculate about such issues but to place their trust in Christ and respond to His grace by seeking forgiveness for their sins and by living according to God’s laws. However, ideas about decrees of salvation did feature in Calvin’s dogmatic theology and in polemic debates. Holtrop 1993 discusses the challenge to Calvin posed by Jerome Bolsec. Beza tried to establish a clear line of orthodoxy, as Bray 1975 explains. However, arguments around predestination later surfaced in the Netherlands and France as examined by Bangs 1971 and Armstrong 1969. Muller 1986 stresses that arguments about the differences between the views of Calvin and his successors about predestination have been overstated.
  237.  
  238. Armstrong, Brian. Calvinism and the Amyraut Heresy: Protestant Scholasticism and Humanism in Seventeenth-Century France. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1969.
  239.  
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  241.  
  242. Moïse Amyraut argued that other Reformed theologians had been led astray by speculation about predestination. Amyraut believed that he was defending Calvin’s legacy but found himself roundly attacked for his teaching.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246.  
  247. Bangs, Carl. Arminius: A Study in the Dutch Reformation. Nashville: Abingdon, 1971.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. A helpful biography of the Dutch theologian who challenged a nascent orthodoxy among Reformed theologians about divine decrees of predestination. The ideas of Arminians were decisively rejected by the international synod of Dordrecht in 1618.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255.  
  256. Bray, John. Theodore Beza’s Doctrine of Predestination. Nieuwkoop, The Netherlands: De Graaf, 1975.
  257.  
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259.  
  260. This work examines the critical role played by Theodore Beza in the development of Reformed ideas on salvation. Beza engaged in far greater detail than Calvin had done in systematic explanation of divine decrees of salvation and damnation.
  261.  
  262. Find this resource:
  263.  
  264.  
  265. Holtrop, Philip. The Bolsec Controversy on Predestination, from 1551 to 1555. 2 vols. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1993.
  266.  
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. Ideas on predestination within the Reformed tradition developed partly in response to attacks from critics. This work on Jerome Bolsec highlights tensions over predestination in Geneva and among the Swiss churches.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273.  
  274. Muller, Richard. Christ and the Decree: Christology and Predestination in Reformed Theology from Calvin to Perkins. Durham, NC: Labyrinth, 1986.
  275.  
  276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277.  
  278. This work offers a close analysis of the history of Reformed theology on salvation. It is a complex study that suggests both continuity and change between Calvin’s views and those of later Calvinists.
  279.  
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282.  
  283. Politics
  284. Calvinists were responsible for some radical theories about the limits of monarchical power, which Giesey 1970 and Kelley 1973 study. However, there was very little about Calvinism as a religion that can be connected with anti-monarchical politics. Van Gelderen 1992 and Mellet 2007 suggest that it was the context of persecution at the hands of Catholic monarchs that led to theorizing about the political rights of nobles, lesser magistrates, and sometimes even ordinary people.
  285.  
  286. Giesey, Ralph. “The Monarchomach Triumvirs: Hotman, Beza and Mornay.” Bibliothèque d’Humanisme et Renaissance 32 (1970): 41–56.
  287.  
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  289.  
  290. A very clear analysis of three key writers who articulated different ideas about rights of resistance against tyranny after the outbreak of the civil war. Calvin had only offered very limited and uncertain grounds for any right of resistance to authority. Huguenot politics was soon radicalized, especially by the massacres of St. Bartholomew’s day.
  291.  
  292. Find this resource:
  293.  
  294.  
  295. Kelley, Donald. François Hotman: A Revolutionary’s Ordeal. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973.
  296.  
  297. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  298.  
  299. This biography of François Hotman explains how this Reformed activist and propagandist came to write a key work about the limits of monarchical authority and history of popular sovereignty in France.
  300.  
  301. Find this resource:
  302.  
  303.  
  304. Mellet, Paul-Alexis. Les Traités monarchomaques (1560–1600). Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 2007.
  305.  
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307.  
  308. An exhaustive account of the range of texts produced by Huguenots during the civil wars that proposed that Christians could exercise some rights of resistance in the face of persecution from tyrants. This wave of political radicalism soon receded once the French monarchy offered legal rights to Calvinists.
  309.  
