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Early Col. Forms of Native Exp. in Mex. & Peru (Lat Am Stds)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The Aztecs and Inca were the dominant cultural groups in Mexico and Peru, respectively, upon the arrival of the Spaniards in the 16th century. After the conquest, Spain imposed distinctive forms of colonial rule over Mexico and Peru in response to the native traditions they encountered. The indigenous peoples of the Americas continued to express themselves in a variety of media after the conquest, and traces of an indigenous mindset or worldview can be found in these forms; however, the native and European worlds were quickly entangled and the native worlds fundamentally changed. Though native forms survived, they did so in changed circumstances and conditions, often in response to colonialism and as a form of negotiation and survival in a new world order. For example, many native artists were influenced by European styles and techniques, as revealed by the more representational motifs appearing in 16th-century Andean art and greater illusionism in Mexican art. Moreover, many natives learned to write alphabetically, so past oral traditions once preserved in songs, poems, pictorial books, and khipus were soon converted into alphabetic script. Other traditional forms of expression, such as the feather works of the Nahuas or the queros of the Inca, continued to be created by the indigenous peoples after the conquest, but their styles, functions, and subject matter changed due to their new colonial contexts. Indeed, one of the greatest dialogues between the native worlds and that of Europe took place in the religious realm. The imposition of Christianity and its attendant material culture created new opportunities for native expression to flourish. Though the architecture, painting, and sculpture of the churches now served Christian ends, their native authorship and preconquest influences are often clear. Religious dramas, too, preserved traces of native expression, though again with a Christian visage. Here, then, this article takes a broad view, focusing on traditional forms of expression and those imposed by Spain but focusing on the indigenous side of this dialogue as it became manifest in expressive forms. Mexico and Peru are treated separately because many of their forms of expression differ. So too did the colonial projects of each continent, owing to their different cultural traditions. Because some of the key sources for native expression date to the early 17th century (and beyond), this article takes a broad view chronologically, focusing largely on the early colonial period and more recently published texts while directing students to the bibliographies of these sources for fuller historiographical information.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Because of their material nature, the visual arts of colonial Mexico and Peru have received the most scholarly attention, with many of these sources treating the entire colonial period. The textbooks Bailey 2005 and Donahue-Wallace 2008 are useful for undergraduate students new to the topic of viceregal art and architecture, as is the multimedia Vistas website. An issue of Ethnohistory, Salomon and Hyland 2010, contains articles devoted to the theme of graphic communication in the Americas. More ephemeral forms of expression, like music and song, have not received as much scholarly attention, but a volume on music, Stevenson 1968; some of the essays in Robertson 1992 on music and performance; and a book on song, Tomlinson 2007, provide nice overviews on these topics for both Peru and Mexico. For an overview of literary traditions in the native Americas, see Lienhard 1991.
  8.  
  9. Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. Art of Colonial Latin America. London: Phaidon, 2005.
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  11. Bailey takes a thematic approach in his text, with the first two chapters treating the encounter between the natives and Europeans and native artistic responses to Spanish colonialism. A nice introduction to the topic for undergraduate students.
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  13. Donahue-Wallace, Kelly. Art and Architecture of Viceregal Latin America, 1521–1821. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2008.
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  15. The first three chapters of this textbook consider 16th-century Mexico and Peru, focusing on architecture, sculpture, painting, and urban planning from both the native and Spanish perspective.
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  17. Leibsohn, Dana, and Barbara E. Mundy. Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820.
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  19. A bilingual internet resource on colonial material culture, with introductory essays on various themes, an image gallery, bibliography, glossary, and internet links. A companion DVD is also available through University of Texas Press, offering high-resolution images and a library of primary documents including translations and commentaries.
  20. Find this resource:
  21. Lienhard, Martin. La voz y su huella: Escritura y conflicto étnico-social en América Latina, 1492–1988. Hanover, NH: Ediciones del Norte, 1991.
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  23. Takes a broad chronological approach but considers native literary traditions in the 16th and early 17th centuries in both Mexico and Peru.
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  25. Robertson, Carol E., ed. Musical Repercussions of 1492: Encounters in Text and Performance. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992.
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  27. A compilation of articles that resulted from a symposium on music in the age of the encounter. Includes articles on preconquest musical traditions of the Americas and the coming together of native and Spanish musical traditions in the New World.
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  29. Salomon, Frank, and Sabine Hyland, eds. Special Issue: Graphic Pluralism: Native American Systems of Inscription and the Colonial Situation. Ethnohistory 57.1 (2010).
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  31. This special issue of Ethnohistory considers systems of literacy throughout the Americas, with a focus on the impact of conquest and colonization on these graphic systems of communication. Articles focus on a variety of cultural traditions, including Nahua, Zapotec, Maya, and Inca, while the introductory essay provides a nice historiography of the topic.
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  33. Stevenson, Robert Murrell. Music in Aztec and Inca Territory. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968.
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  35. A broad overview of a topic in need of further study, Aztec and Inca music in the preconquest through colonial periods, useful for its bibliography.
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  37. Tomlinson, Gary. The Singing of the New World: Indigenous Voice in the Era of European Contact. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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  39. Tomlinson explains the significance of singing and its expressive power in the pre- and postconquest Aztec and Inca worlds.
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  41. Exhibition Catalogues
  42.  
  43. Most exhibitions on viceregal art treat the entire colonial period. The exhibition catalogues included here contain examples of native artistic expressions from the 16th century and scholarly essays on native artistic traditions under colonial rule. For exhibition catalogues treating both continents, see Fane 1996, Katzew 2011, and Rishel and Stratton-Pruitt 2006. For a key exhibition on just New Spain, see Pierce, et al. 2004, and for an impressive one on colonial Peru, see Phipps, et al. 2004.
  44.  
  45. Fane, Diana, ed. Converging Cultures: Art and Identity in Spanish America. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.
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  47. Treats the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru and includes scholarly essays on colonial art that relate to the entanglement of native and Spanish traditions. Also includes images and descriptions of artworks from the Brooklyn Museum collection.
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  49. Katzew, Ilona, ed. Contested Visions in the Spanish Colonial World. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 2011.
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  51. An edited volume with articles representing later trends in scholarship on the colonial world. The exhibition and associated catalogue consider how indigenous peoples were represented in colonial art, by themselves and by others. Includes images of a range of colonial materials, including codices, feather works, queros, and textiles.
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  53. Phipps, Elena, Johanna Hecht, and Cristina Esteras Martín. The Colonial Andes: Tapestries and Silverwork, 1530–1830. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004.
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  55. A text to accompany an exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art with scholarly articles on the Inca past, colonial textiles, Peruvian silverwork, the transformation of the colonial Andean tapestry tradition, and more general articles on the transformation of Inca society under Spanish colonial rule.
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  57. Pierce, Donna, Rogelio Ruiz Gomar, and Clara Bargellini. Painting a New World: Mexican Art and Life, 1521–1821. Denver, CO: Frederick and Jan Mayer Center for Pre-Columbian and Spanish Colonial Art, Denver Art Museum, 2004.