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312.  
  313. van Gelderen, Martin. The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt, 1555–1590. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  314.  
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  316.  
  317. While French Calvinists produced some striking tracts on the limits of monarchical power, their counterparts in the Netherlands were much more reticent on the subject. This text provides a very helpful analysis of the ways in which the Dutch revolt against the Habsburgs was justified by reference to traditional political customs in the Netherlands.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321.  
  322. Moral Discipline
  323. Calvinism firmly detached an individual’s behavior from his or her path to salvation. At the same time Calvinists were encouraged to commit themselves to a life of godliness and moral discipline. Gorski 2003 considers the long-term impact of this key feature of Calvinism on European politics and society.
  324.  
  325. Gorski, Philip. The Disciplinary Revolution: Calvinism and the Rise of the State in Early Modern Europe. Chicago: University of Chicago, 2003.
  326.  
  327. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  328.  
  329. A thought-provoking attempt to draw long-term conclusions from Calvinist emphasis on moral discipline. It contrasts a suggested disciplinary revolution from below in the Netherlands with a disciplinary revolution from above in Brandenburg.
  330.  
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333.  
  334. Consistories
  335. Many Reformed churches developed congregational institutions variously called consistories, presbyteries, and kirk sessions to provide a framework for monitoring the attitudes and conduct of church members, as articles in Mentzer 1994 and Mentzer, et al. 2010 explain. Historiography remains divided about the best methodology for analyzing consistory records, and about what conclusions to draw from these rich sources about everyday life in Calvinist communities. Mentzer 1987 and Vogler and Estèbe 1976 adopt a quantitative approach. Some of the problems of this approach are highlighted by Pollman 2002.
  336.  
  337. Mentzer, Raymond. “Disciplina nervus ecclesiae: The Calvinist Reform of Morals at Nîmes.” Sixteenth Century Journal 18 (1987): 89–116.
  338.  
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  340.  
  341. An interpretation of how moral discipline was exercised in one of the key urban centers of French Calvinism. It explains how the ministers and elders in Nîmes imposed a range of punishments against spiritual and moral offenders in the hope of gaining their penitence. It applies a quantitative analysis to the consistory records to discern the impact of this moral discipline on men and women in Nîmes.
  342.  
  343. Find this resource:
  344.  
  345.  
  346. Mentzer, Raymond, ed. Sin and the Calvinists: Morals Control and the Consistory in the Reformed Tradition. Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal, 1994.
  347.  
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349.  
  350. A very useful collection of articles on the application and impact of consistorial discipline in different contexts. There are contributions by Philippe Chareyre on Nîmes, by Geoffrey Parker on the taming of St. Andrews, and by Heinz Schilling on the supervision of family life in Germany and the Netherlands.
  351.  
  352. Find this resource:
  353.  
  354.  
  355. Mentzer, Raymond, Françoise Moreil, and Philippe Chareyre, eds. Dire l’interdit: The Vocabulary of Censure and Exclusion in the Early Modern Reformed Tradition. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010.
  356.  
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358.  
  359. This collection of essays focuses on the use of excommunication as the ultimate disciplinary sanction available to Reformed churches. Many articles focus on affairs in France, but coverage is also provided on moral discipline and excommunication in Scotland, the Netherlands, and Hungary.
  360.  
  361. Find this resource:
  362.  
  363.  
  364. Pollman, Judith. “Off the Record: Problems in the Quantification of Calvinist Church Discipline.” Sixteenth Century Journal 33.2 (2002): 423–438.
  365.  
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  367.  
  368. This article highlights the dangers of over-reliance on a quantitative approach to analysis of consistorial records. Most moral disciplinary activity relied on personal relations between elders and members of Reformed congregations and left no written records. This article makes this point for the Utrecht consistory through the private notes of one elder.
  369.  
  370. Find this resource:
  371.  
  372.  
  373. Vogler, Bernard, and Janine Estèbe. “La genèse d’une société protestante: Étude comparée de quelques registres consistoriaux Languedociens et Palatins vers 1600.” Annales 31 (1976): 362–388.
  374.  
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  376.  