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  59. A nice introduction to the art of painting in New Spain, which includes traditional oil on canvas pieces along with feather works, maps, and even enconchados—panels inlaid with shell. Also contains an extensive catalogue of pieces included in the associated exhibition along with informative texts on each image.
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  61. Rishel, Joseph J., and Suzanne Stratton-Pruitt. The Arts in Latin America, 1492–1820. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
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  63. Contains a number of scholarly essays on the arts of colonial Latin America from a more global perspective, considering the usual native and European contributions but also those of Africa and Asia. Treats painting, sculpture, decorative arts, textiles, silver, and furniture.
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  65. Native Expression as Colonial Discourse
  66.  
  67. For scholars, graduate students, and advanced undergrads seeking to understand the theoretical and political implications behind works created by natives under colonial rule, which are often treated as a form of colonial discourse, there are a number of key articles. Adorno and Mignolo 1989 is a special volume of Dispositio devoted to the issue of colonial discourse, and in it, Mignolo lays out his theory of colonial semiosis, which he treats in a more thorough manner in Mignolo 2003. A few years later, the Latin American Research Review published a series of essays (including Seed 1991) on the issue of colonial and postcolonial discourse, and a decade later, Dean and Leibsohn 2003 returned to the issue in the same journal. To see how these theoretical issues are treated by scholars working on specific native works, see individual articles in Boone and Cummins 1988, Boone and Mignolo 1994, and Umberger and Cummins 1995.
  68.  
  69. Adorno, Rolena, and Walter Mignolo, eds. Special Issue: Colonial Discourse. Dispositio 14.36–38 (1989).
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  71. A special volume of the journal with many articles treating colonial discourse in Latin America from a literary and historical perspective.
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  73. Boone, Elizabeth, and Tom Cummins, eds. Native Traditions in the Postconquest World: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 2nd through 4th October 1992. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library, 1988.
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  75. A number of scholars from different disciplines contributed to this volume, which considers various forms of native expression that continued after the conquest. Particularly useful are Boone’s article on pictorial documents, Burkhart’s on Nahua Christian pageantry, and Cummin’s concluding synthesis. Available online.
  76. Find this resource:
  77. Boone, Elizabeth Hill, and Walter D. Mignolo. Writing without Words: Alternative Literacies in Mesoamerica and the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.
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  79. This edited volume takes a broad view of writing to include systems of graphic communication. Articles treat different forms of expression (such as maps and books) related to the Maya, Aztecs, Mixtecs, and Inca, many of which were created in the 16th century.
  80. Find this resource:
  81. Dean, Carolyn, and Dana Leibsohn. “Hybridity and Its Discontents: Considering Visual Culture in Colonial Spanish America.” Colonial Latin American Review 12.1 (2003): 5–35.
  82. DOI: 10.1080/10609160302341Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  83. An influential article that explores the use of the term “hybridity” in scholarly discourse on colonial Latin America and exposes its political implications. Questions how material objects created under colonialism take on meaning and how scholars today assign meaning to such objects.
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  85. Mignolo, Walter. The Darker Side of the Renaissance: Literacy, Territoriality, and Colonization. 2d ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
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  87. A theoretically sophisticated exploration of the role of language in the colonization of the Americas, with a focus on the issue of literacy and the different systems of communication, alphabetic and visual, at play in the colonial encounter. Originally published in 1995.
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  89. Seed, Patricia. “Colonial and Postcolonial Discourse.” Latin American Research Review 26.3 (1991): 181–200.
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  91. Seed’s review essay considers colonial and postcolonial discourse from the viewpoint of history, literature, and anthropology. Responses were published in a later issue (Latin American Research Review 28.3 [1993]). Together, these essays are a valuable resource for understanding colonial discourse via the perspective of Latin America.
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  93. Umberger, Emily, and Tom Cummins, eds. Native Artists and Patrons in Colonial Latin America. Tucson: Arizona State University, 1995.
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  95. This small volume provides nice case studies in treating colonialism in the visual realm. The contributions consider mural paintings and manuscripts in Mexico and 17th-century dramas and paintings in the Andes, while the article by Cummins provides an insightful comparative study of Mexico and Peru.
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  97. Mexico and the Aztec World
  98.  
  99. The Mexica of Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City) were the leading power throughout much of Mexico at the time of the Spanish arrival in 1519. The empire they controlled is often referred to as the Aztec empire, which consisted of a number of cities and peoples brought under imperial rule. The major forms of expression for the Aztecs were the visual arts (architecture, sculpture, mural painting, paintings on cloth and in bark-paper books, feather works, etc.) and performance arts (incorporating song/poetry, music, dance, drama). Many of these forms continued to flourish after the Spanish conquest, though often in new forms and influenced by the new Christian religion. Due to their less ephemeral nature, the visual arts are better understood than the performance arts and are treated in more detail here. For an overview of Aztec culture before the conquest, see Smith 2012 and Townsend 2009. For books that focus primarily on Aztec art, see Pasztory 1983 or Matos Moctezuma and Solís Olguín 2002. For a thorough treatment on the Aztec empire as a whole, see Berdan, et al. 1996.
  100.  
  101. Berdan, Frances F., Richard E. Blanton, Elizabeth Hill Boone, Mary G. Hodge, Michael E. Smith, and Emily Umberger. Aztec Imperial Strategies. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 1996.
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  103. This edited volume presents a thorough explication of the Aztec empire, with a focus on the capital city’s economic relations with its provinces and also articles that consider the role of the arts in imperial control.
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  105. Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo, and Felipe Solís Olguín. Aztecs. London: Royal Academy of Arts, 2002.
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  107. An exhibition catalogue richly embellished with color images of key Aztec works, including pieces made after the conquest. Organized in a thematic manner, with sections on topics like the body or religion in the arts, while scholarly essays address topics associated with Aztec arts and culture.
  108. Find this resource:
  109. Pasztory, Esther. Aztec Art. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1983.
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  111. This is the standard textbook on Aztec art and was reprinted by the University of Oklahoma Press in 1993. Includes numerous images and a clear text explaining the main features of Aztec art and architecture.
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  113. Smith, Michael E. The Aztecs. 3d ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
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  115. This is an updated version of Smith’s anthropological overview of the Aztecs, treating all facets of the lives of the Aztec people; ideal for students.
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  117. Townsend, Richard F. The Aztecs. 3d ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2009.
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  119. A textbook on Aztec culture but with a focus on Aztec art, geared toward a general readership and so ideal for introductory students.
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  121. Colonial Transition in Mexico
  122.  