  377. A comparative analysis of the impact of Calvinist moral discipline through consistories in Languedoc and the Palatinate. This study covers both towns and villages in both territories and uses a quantitative methodology to outline the focus of consistories on different categories of religious and moral offenses.
  378.  
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381.  
  382. Puritanism
  383. Some Calvinists took a particular view of salvation theology and of the need for individuals to pursue a moral life. They were commonly called Puritans by neighbors who resented their claims to godliness and regarded them as hypocrites, as discussed in Collinson 1989 and Seaver 1985. Collinson 1990 argues that, among other things, Puritans were generally dissatisfied with existing church structures and styles of worship. Puritan movements in different Reformed churches agitated for greater attention to personal morality and for the development of strict consistorial discipline, as Mullan 2000 and Sprunger 1982 study.
  384.  
  385. Collinson, Patrick. The Puritan Character: Polemics and Polarities in Early Seventeenth-Century English Culture. Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California, 1989.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. A very helpful summary of how the label “Puritan” emerged in England in debates about the need for further reform and arguments over styles of religiosity. Some people thought of themselves as “the godly,” but opponents found their attitudes and behavior hypocritical.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Collinson, Patrick. The Elizabethan Puritan Movement. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. A classic account of how a minority within the English church under Elizabeth agitated for reforms to the episcopalian church structure and for changes to styles of worship. Puritans were “hotter sorts” of Protestants who supported the development of presbyteries and were ferociously anti-Catholic.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Mullan, David. Scottish Puritanism, 1590–1638. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  404.  
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. Puritanism cannot be understood as only an English variant of Calvinist religion. This work isolates how a Puritan pattern of discontent with the established form of religion existed among some in Scotland.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. Seaver, Paul. Wallington’s World: A Puritan Artisan in Seventeenth-Century London. London: Methuen, 1985.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. An account of Puritanism through the life of a London artisan, Nehemiah Wallington. Wallington recorded in private journals his attempts to regulate his behavior so as to offer himself some sense of assurance of salvation. He was also concerned with the moral state of society and launched a campaign against long hair.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. Sprunger, Keith. Dutch Puritanism: A History of English and Scottish Churches of the Netherlands in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1982.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. Persecution at home drove some English-speaking Puritans to seek refuge in the Netherlands. During the early 17th century these foreign Reformed churches provided an environment for Puritans to express their particular form of Calvinist spirituality, which also left its mark on movements for further reform in the Dutch church.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429.  
  430. Work and Capitalism
  431. Max Weber proposed that Calvinism provided the accidental seed-bed for a spirit of capitalism. Weber’s ideas have attracted a good deal of attention and criticism, as in Poggi 1983. Weber based his arguments on a very particular reception of predestination theology that was not widely supported in Reformed churches but seems most applicable to Puritans, as Seaver 1980 argues.
  432.  
  433. Poggi, Gianfranco. Calvinism and the Capitalist Spirit: Max Weber’s Protestant Ethic. London: Macmillan, 1983.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. This book provides a very instructive and comprehensive treatment of Weber’s ideas. It analyzes and critiques Weber’s suggestion of Calvinist underpinnings to the “spirit of capitalism” by forming the character of capitalist entrepreneurs.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Seaver, Paul. “The Puritan Work Ethic Revisited.” Journal of British Studies 19.2 (1980): 35–53.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Were Calvinists, or at least Puritans, driven by their religion and its sacralization of all aspects of everyday life to live by a code of sobriety, discipline, and hard work? This article offers a view on the attitudes of England’s Puritans to the world of work.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. International Movement
  452. One of the key elements of early modern Calvinism was its internationalism. In clear distinction from Lutheranism, Calvinism was a form of religion that seemed to traverse linguistic and cultural boundaries with relative ease, as explored in Kingdon 1995. Reformed religion spread across the Continent with a range of contacts between different churches. Internationalism was of practical value to churches under persecution. Murdock 2004 argues that belonging to an international movement was both ideologically and emotionally significant for many Calvinists.
  453.  
  454. Kingdon, Robert. “International Calvinism.” In Handbook of European History, 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation. Vol. 2. Edited by Thomas Brady, Heiko Oberman, and James Tracy, 229–247. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1995.
  455.  
  456. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  457.  