  123. The sources included here focus on the transition of native peoples of Mexico into colonial subjects from a larger cultural perspective. These sources are key starting points for anyone interested in undertaking more advanced research into native forms of expression in 16th-century Mexico. The Aztecs and their transition into Spanish colonial subjects have probably received the most scholarly attention, beginning with the foundational work Gibson 1964 and continuing with Lockhart 1992. In more recent years, the Maya of the colonial period have been attracting more academic attention. Farriss 1984 is a key starting point on the topic, and an edited volume, Cecil and Pugh 2009, contains more focused articles on the colonial Maya. Terraciano 2001 is the most comprehensive source on the Mixtecs of Oaxaca and their transition into colonial subjects. The Zapotecs have not received as much scholarly attention, but for a useful introduction, see Zeitlin 2005. Lockhart, et al. 2007 and Restall, et al. 2005 are useful sources for undergraduates as they treat a number of native cultures and their forms of expression, while explaining how to use primary documents for advanced research.
  124.  
  125. Cecil, Leslie G., and Timothy W. Pugh, eds. Maya Worldviews at Conquest. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009.
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  127. Focuses on Maya ways of thinking as manifest in material forms, such as literature, art, and dance, before and after the conquest. The introduction contains a nice overview of colonial Maya historiography, and the essays, written from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, reflect later advances in scholarship on the colonial Maya.
  128. Find this resource:
  129. Farriss, Nancy M. Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
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  131. Begin with this book to understand the Maya who lived during the 16th century. Elucidates the social order, via family and community, created by colonial-era Maya for their cultural survival.
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  133. Gibson, Charles. The Aztecs under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964.
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  135. Still a classic text. Gibson uncovers a wealth of archival resources through which he reconstructs colonial Aztec society in relation to various themes, such as religion, economics, and politics. A clear explanation of the Spanish system of control imposed on New Spain and Nahua responses to this control.
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  137. Lockhart, James. The Nahuas after the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
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  139. Focuses on Nahuatl-speaking peoples and their social and cultural adaptations under Spanish colonial rule. Also treats forms of expression, such as histories, song, and theater, and how the Nahuas utilized and modified these forms in the 16th century and beyond.
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  141. Lockhart, James, Lisa Sousa, and Stephanie Wood, eds. Sources and Methods for the Study of Postconquest Mesoamerican Ethnohistory. Wired Humanities Project. Eugene: University of Oregon, 2007.
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  143. A series of articles posted online through the Wired Humanities Project of the University of Oregon, providing introductions to a variety of sources, such as 16th-century murals, pictorial genealogies, and conquest pictorials. Ideal for undergraduates seeking guidance on research methods.
  144. Find this resource:
  145. Restall, Matthew, Lisa Sousa, and Kevin Terraciano. Mesoamerican Voices: Native-Language Writings from Colonial Mexico, Oaxaca, Yucatan and Guatemala. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
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  147. A work geared toward college students. Includes primary native-language writings, translated into English, from a variety of peoples, including Maya, Nahuas, and Mixtecs. These are arranged thematically and are accompanied by descriptive essays explaining the texts and acting as a guide through the colonial world.
  148. Find this resource:
  149. Terraciano, Kevin. The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Ñudzahui History, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
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  151. This thorough work is a must-read for understanding the colonial Mixtecs. Terraciano explores a wealth of native-language archival sources and pictorial documents to reconstruct Mixtec society under colonial rule. The thorough bibliography provides a wealth of useful sources on the Mixtecs.
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  153. Zeitlin, Judith Francis. Cultural Politics in Colonial Tehuantepec: Community and State among the Isthmus Zapotec, 1500–1750. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2005.
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  155. Zeitlin takes an approach combining archaeology and history by analyzing both material and textual sources in order to explain the Zapotecs and their survival and forms of expression in the early colonial period.
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  157. Pictorial Documents
  158.  
  159. The native peoples of Mexico used a pictorial system of writing to record their histories and other forms of information, and they continued to write and express themselves visually after the conquest. These documents are one of the key forms of native expression that survived, and indeed proliferated, under Spanish colonial rule. In 1959, Robertson published a study of Aztec and Mixtec pictorial documents that treated them as works of art. Republished in 1994, this is still a key resource (Robertson 1994), as is Glass and Robertson 1975, a census of the entire corpus of pictorial documents then known. Focusing on Aztec and Mixtec pictorial histories, Boone 2000 is an expansion of Robertson’s and is a key source for scholars and students alike. Mundy 1996 focuses on maps created in the 16th century and treats the Aztecs, Mixtecs, and Zapotecs. Smith 1973 is a seminal text on Mixtec pictorial writing, and a more recent work on preconquest and colonial Mixtec pictorial writing is Jansen and Pérez Jiménez 2011. The Zapotec pictorials have not received as much scholarly attention, but for a useful overview, see Oudijk 2000. For more focused articles on various Mesoamerican pictorials, see those compiled in Boone 2005.
  160.  
  161. Boone, Elizabeth Hill. Stories in Red and Black: Pictorial Histories of the Aztecs and Mixtecs. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.
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  163. A key starting point for both scholars and students interested in the pictorial documents of the Mixtecs and Aztecs. Boone explains how to read these books and considers their structure and content. She also considers the colonial context in which many of these books were painted.
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  165. Boone, Elizabeth Hill, ed. Painted Books and Indigenous Knowledge in Mesoamerica: Manuscript Studies in Honor of Mary Elizabeth Smith. New Orleans, LA: Middle American Research Institute, 2005.
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  167. An edited volume of scholarly papers that came out of a conference on painted books honoring Mary Elizabeth Smith. Articles reference Mixtec, Aztec, and Maya pictorials, and many concern their early colonial contexts.
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  169. Glass, John, and Donald Robertson. “A Census of Native Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts.” In Handbook of Middle American Indians. Vol. 14. Edited by Howard F. Cline, 81–252. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1975.
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  171. This census includes descriptions of the sources, their locations, and their publication histories. An essential reference tool for anyone studying the pictorial documents.
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  173. Jansen, Maarten E. R. G. N., and Gabina Aurora Pérez Jiménez. The Mixtec Pictorial Manuscripts: Time, Agency and Memory in Ancient Mexico. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
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  175. An introduction to the corpus of Mixtec pictorial documents. Explains how to read Mixtec pictography and how the writings were transformed under colonial rule. Also introduces a methodological and theoretical framework for the study of these works.
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  177. Mundy, Barbara. The Mapping of New Spain: Indigenous Cartography and the Maps of the Relaciones Geográficas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
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  179. Focuses on maps created by natives for Spain. Through her elegant examination of these maps, Mundy explains what they tell us about indigenous cartography and also what they reveal about native responses to life under Spanish colonial rule.
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  181. Oudijk, Michel. Historiography of the Bènizàa: The Postclassic and Early Colonial Periods, 1000–1600 A.D. CNWS Publications 84. Leiden, The Netherlands: Research School of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies, Universiteit Leiden, 2000.
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  183. A multidisciplinary study of Zapotec history from the preconquest to early colonial period, with an emphasis on Zapotec pictorials and their links to language.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Robertson, Donald. Mexican Manuscript Painting of the Early Colonial Period: The Metropolitan Schools. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994.
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  187. A reprint of Robertson’s original (1959) book, with an introduction by Boone to contextualize the pioneering work. A stylistic study of the pictorials through which Robertson provides a chronology of their development in the 16th century and places the different pictorials into various “schools.”