  458. A very helpful summary on the subject, which highlights the significance of internationalism in the origins, character, and development of Calvinism from such cosmopolitan centers as Geneva and Emden.
  459.  
  460. Find this resource:
  461.  
  462.  
  463. Murdock, Graeme. Beyond Calvin: The Intellectual, Political and Cultural World of Europe’s Reformed Churches, c. 1540–1620. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. This work analyzes the character of Calvinist internationalism. It provides a view of the shared and distinctive features of Europe’s different Reformed churches. It adopts a thematic approach to the subject with chapters on theology, politics, moral discipline, and religious life and culture.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471.  
  472. Refugees and Exiles
  473. Many Calvinists lived as temporary or permanent exiles from their homelands, as Danner 1999 and Oberman 1992 show. This was particularly important in northwestern Europe with substantial numbers of displaced French-speaking and Dutch-speaking Calvinists seeking refuge from warfare and persecution. Backhouse 1995, Grell 1996, and Pettegree 1986 analyze different refugee communities.
  474.  
  475. Backhouse, Marcel. The Flemish and Walloon Communities of Sandwich during the Reign of Elizabeth I, 1501–1603. Brussels: Koninklijke Academie voor Wetenschappen, 1995.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. This book highlights the extraordinary influx of Calvinists from Flanders and Brabant into southeast England during the Dutch Revolt. Sandwich came at one stage to have more newcomers than natives with important consequences both for the local community and for the revolt in the Netherlands.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Danner, Dan. Pilgrimage to Puritanism. History and Theology of the Marian Exiles at Geneva, 1555–1560. New York: Peter Lang, 1999.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. Around 800 English exiles abandoned their homes during the reign of Mary Tudor before returning home on the accession of Elizabeth. The activities of this group are considered here in Frankfurt, Geneva, and elsewhere.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. Grell, Ole Peter. Calvinist Exiles in Tudor and Stuart England. Aldershot, UK: Scolar, 1996.
  494.  
  495. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  496.  
  497. French- and Dutch-speaking Calvinists maintained a constant presence in London and elsewhere in southern England. This book highlights the fluctuating fortunes of these communities and their significance for religious life in England.
  498.  
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501.  
  502. Oberman, Heiko. “Europa afflicta: The Reformation of the Refugees.” Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 83 (1992): 91–111.
  503.  
  504. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  505.  
  506. This article analyzes the connections between life as a refugee and the nature of Calvinism as a new phase of Reformation that departed from earlier models of civic reform. Calvinists conceived of a universal problem of disobedience to God that must be challenged everywhere.
  507.  
  508. Find this resource:
  509.  
  510.  
  511. Pettegree, Andrew. Foreign Protestant Communities in Sixteenth-Century London. Oxford: Clarendon, 1986.
  512.  
  513. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. This study considers around 50,000 refugees from Catholic persecution who moved to England for a shorter or longer period of time during the 16th century. It traces the emergence and development of this community of French- and Dutch-speakers in Edwardian and Elizabethan London.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519.  
  520. Reformed Churches
  521. Some Reformed churches gained support from civil authorities while elsewhere Calvinists fought for their rights to worship against Catholic monarchs. The literature considered here concerns the religious, political, and cultural history of Reformed churches beyond Geneva and the Swiss lands. One feature of this literature is the number of studies that focus on towns. We still know much less about rural Calvinism, although some important work has addressed this issue.
  522.  
  523. France
  524. Calvin and others developed plans for mission into the French monarchy. Heller 1986, Crouzet 1990, and Davis 2004 offer thoughtful views on why Calvinism spread across France from the 1550s. Benedict 1981, Meyer 1996, Roberts 1996, and Tulchin 2010 examine the successes and failures of Calvinism in towns. Garrisson-Estèbe 1980 considers the Huguenot heartland in the south of the country where Calvinists survived as a minority religion into the 17th century, as discussed by Benedict 2001.
  525.  
  526. Benedict, Philip. Rouen during the Wars of Religion. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. This study offers a fine survey of a base of Calvinist support in northern France. It traces the decline of the Calvinists of Rouen particularly after the massacres of 1572.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Benedict, Philip. The Faith and Fortunes of France’s Huguenots, 1600–1685. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2001.