  188. Find this resource:
  189. Smith, Mary Elizabeth. Picture Writing from Ancient Southern Mexico: Mixtec Place Signs and Maps. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1973.
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  191. A classic introduction to Mixtec pictorials. Explains the Mixtec pictorial system of writing and provides an overview of the various Mixtec codices from the preconquest and early colonial periods.
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  193. Specific Works
  194.  
  195. Much of the scholarship on colonial pictorial documents focus more narrowly on specific pictorials or associated groups of pictorials. Nevertheless, these studies are often quite broad in their disciplinary approaches, typically spanning anthropology, art history, and history. For scholarly works on some key Aztec pictorials, see Berdan and Anawalt 1997, Quiñones Keber 1998, Diel 2008, and Douglas 2010. The articles in Carrasco and Sessions 2007 focus on a single pictorial map from the Cuauhtinchan area, while Leibsohn 2009 treats a combined alphabetic and pictorial history also from Cuauhtinchan. Asselbergs 2008 considers a new colonial-era genre, the lienzos that record the history of the Spanish conquest. For the study of another alphabetic and pictorial history from outside the Aztec realm, Krippner-Martínez 2001, a study of the Relación de Michoacan, does a nice job considering the document in its colonial context.
  196.  
  197. Asselbergs, Florine. Conquered Conquistadors: The Lienzo de Quauhquechollan, a Nahua Vision of the Conquest of Guatemala. Rev. ed. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008.
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  199. Focuses on a lienzo, a painting on cloth, that recounts the invasion of Guatemala by Spaniards and their Nahua allies from Quauhquechollan. Asselbergs places this lienzo into a tradition of what she calls conquest pictorials, along with other works such as the Lienzo de Tlaxcala and the Lienzo de Analco.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Berdan, Frances F., and Patricia Rieff Anawalt, eds. The Essential Codex Mendoza. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
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  203. The Codex Mendoza is a well-known Aztec pictorial manuscript and highly informative about Aztec history, economics, and life. This book is a condensed, but more accessible, edition of a larger four-volume work published as The Codex Mendoza in 1992. It includes drawings of the codex and transcriptions and translations of the alphabetic annotations along with a useful commentary.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Carrasco, Davíd, and Scott Sessions, eds. Cave, City, and Eagle’s Nest: An Interpretive Journey through the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007.
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  207. This beautifully illustrated edited volume was the result of a scholarly workshop on the Mapa de Cuauhtinchan No. 2, a painting on native bark paper that combines history and cartography. The articles that resulted from the workshop provide a reading of the painting and explain its significance in light of its 16th-century colonial context.
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  209. Diel, Lori Boornazian. The Tira de Tepechpan: Negotiating Place under Aztec and Spanish Rule. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2008.
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  211. The Tira de Tepechpan records the pre- and postconquest history of Tepechpan, a relatively minor city within the Aztec empire, alongside that of Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital. This study provides a reading of the Tira’s content and treats the work as an example of colonial discourse.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Douglas, Eduardo de J. In the Palace of Nezahualcoyotl: Painting Manuscripts, Writing the Pre-Hispanic Past in Early Colonial Period Tetzcoco, Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2010.
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  215. Douglas focuses on three pictorial documents associated with Texcoco: Codex Xolotl, Mapa Quinatzin, and Mapa Tlotzin. While the three pictorials seem more closely tied to the preconquest past, Douglas reveals that their content and style relate more to the colonial context in which they were created.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Krippner-Martínez, James. Rereading the Conquest: Power, Politics, and the History of Early Colonial Michoacán, Mexico, 1521–1565. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.
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  219. The Relación de Michoacan includes a Spanish text and a number of images of preconquest and early colonial Tarascan history. This work considers the Relación in terms of its highly charged cultural context.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Leibsohn, Dana. Script and Glyph: Pre-Hispanic History, Colonial Bookmaking, and the Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, 2009.
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  223. The Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca combines alphabetic and pictorial history with cartography. Leibsohn approaches the work through the idea of landscape. Includes color images of the Historia’s major paintings along with explanations of their iconography and style.
  224. Find this resource:
  225. Quiñones Keber, Eloise. Codex Telleriano-Remensis: Ritual, Divination, and History in a Pictorial Aztec Manuscript. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1995.
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  227. A facsimile and explanation of the Codex Telleriano-Remensis, a religious and historical manuscript painted by native artists on European paper and then alphabetically annotated by a number of scribes.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Bernardino de Sahagún
  230.  
  231. Deserving a section of their own, the primary works by Sahagún—Primeros memoriales (Sahagún 1993, Sahagún 1997) and the Florentine Codex (Sahagún 1959–1982)—provide many key examples of Nahua expression, via the visual imagery included in his works and the texts written in Nahuatl. His informants and artists were Nahua elites, and though they worked at his request, their voices are still preserved, especially in the pictorial illustrations of the works. For an analysis of the images in the Primeros memoriales, see Baird 1993, and for analyses of the images and text of the Florentine Codex, see Quiñones Keber 2002 and Schwaller 2003.
  232.  
  233. Baird, Ellen T. The Drawings of Sahagún’s Primeros memoriales: Structure and Style. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993.
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  235. An art historical analysis of the images in the Primeros Memoriales. Baird considers the content of the images themselves, the artists of the work, and the extent of European influence.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Quiñones Keber, Eloise, ed. Representing Aztec Ritual: Performance, Text, and Image in the Work of Sahagún. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2002.
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  239. An edited volume focusing on Sahagun’s work through the lens of Aztec ritual. Many of the articles focus on the imagery in Sahagún’s work.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Sahagún, Bernardino de. Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain. 13 vols. Translated and edited by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Charles E. Dibble. Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research, 1959–1982.
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  243. The key English-language translation of Sahagún’s Florentine Codex, published in thirteen volumes each dealing with a different topic, from religion to astronomy to the conquest. A necessary source for understanding Aztec culture.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. Sahagún, Bernardino de. Primeros memoriales. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993.
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  247. A beautiful facsimile edition of the Primeros memoriales. To understand the Nahuatl texts, use in conjunction with Sahagún 1997.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Sahagún, Bernardino de. Primeros memoriales. Edited and translated by Thelma Sullivan. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.
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  251. An English translation of the Nahuatl texts in the Primeros memoriales, a useful source for anyone studying the imagery and contents of this source.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Schwaller, John Frederick, ed. Sahagún at 500: Essays on the Quincentenary of the Birth of Fr. Bernardino de Sahagún. Berkeley, CA: Academy of American Franciscan History, 2003.
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  255. An edited volume with scholarly articles on Sahagún’s main projects. Many of the articles focus on the paintings in Sahagún’s work and the nature of the Nahua-Christian dialogue these images reveal.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Alphabetic Chronicles
  258.  