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. A varied collection of articles on the Reformed church under the Edict of Nantes. There are essays on the religious life of communities in Montpellier, Metz, and Alençon as state persecution increased against Calvinists across the 17th century.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Crouzet, Denis. Les Guerriers de Dieu: La violence au temps des troubles de religion vers 1525–vers 1610. Seyssel, France: Champ Vallon, 1990.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. Crouzet discerns eschatological anxiety propelling support for Calvinism. He traces how the passions stirred by this anxiety played out in brutal contests for truth, which were such an extraordinary feature of the civil wars in France.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. Davis, Natalie Zemon. Society and Culture in Early Modern France. Cambridge, UK: Polity, 2004.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. An outstanding collection of essays on the cultural and social history of religion in 16th-century France. The collection includes Davis’s very influential essay on the “rites of violence,” which explains the horrific brutality that took place in clashes between Catholics and Calvinists. There are also classic accounts of urban reform in Lyon and the role of women in religious change.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Garrisson-Estèbe, Janine. Protestants du Midi, 1559–1598. Toulouse, France: Privat, 1980.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. A very significant survey that considers the attractions of Calvinism in the towns and villages of the south. The chronology of this study from the opening of the civil wars to the Edict of Nantes highlights the importance of the politics of France to the development of French Calvinism.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Heller, Henry. The Conquest of Poverty: The Calvinist Revolt in Sixteenth-Century France. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1986.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. A thought-provoking study that asserts the importance of social and economic conditions to the spread of Calvinism among artisans in particular. Most historians disagree with its conclusions about the antifeudal character of early French Calvinism, but it is well worth reading.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579.  
  580. Meyer, Judith. Reformation in La Rochelle: Tradition and Change in Early Modern Europe, 1500–1568. Geneva, Switzerland: Droz, 1996.
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. Meyer considers why La Rochelle became a key center of Calvinism. This book traces the emergence of a Reformed community in the town and considers which social groups embraced Calvinist ideas.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Roberts, Penny. A City in Conflict: Troyes during the French Wars of Religion. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1996.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. An account of the failure of Reformed religion to survive in an eastern French town. It analyzes efforts to build up a Reformed church and the response of the local Catholic authorities.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597.  
  598. Tulchin, Allan. That Men Would Praise The Lord: The Reformation in Nîmes, 1530–1730. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. This study discusses the success of Calvinism in the southern town of Nîmes. It analyzes the political and economic factors that help to explain the attraction of Calvinism to different social groups within Nîmes.
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606.  
  607. The Netherlands
  608. Calvinism at first spread to French-speaking communities in the southern Netherlands and then to Dutch-speakers in towns such as Antwerp, as shown in Marnef 1996. During the Dutch revolt many Calvinists went into exile before migrating to the northern provinces, as Pettegree 1992 shows. Religious diversity was a key feature of life in the Dutch Republic, and Kaplan 1995, Kooi 2000, Parker 1998, and Pollman 1999 study the varied pattern of integration between local civic authorities and the Reformed church.
  609.  
  610. Kaplan, Benjamin. Calvinists and Libertines: Confession and Community in Utrecht, 1578–1620. Oxford: Clarendon, 1995.
  611.  
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. This important study examines religious life in Utrecht with competing visions of the character of the town’s Reformed church and how it should relate to the civic community.
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
  617.  
  618.  
  619. Kooi, Christine. Liberty and Religion. Church and State in Leiden’s Reformation, 1572–1620. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2000.
  620.  
  621. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. The civic authorities in some Dutch towns were closely integrated with local Reformed churches. Not so in Leiden, which was disrupted by competing conceptions of an urban church and also by theological divisions around Arminianism.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. Marnef, Guido. Antwerp in the Age of Reformation: Underground Protestantism in a Commercial Metropolis, 1550–1577. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. This book tracks the early development of a Reformed church in Antwerp and the social groups that supported underground Calvinist congregations. After the wave of iconoclastic fury in 1566, Antwerp’s Calvinists faced persecution from a restored Habsburg authority.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Parker, Charles. The Reformation of Community: Social Welfare and Calvinist Charity in Holland, 1572–1620. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  638.  
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640.  
  641. This book provides a comparative analysis of social welfare in six towns: Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft, Leiden, Amsterdam, and Gouda. It assesses the relation between civic and church efforts to provide social provision for the poor. It highlights competing conceptions of Christian community as many Calvinists sought to take care only of church members.
  642.  
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645.  
  646. Pettegree, Andrew. Emden and the Dutch Revolt: Exile and the Development of Reformed Protestantism. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. If Geneva was the mission station for the spread of Calvinism to France, then Emden performed an equivalent role for the Netherlands. Exiles in the town were active in political agitation as well as mission, working for the success of the Dutch revolt against Habsburg authority.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654.  
  655. Pollmann, Judith. Religious Choice in the Dutch Republic: The Reformation of Arnoldus Buchelius, 1565–1641. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1999.
  656.  
  657. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. This study uses sources about the life of a church elder to trace how Calvinists adapted to religious diversity in the Republic. It examines how Arnoldus Buchelius dealt with members of the congregation over their moral lapses.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
  662.  
  663.  
  664. Holy Roman Empire
  665. Calvinism spread in the Holy Roman Empire as a second wave of reform. Lutheran princes had won the right to exercise their religion in 1555, but some opted to convert to Calvinism. This second wave of reform is studied in Schilling 1985. The most important centers of Calvinism during the 16th century were in the Rhineland, in some northwestern territories, and later in Brandenburg. Moltmann 1958, Nischan 1994, Press 1970, and Schilling 1991 study these areas. There were also significant Reformed centers of education, most notably at Heidelberg, as discussed in Bierma 1996 and by Hotson 2000.
  666.  
  667. Bierma, Lyle. German Calvinism in the Confessional Age: The Covenant Theology of Caspar Olevianus. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Brooks, 1996.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. Olevianus had contacts with both Geneva and Zurich. He played a leading role in the Palatinate and was one of the authors of the influential 1563 Heidelberg Catechism. He later served other Reformed princes, and this book offers insight into the fragile and fragmented Reformed community in the empire.
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675.  
  676. Hotson, Howard. Johann Heinrich Alsted, 1588–1638: Between Renaissance, Reformation, and Universal Reform. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000.
  677.  
  678. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. An intellectual history of the early-17th-century Calvinist theologian Johann Heinrich Alsted, who worked in the Herborn academy before moving to Transylvania. This study elaborates in detail the development of Alsted’s ideas about education and modes of philosophical inquiry as he worked on an encyclopedia.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684.  
  685. Moltmann, Jürgen. Christoph Pezel (1539–1604) und der Calvinismus in Bremen. Bremen, Germany: Verlag Einkehr, 1958.
  686.  
  687. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  688.  
  689. This important study sheds light on how Bremen first saw the growth of crypto-Calvinism among some Lutherans and then a program of further doctrinal reform and a new Calvinist order for the town’s church.
  690.  
  691. Find this resource:
  692.  
  693.  
  694. Nischan, Bodo. Prince, People and Confession: The Second Reformation in Brandenburg. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994.
  695.  
  696. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  697.  
  698. Calvinism spread to Brandenburg as the religion of choice of Johann Sigismund Hohenzollern. Calvinist activists such as Abraham Scultetus were drafted in to promote Reformed ideas about the Eucharist and to try to disrupt Brandenburg’s well-established Lutheran church.
  699.  
  700. Find this resource:
  701.  
  702.  
  703. Press, Volker. Calvinismus und Territorialstaat: Regierung und Zentralbehörden der Kurpfalz, 1559–1619. Stuttgart: Klett, 1970.
  704.  
  705. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  706.  
  707. This provides a view into the world of Reformed courts and academies of the empire by examining the Palatinate from the first reception of Calvinism through to the outbreak of the Thirty Years War.
  708.  
  709. Find this resource:
  710.  
  711.  
  712. Schilling, Heinz. Civic Calvinism in Northwestern Germany and the Netherlands: Sixteenth to Nineteenth Centuries. Kirksville, MO: Sixteenth Century Journal, 1991.
  713.  
  714. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  715.  
  716. Essays in this book reflect on the urban reception of Calvinism in the empire. Schilling argues that German Calvinism cannot only be seen as a matter of princely whim and court politics. He examines the urban republicanism of Emden’s Calvinists and also the long-term impact of moral discipline in Groningen.