  259. After the conquest a number of Nahuas learned to write alphabetically and preserved their histories in alphabetic texts; for examples, see Alvarado Tezozómoc 1975 and Chimalpáhin Cuauhtlehuanitzin 1997 and Chimalpáhin Cuauhtlehuanitzin 1998. The mestizo writer associated with Texcoco, Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, also wrote a thorough history of the Aztec empire (Alva Ixtlilxóchitl 1997). For a comparative analysis of Nahua chroniclers, see Velazco 2003. Though many of these works were written in the 17th century, they are included here because they are key resources for understanding Nahua historical expression and are also often used as primary sources to understand the Aztec past and early colonial period.
  260.  
  261. Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Fernando de. Obras históricas. 3d ed. 2 vols. Edited by Edmundo O’Gorman. Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma de México, 1997.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. The works compiled in this two-volume set include Relaciones by Alva Ixtlilxochitl, as well as his Historia de la Nación Chichimeca. These are histories of the Aztec empire and early colonial New Spain written from the perspective of Texcoco, the second most powerful city within the Aztec empire. Also includes a critical commentary by O’Gorman.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Alvarado Tezozómoc, Hernando. Crónica Mexicana. Edited by Manuel Orozco y Berra. 2d ed. Mexico City: Editorial Porrúa, 1975.
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  267. The standard publication of Alvarado Tezozómoc’s work, a history of the Aztec empire from the perspective of Tenochtitlan, the former Aztec capital. Also includes an introduction by Orozco y Berra.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Chimalpáhin Cuauhtlehuanitzin, Domingo. Codex Chimalpahin: Society and Politics in Mexico Tenochtitlan, Tlatelolco, Texcoco, Culhuacan, and Other Nahua Altepetl in Central Mexico. Edited and translated by Arthur J. O. Anderson and Susan Schroeder. 2 vols. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1997.
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  271. An English translation of Chimalpahin’s annals, histories, and related accounts, along with their originals in Nahuatl. Chimalpahin’s history focuses on his hometown of Chalco along with key events in the history of the Aztec empire, including and through the conquest of Tenochtitlan. Includes a nice introduction to Chimalpahin.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Chimalpáhin Cuauhtlehuanitzin, Domingo. Las ocho relaciones y el memorial de Colhuacan. 2 vols. Edited and translated by Rafael Tena. 2 vols. Mexico City: Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1998.
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  275. The original Nahuatl and a Spanish translation of Chimalpahin that includes eight relations of varying lengths and with some redundancies between the works. These histories, too, focus on Chalco, the larger Aztec empire, and early colonial New Spain.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Velazco, Salvador. Visiones de Anáhuac: Reconstrucciones historiográficas y etnicidades emergentes en el México Colonial: Fernando de Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, Diego Muñoz Camargo y Hernando de Alvarado Tezozómoc. Guadalajara, Mexico: Universidad de Guadalajara, 2003.
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  279. A nice comparative analysis from a literary perspective of Alva Ixtlilxochitl and Tezozomoc, along with Muñoz Camargo, a mestizo who wrote a history of Tlaxcala in the 16th century. Provides useful insights into the intentions of these historians.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Christian Art and Architecture in Mexico
  282.  
  283. The evangelization effort in New Spain required an attendant emphasis on material culture. A number of churches were built by native laborers in the first century after conquest, and these were filled with mural paintings and sculptures, which were often created by native artisans. Though the function of these works relates to the spread of Christianity, these studies often emphasize the native voice in the dialogue of conversion. For general overviews on colonial Mexican architecture, see Early 1994, Espinosa Spínola 1999, and Wake 2010. For studies of the murals within these churches, see Gruzinski 2004 and Peterson 1993. Edgerton 2001 and Lara 2004 treat the missions as a whole as theatrical stages for the performance of conversion. For a nice study of Nahua feather working, a native art form put to a Christian use after the conquest, see Russo 2002.
  284.  
  285. Early, James. The Colonial Architecture of Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1994.
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  287. While it covers the entire colonial period, there are sections on early colonial architecture; especially useful for students is a chapter treating the interchange between friars and natives in evangelical architecture.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Edgerton, Samuel Y. Theaters of Conversion: Religious Architecture and Indian Artisans in Colonial Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001.
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  291. Contains beautiful photographs of many early colonial churches and associated artworks, such as murals and sculptures. Focuses largely on 16th-century Mexico, including the Yucatan. While structured around the theme of conversion, focuses also on the native contributions to these churches.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Espinosa Spínola, Gloria. Arquitectura de la conversión y evangelización en la Nueva España durante el siglo XVI. Almería, Spain: Universidad de Almería, 1999.
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  295. Focuses on what the author calls the “Architecture of Conversion” of the 16th century as an amalgamation of the native world and the Hispanic world and distinctive of New Spain.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Gruzinski, Serge. El águila y la sibila: Frescos indios de México. Barcelona: Moleiro Editor, 2004.
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  299. Beautifully photographed murals from colonial churches. Focuses on Actopan, Ixmiquilpan, and Tecamachalco and reveals the influence of Christianity and even classical antiquity on church mural paintings carried out by native artists.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Lara, Jaime. City, Temple, Stage: Eschatological Architecture and Liturgical Theatrics in New Spain. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004.
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  303. Lara’s exquisitely illustrated volume studies the intersection of Aztec and Christian religion as it became manifest in the art and architecture of the missions built in 16th-century New Spain.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Peterson, Jeanette Favrot. The Paradise Garden Murals of Malinalco: Utopia and Empire in Sixteenth-Century Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.
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  307. A clearly written study of the murals from a church in Malinalco. Though the murals served Christian ends, Peterson traces much of their iconography to the preconquest past.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Russo, Alessandra. “Plumes of Sacrifice: Transformations in Sixteenth-Century Mexican Feather Art.” RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 42 (Autumn 2002): 226–250.
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  311. Explores the feather-working tradition from the preconquest period and its transformation in the early colonial period; studies the implications of the preconquest form of art being utilized for a Christian purpose.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Wake, Eleanor. Framing the Sacred: The Indian Churches of Early Colonial Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010.
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  315. An examination of colonial churches from the perspective of the natives who built them and revealing the persistence of native beliefs and their strong role in the conversion process.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Theater and Performance
  318.  
  319. Those dramas that have survived typically served a religious purpose and as such evidence a more European form of expression over a native one. Burkhart 1996, Horcasitas 1974, and Sell and Burkhart 2004 focus on dramas written in Nahuatl. Howell 2009 considers a dance by the K’iche’ Maya. Breining 2007 is a vast bibliography on all topics related to theater in colonial Mexico, and those interested in this topic are directed there. Garibay K. 1971 (cited under Poetry and Literature) also references some Nahua dramas.
  320.  
  321. Breining, Daniel. Mexican Theater and Drama from the Conquest through the Seventeenth Century. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2007.
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  323. An annotated bibliography that takes a broad approach by including primary and secondary sources that speak, if even tangentially, to colonial Mexican theater. Includes useful descriptions of each source and its relation to theater.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Burkhart, Louise M. Holy Wednesday: A Nahua Drama from Early Colonial Mexico. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996.