  717.  
  718. Find this resource:
  719.  
  720.  
  721. Schilling, Heinz, ed. Die Reformierte Konfessionalisierung in Deutschland: Das Problem der Zweiten Reformation. Gütersloh, Germany: Mohn, 1985.
  722.  
  723. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  724.  
  725. An important collection that considers the nature of Calvinism’s second Reformation in the Empire. It engages with a model of confessionalization that has proved highly influential in German-speaking historiography to describe the impact of religion in its different confessional guises on governance and society.
  726.  
  727. Find this resource:
  728.  
  729.  
  730. Central Europe
  731. This region has been neglected until recently in Western literature on Calvinism. Evans 1985 and Maag 1997 draw attention to the substantial Calvinist communities across central Europe and to the political impact of noble Calvinism in the region.
  732.  
  733. Evans, Robert. “Calvinism in East-Central Europe.” In International Calvinism, 1541–1715. Edited by Menna Prestwich, 167–197. Oxford: Clarendon, 1985.
  734.  
  735. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  736.  
  737. This article discusses how Calvinism spread to central Europe during the middle decades of the 16th century. It provides an authoritative account of the subject by the leading scholar on the Habsburg monarchy during the early modern period.
  738.  
  739. Find this resource:
  740.  
  741.  
  742. Maag, Karin, ed. The Reformation in Eastern and Central Europe. Aldershot, UK: Scolar, 1997.
  743.  
  744. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  745.  
  746. This collection of essays reflects on the progress of different reform movements across central Europe from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, to the lands of the Bohemian crown, to the lands of the kingdom of Hungary. It includes a very helpful article by Joachim Bahlcke on Calvinism and estates movements in Bohemia and Hungary.
  747.  
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750.  
  751. Hungary
  752. Calvinism spread to Hungary during the middle decades of the 16th century. One of the most substantial Reformed churches in Europe developed in towns and the countryside of the eastern Hungarian plain and among Hungarian-speakers in Transylvania, as studied in Murdock 2000.
  753.  
  754. Murdock, Graeme. Calvinism on the Frontier, 1600–1660: International Calvinism and the Reformed Church in Hungary and Transylvania. Oxford: Clarendon, 2000.
  755.  
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757.  
  758. This study examines how Calvinism flourished during the early 17th century thanks in part to the support of Transylvania’s Reformed princes. It examines relations between the Hungarian and other Reformed churches. It also considers the impact of moral discipline on Calvinist communities and the emergence of Hungarian Puritanism.
  759.  
  760. Find this resource:
  761.  
  762.  
  763. British Isles
  764. English-speaking historians are sometimes tempted to present the Reformation in the British Isles as if it were a largely autonomous process from affairs elsewhere in Europe. English Protestantism was in fact heavily reliant on the work of Continental Reformed theologians. The English church retained a hierarchical structure as did other state-sponsored Calvinist churches. Reid 1974 shows that the Reformed church in Scotland was more obviously inspired by events in Geneva not least thanks to the role played by John Knox.
  765.  
  766. Reid, W. Stanford. Trumpeter of God: A Biography of John Knox. New York, Scribner, 1974.
  767.  
  768. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  769.  
  770. John Knox may not have been as dominant a voice in Scotland as he himself imagined, but there is no doubting the power of his siren calls for reform and the clarity of his demands that Scotland embrace his vision of a Reformed church and society.
  771.  
  772. Find this resource:
  773.  
  774.  
  775. Ireland
  776. Historiography about Calvinism in Ireland became slightly sidetracked by debate on whether success and failure were helpful criteria to assess Irish Protestantism. Armstrong 2006 and Ford 1987 are fine studies on the development of Protestantism among English and Scottish settler communities.
  777.  
  778. Armstrong, Robert. “Ireland’s Puritan Revolution? The Emergence of Ulster Presbyterianism Reconsidered.” English Historical Review 121.493 (2006): 1048–1074.
  779.  
  780. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. This article focuses attention on the emergence of a Presbyterian church in Ulster during the 1640s and considers its origins within Scotland.
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786.  