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  327. Treats one of the only surviving dramas written in Nahuatl in the 16th century (though based on a Spanish play). An analysis, transcription, and translation of the Holy Wednesday drama and its historical context.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Horcasitas, Fernando. El teatro náhuatl. Vol. 1, Épocas novohispana y moderna. Mexico City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, 1974.
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  331. An extensive work that includes a number of Nahuatl plays and their Spanish translations. The plays are analyzed through an anthropological perspective.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Howell, Mark. “Music Syncretism in the Postclassic K’iche’ Warrior Dance and the Colonial Period Baile de los Moros y Cristianos.” In Maya Worldviews at Conquest. Edited by Leslie G. Cecil and Timothy W. Pugh, 279–298. Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2009.
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  335. An analysis of Maya performances of Spanish dances that reveal continuities with the past through their use of local instruments and references to Maya history and concepts of time.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Sell, Barry D., and Louise M. Burkhart. Nahuatl Theater. Vol. 1, Death and Life in Colonial Nahua Mexico. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004.
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  339. Transcriptions, translations, and studies of seven dramas originally written in Nahuatl in the 16th and 17th centuries and dealing with Christian themes as interpreted by Nahuas.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Poetry and Literature
  342.  
  343. There are two principal sources on Nahuatl poetry or song: Cantares Mexicanos and Romances de los Señores de la Nueva España. The translation and study of these texts is still a contentious matter for a number of reasons, one being the difficulty of the translation of Classical Nahuatl poetry and another being the distinction between preconquest and colonial content. The first large-scale study of these poems, which treated them as literary works, is Garibay K. 1971, of which León-Portilla 2011 is an update. Bierhorst 1985 and Bierhorst 2009 are translations of these poems into English and provide Bierhorst’s own interpretations of their content; some have critiqued his work (see León-Portilla 1992, Lockhart 1991). León-Portilla 1969 and León-Portilla 1992 are easily accessible texts on Nahuatl poetry and literature, while Segala 1989 also includes sayings known as huehuetlatolli in this study of Nahuatl literature.
  344.  
  345. Bierhorst, John, trans. Cantares Mexicanos: Songs of the Aztecs. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1985.
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  347. Provides a transcription and translation into English of the Cantares Mexicanos as well as an introductory essay on Nahua song and poetry. Compares the Cantares to the 19th-century Ghost Dance cult, which guides some of his interpretations.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Bierhorst, John, ed. and trans. Ballads of the Lords of New Spain: The Codex Romances de los Señores de la Nueva España. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2009.
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  351. A transcription and translation of thirty-six Nahuatl songs that were compiled in 1582 and today are owned by the University of Texas Libraries. Also available online with supplemental material, including images of the original work and audio clips suggesting drum cadences. Includes a chapter on the translation of Aztec poetry that explains many of the cultural references and tropes of the songs.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Garibay K., Angel María. Historia de la literatura náhuatl. 2d ed. 2 vols. Mexico City: Porrúa, 1971.
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  355. Selection of extracts from the Cantares Mexicanos, which Garibay translates and comments upon. The foundation for many later studies of the Cantares. Originally published in 1953.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. León-Portilla, Miguel. Pre-Columbian Literatures of Mexico. Translated by Grace Lobanov and Miguel León-Portilla. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969.
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  359. This book takes a more general focus on various forms of literature from throughout Mesoamerica, focusing largely on Nahua and Maya literary forms, from sacred hymns to lyric poetry to prose sources chronicling the conquest; a nice introduction to Mexican literature for undergraduates.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. León-Portilla, Miguel, ed. Fifteen Poets of the Aztec World. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1992.
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  363. An accessible introduction to Nahuatl poetry, beginning with an overview of the structure and corpus of Nahuatl poetry and including translations and commentaries on specific poems and poets from different regions of central Mexico.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. León-Portilla, Miguel, ed. Cantares Mexicanos. 2 vols. Mexico City: Universidad Autónoma de México, 2011.
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  367. Volume 1 contains essays on the Cantares, and Volume 2 (in two parts) contains transcriptions and translations of the actual poems. An update of Garibay K. 1971 that takes advantage of the large advances made in Aztec studies in the intervening years.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Lockhart, John. “Care, Ingenuity, and Irresponsibility: The Bierhorst Edition of the Cantares Mexicanos.” Reviews in Anthropology 16.1–4 (1991): 119–132.
  370. DOI: 10.1080/00988157.1991.9977887Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. A thorough review of Bierhorst’s work on the Cantares that clearly explains what Lockhart sees as its major contributions and deficiencies.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Segala, Amos. Histoire de la littérature Nahuatl: Sources, identités, representations. Rome: Bulzoni, 1989.
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  375. Study of the Cantares, Romances, and huehuetlatolli (sayings by Nahua elders) as forms of Nahua discourse.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Peru and the Inca World
  378.  
  379. In the years before the Spanish conquest of Peru in 1532, the Inca people controlled a vast and multiethnic empire from their capital at Cuzco. Their forms of expression differed from those of the Aztecs, with much of Inca art favoring more abstract styles over representational ones. Moreover, there is a primacy of textiles in the Andes, with clothing serving a major communicative role in imperial control and administrative records being kept on woven khipus rather than the books more familiar to the Spaniards and Aztecs. For a nice overview of Inca culture, see Rowe 1946 or the more recent textbooks D’Altroy 2002 and McEwan 2006. For a study of Inca architecture, see Niles 1999, and for a study of Inca stone sculpture, see Dean 2010. For an overview of Inca art and archaeology, see Laurencich Minelli 2000.
  380.  
  381. D’Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2002.
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  383. An anthropological overview of the Inca people and their empire. Includes chapters on Inca artistry and the conquest and its aftermath. A useful textbook for undergraduates.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Dean, Carolyn. A Culture of Stone: Inka Perspectives on Rock. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010.
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  387. A well-written and thought-out exploration of Inca stone sculpture. Makes important insights into how the Inca conceptualized art and their world, with important implications for the study of native expression into the 16th century.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Laurencich Minelli, Laura, ed. The Inca World: The Development of Pre-Columbian Peru, AD 1000–1534. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2000.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. An edited volume on the Inca and their immediate predecessors in the Andes; focuses on the Inca empire as a multiethnic entity. Includes a number of color images of Inca art and architecture along with essays considering the Inca empire via its social, political, and religious systems.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. McEwan, Gordon F. The Incas: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006.
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  395. An up-to-date overview of Inca society, highly useful for undergraduate students. Includes full references for each chapter as well as an extensive list of sources for further reading.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Niles, Susan A. The Shape of Inca History: Narrative and Architecture in an Andean Empire. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 1999.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Niles takes an interesting approach in this work by linking narrative, ritual, and architecture. She uses colonial sources to understand the preconquest architecture of one of the last Inca rulers before the Spanish invasion, Huayna Capac.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Rowe, John H. “Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest.” In Handbook of South American Indians. Vol. 2, The Andean Civilizations. Edited by Julian H. Steward, 183–330. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1946.
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  403. While our knowledge of the Inca has expanded since Rowe’s seminal work, he provides a thorough yet concise overview of the history, archaeology, and culture of the Inca, while also treating architecture, textiles, woodworking, mythology, and poetry.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Colonial Transition in Peru
  406.  
  407. The Inca controlled a vast empire in the Andes, under which were subsumed a number of other cultural groups. Key to understanding an Andean worldview in relation to religion and cosmology and its transformation under Spanish rule is MacCormack 1991, while Estenssoro Fuchs 1998 focuses on the evangelization of Peru. Andrien 2001 deals more directly with the transformation of Andean culture under colonial rule. These overviews of Andean culture and the imposition of colonial rule will help students make better sense of the native forms of expression discussed below. Inca art and material culture also underwent a dramatic transformation after the conquest owing to the more representational artistic practices introduced by Spaniards. For general treatments of these changes, see Andrien and Adorno 1991; Cummins 1998; and Cummins, et al. 2005. Rappaport and Cummins 2012 also focuses on the idea of transformation but via the introduction of literacy in the Andes. Finally, the guide to documentary sources on the colonial Andes Pillsbury 2008 is a key reference tool for students and scholars undertaking advanced study in Andean culture.
  408.  
  409. Andrien, Kenneth J. Andean Worlds: Indigenous History, Culture, and Consciousness under Spanish Rule, 1532–1825. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2001.
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  411. A nice source for undergraduate students on the transformation of Andean society under Spanish colonialism. Provides a clearly written introduction on the sources and history of scholarship, and takes an interdisciplinary approach.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Andrien, Kenneth J., and Rolena Adorno, eds. Transatlantic Encounters: Europeans and Andeans in the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
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  415. An edited volume with scholarly articles on contact between Spain and Peru and geared toward use in the classroom. The first two parts deal with the question of historical change from a European and Andean perspective, and the last part looks at cultural and artistic texts and the transformation of Andean symbolism, focusing on the question of colonial hybridization.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Cummins, Tom. “Let Me See! Reading Is for Them: Colonial Andean Images and Objects ‘como es costumbre tener los caciques Señores.’” In Native Traditions in the Postconquest World: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 2nd through 4th October 1992. Edited by Tom Cummins and Elizabeth Hill Boone, 91–148. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library, 1988.
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  419. Looks at colonial Andean objects and images and considers their circulation in colonial society, revealing continuity in Andean representational practices but also modifications as these objects and images operated in a new societal structure. Focuses on a variety of media (textiles, ceramics, silver) and types of objects (queros, tunics, plates).
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Cummins, Thomas, Gabriela Ramos, Elena Phipps, Juan Carlos Estenssoro Fuchs, Luis Eduardo Wuffarden, and Natalia Majluf. Los incas, reyes del Perú. Colección del Arte y Tesoros del Perú. Lima, Peru: Banco de Credito, 2005.
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  423. Beautifully illustrated volume on colonial Inca art, with articles written by a number of key scholars in the field and focusing on textiles, tunics, queros, and book illustrations. Much of it looks beyond the 16th century, but a good foundation.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Estenssoro Fuchs, Juan Carlos. Du paganisme à la sainteté: L’incorporation des Indiens du Pérou au catholicisme, 1532–1750. Lille, France: ANRT, Université de Lille III, 1998.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Focuses on the evangelization of the natives of the Andes and their incorporation into the Catholic Church. The first part treats the 16th century and reveals the church’s attempts to eliminate native culture from Christian rituals. The final two sections focus on the 17th through 18th centuries.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. MacCormack, Sabine. Religion in the Andes: Vision and Imagination in Early Colonial Peru. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
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  431. Nice overview of religion in the Andes focusing both on the Inca and their conquered territories. A rich resource explaining how Andean religion was practiced before the conquest and then transformed, observed, and remembered over the first century of colonial rule.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Pillsbury, Joanne, ed. Guide to Documentary Sources for Andean Studies, 1530–1900. 3 vols. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008.
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  435. Volume 1 contains essays introducing readers to Andean culture and sources, including essays on Andean performance arts and poetry. Volumes 2 and 3 contain entries, arranged alphabetically, on specific writers and documents. Includes up-to-date bibliographic information and publication histories for each source.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Rappaport, Joanne, and Tom Cummins. Beyond the Lettered City: Indigenous Literacies in the Andes. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2012.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. An anthropological and art historical consideration of the imposition of literacy on the Andean world, through which the authors consider not just alphabetic writing but visual communication and urban design. Questions how native Andeans engaged with European symbolic systems and altered their worldviews under Spanish colonial rule.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Khipu
  442.  
  443. Khipus (alternative spelling quipus) are knotted-string devices that store records, such as statistical and historical accounts. These were used before the conquest and continued to be created and interpreted after; however, in the later 16th century, khipus were classified as idolatrous objects and ordered burned, making their study today quite difficult. Urton 2010 is a consideration of the khipu in the colonial period, and the author also directs the Khipu Database Project at Harvard University. Brokaw 2010 is a nice overview of khipus from the preconquest through early colonial periods, and the edited volume Quilter and Urton 2002 shows various approaches to the scholarly study of khipus. Salomon 2004 explores the khipu over four centuries of use. For insights into the khipu as a form of communication, see Boone and Mignolo 1994 (cited under Native Expression as Colonial Discourse), specifically the introduction by Boone and contribution by Cummins.
  444.  
  445. Brokaw, Galen. A History of the Khipu. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A thorough overview of the khipu as an Inca administrative tool; follows its uses and transformations under Spanish colonial rule. The semiotic approach might be difficult for undergraduates to follow, but this is a strong introduction to khipu studies.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Quilter, Jeffrey, and Gary Urton, eds. Narrative Threads: Accounting and Recounting in Andean Khipu. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2002.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. An edited volume containing a number of articles on khipus, from their history and structure, to colonial-era interpretations of khipus, to colonial transformations.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Salomon, Frank. The Cord Keepers: Khipus and Cultural Life in a Peruvian Village. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
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  455. Working in the modern village of Tupicocha, Peru, Salomon encountered a group of men draped in knotted cords called khipu. He sees in these cords a continuity with the past and traces uses of khipus throughout Peruvian history, treating them as a system of “writing” and viewing them through a political perspective.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Urton, Gary. “Numeral Graphic Pluralism in the Colonial Andes.” Ethnohistory 57.1 (Winter 2010): 135–164.
  458. DOI: 10.1215/00141801-2009-057Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Urton is a leading expert in khipu studies. This article provides an overview of how these knotted cords transmitted information numerically and considers the khipu as a source of dialogue about systems of graphic communication between Spaniards and natives in early colonial Peru.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Textiles
  462.  
  463. Textiles were one of the key forms of expression in preconquest Andean culture and continued to be an important facet of Andean life into the 16th century, with Spaniards recognizing their high quality and expressive value. For a foundational work into the understanding of Inca standardized designs on their tunics, see Rowe 1979. Under Spanish colonial rule, the Incas’ textile designs developed from abstract and geometric to more representational (as did their quero designs; see Queros). For analyses of the transformation of Inca textiles under colonialism, see Niles 1994, Phipps 1996, Phipps 2004a, Phipps 2004b, Pillsbury 2002, and Ramos 2010.