  787. Ford, Alan. The Protestant Reformation in Ireland: 1590–1641. Frankfurt: Lang, 1987.
  788.  
  789. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  790.  
  791. A very effective survey of efforts to promote reform, to develop a competent ministry, and to convert Gaelic-speaking communities. This book also highlights the particular doctrine adopted by the Irish church and the role of Calvinism in settler communities.
  792.  
  793. Find this resource:
  794.  
  795.  
  796. Scotland
  797. Kirk 1989 and Cowan 1982 analyze the emergence and development of Calvinism in Scotland. Lynch 1993 focuses on religious and political change in Edinburgh. Graham 1996, Todd 2002, and McCallum 2010 use the records of presbyteries and kirk sessions to examine how Scottish communities responded to Calvinism.
  798.  
  799. Cowan, Ian. The Scottish Reformation: Church and Society in Sixteenth-Cntury Scotland. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1982.
  800.  
  801. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. A helpful account of the complex politics of the Scottish Reformation and the struggles to provide an effective ministry and a settled institutional structure for the Reformed church.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807.  
  808. Graham, Michael. The Uses of Reform: “Godly Discipline” and Popular Behavior in Scotland and Beyond, 1560–1610. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1996.
  809.  
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811.  
  812. This study investigates how Calvinism in Scotland impacted on daily life through the interventions of kirk sessions in local communities and assesses the effectiveness of moral disciplinary efforts in Scotland and France.
  813.  
  814. Find this resource:
  815.  
  816.  
  817. Kirk, James. Patterns of Reform: Continuity and Change in the Reformation Kirk. Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1989.
  818.  
  819. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  820.  
  821. This broad-ranging survey considers the implementation of reform and development of the church in Scotland. It discusses ongoing debates over the church’s structure, the role of superintendents, and advocacy by some of regional presbyteries.
  822.  
  823. Find this resource:
  824.  
  825.  
  826. Lynch, Michael. Edinburgh and the Reformation. Aldershot, UK: Gregg Revivals, 1993.
  827.  
  828. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  829.  
  830. This study considers the connections between ministers, the council, and guilds in the development of the church in Edinburgh. It assesses this civic Protestantism amid the shifting politics of the 1560s and 1570s.
  831.  
  832. Find this resource:
  833.  
  834.  
  835. McCallum, John. Reforming the Scottish Parish: The Reformation in Fife, 1560–1640. Farnham, UK: Ashgate, 2010.
  836.  
  837. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  838.  
  839. This book looks at how reform was implemented in the parishes of Fife. It assesses the work of kirk sessions, relations between clergy and congregations, and the emerging pattern of religious life and worship.
  840.  
  841. Find this resource:
  842.  
  843.  
  844. Todd, Margo. The Culture of Protestantism in Early Modern Scotland. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002.
  845.  
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847.  
  848. This work has decisively advanced discussion of the character of Protestantism in Scotland. Through a very detailed analysis of the records of kirk sessions, it finds strong popular engagement with Protestant culture and suggests a relatively speedy success for Calvinism in Scotland through a radical shift in religious and popular culture.
  849.  
  850. Find this resource:
  851.  
  852.  
  853. England
  854. Reformed religion had made progress in England during the reign of Edward VI. Activists returned from exile abroad on Elizabeth’s accession. Collinson 1982 and Lake 1982 focus on the character of the church under Elizabeth and James and on the spectrum of opinions from conformists to Puritan enthusiasts.
  855.  
  856. Collinson, Patrick. The Religion of Protestants: The Church in English Society, 1559–1625. Oxford: Clarendon, 1982.
  857.  
  858. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  859.  
  860. The classic collection of lectures assessed the development of religious life in England under Elizabeth and James. It suggests that godly Protestants were integrated into the Calvinist mainstream of church life and that this consensus was only later disrupted by Laudians.
  861.  
  862. Find this resource:
  863.  
  864.  
  865. Lake, Peter. Moderate Puritans and the Elizabethan Church. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982.
  866.  
  867. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  868.  
  869. This book assesses the place of Puritan divines including Thomas Cartwright and William Perkins within the English church. Despite their criticisms of existing church structures and practices, moderate Puritans could conform because of the church’s underlying Calvinist character.
  870.  
  871. Find this resource:
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