  464.  
  465. Niles, Susan. “Artist and Empire in Inca and Colonial Textiles.” In To Weave for the Sun: Ancient Andean Textiles in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Edited by Rebecca Stone-Miller, 50–66. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1994.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. An article on Inca textiles within a larger exhibition catalogue. Introduction to Inca weaving techniques and their transformation in colonial works; considers the nature of production and the relation of these cloths to Andean identity. The catalogue includes examples of textiles from the 16th century with useful descriptions of these works.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Phipps, Elena. “Textiles as Cultural Memory: Andean Garments in the Colonial Period.” In Converging Cultures: Art and Identity in Spanish America. Edited by Diana Fane, 144–156. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1996.
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  471. Written by a leading scholar of Andean textiles, Phipps’s article provides a clear overview of the coming together of Andean and European textile traditions in early colonial Peru with a focus on the lliclla, women’s mantles that continued to be worn after the conquest.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Phipps, Elena. “Cumbi to Tapestry: Collection, Innovation, and Transformation of the Colonial Andean Tapestry Tradition.” In The Colonial Andes: Tapestries and Silverwork, 1530–1830. Edited by Elena Phipps, Johanna Hecht, and Cristina Esteras Martín, 72–99. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004a.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. In this article, Phipps focuses on tapestries created by indigenous weavers in the colonial period and reveals how traditional materials and techniques were combined with European forms and motifs to create a new art form of large-scale wall hangings.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Phipps, Elena. “Garments and Identity in the Colonial Andes.” In The Colonial Andes: Tapestries and Silverwork, 1530–1830. Edited by Elena Phipps, Johanna Hecht, and Cristina Esteras Martín, 16–40. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2004b.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Phipps provides an introduction to different types of Andean garments and traces their history from the preconquest past through the colonial period, while paying particular attention to sacred garments.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Pillsbury, Joanne. “Inka Unku: Strategy and Design in Colonial Peru.” Cleveland Studies in the History of Art 7 (2002): 68–103.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. A study of Inca tunics associated with ritual and imperial activities before the conquest and how they continued to communicate symbolically after the conquest.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Ramos, Gabriela. “Los tejidos y la sociedad colonial andina.” Colonial Latin American Review 19.1 (April 2010): 115–149.
  486. DOI: 10.1080/10609161003643719Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. An examination of Andean textiles, from the preconquest to early colonial period, as forms of symbolic expression that continued to play a fundamental role after the conquest.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Rowe, John Howland. “Standardization in Inca Tapestry Tunics.” In Junius B. Bird Pre-Columbian Textile Conference. Edited by Anne Pollard Rowe, Elizabeth Benson, and Anne-Louise Schaffer, 239–264. Washington, DC: Textile Museum, 1979.
  490. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Though Rowe’s focus is on the standardization of Inca tunics from the preconquest period, his findings have implications for the study of colonial-era Andean textiles and are a necessary starting point for research into the topic.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Queros
  494.  
  495. Queros (alternative spelling keros or qeros) are Andean vessels, typically of wood and made in pairs, used in rituals. This was a preconquest art form that continued, though transformed, into the colonial period. Rowe 1961 was one of the first works to look at the queros from a chronological and stylistic perspective. Flores Ochoa, et al. 1998; Liebscher 1986a; and Liebscher 1986b are nice reference books in Spanish on Inca queros; for a more scholarly and thorough treatment of the Inca cups, see Cummins 2002.
  496.  
  497. Cummins, Thomas B. F. Toasts with the Inca: Andean Abstraction and Colonial Images on Quero Vessels. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. An extensive study of these vessels and their transformation under colonialism; the key resource on queros for scholars and students. The bibliography of this book includes a valuable list of published primary sources on the Andes as well as an up-to-date listing of secondary sources.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Flores Ochoa, Jorge A., Elizabeth Kuon Arce, and Roberto Samanez Argumedo. Qeros: Arte Inka en vasos ceremoniales. Lima, Peru: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 1998.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. An extensive reference book on Inca queros with over three hundred images, many of them color. Traces the history of queros in the Andes through Inca times and into the colonial period. A nice starting point for the study of these works.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Liebscher, Verena. La iconografía de los queros. Lima, Peru: Herrera Editores, 1986a.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. A companion volume with Liebscher 1986b that introduces students to the study of queros; this compact volume analyzes their iconography.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Liebscher, Verena. Los queros: Una introducción a su estudio. Lima, Peru: Herrera Editores, 1986b.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. This volume provides a stylistic analysis and classification of queros and a discussion of their geographic distribution; includes images.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Rowe, John Howland. “The Chronology of Inca Wooden Cups.” In Essays in Pre-Columbian Art and Archaeology, 317–341. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1961.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. A seminal article in which Rowe offers a chronology of Inca queros from the preconquest through colonial eras based on stylistic developments, specifically the shift from abstract to representational imagery. Emphasizes the vitality of the quero tradition as a form of native expression under Spanish colonialism.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Chronicles
  518.  
  519. There was no tradition of graphic writing in the preconquest Andes, but many natives learned to write alphabetically and wrote narrative histories that largely followed European models but contain traces of native expression as transformed under colonial rule. Most of these sources are from later in the 16th century and into the 17th century. For an overview of the chroniclers as a whole, see Pease 2010 and individual entries in Pillsbury 2008 (cited under Colonial Transition in Peru). Julien 2000 studies Spanish-language sources for the insights they reveal on Inca historical genres. MacCormack 2007 looks at 16th- and 17th-century historical accounts on Peru through the lens of ancient Rome. Lamana 2008 uses written sources not frequently studied, such as probanzas and local documents, to understand the conquest period. For studies that focus on multiple native authors, see Adorno 1982 and Chang-Rodríguez 1988. For studies of specific authors and works, see Specific Authors.
  520.  
  521. Adorno, Rolena, ed. From Oral to Written Expression: Native Andean Chronicles of the Early Colonial Period. Syracuse, NY: Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, 1982.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. An edited volume with articles that focus on the issue of writing in the colonial Andes as well as specific examples of indigenous writings, such as Guaman Poma’s Nueva corónica, the Huarochiri manuscript, and the Relación of Titu Cusi Yupanqui.
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel. La apropiación del signo: Tres cronistas indígenas del Péru. Tempe: Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University, 1988.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. A comparative analysis of the works of Titu Cusi Yupanqui, Guaman Poma, and Santa Cruz Pachacuti through a literary approach (for more information on these authors, see Specific Authors).
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Julien, Catherine. Reading Inca History. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2000.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Julien questions the nature of Inca histories and argues that the Inca did have a historical consciousness. Focuses on Spanish-language historical accounts and suggests that these were based on Inca sources. Through these sources, she tries to uncover Inca historic genres.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. Lamana, Gonzalo. Domination without Dominance: Inca-Spanish Encounters in Early Colonial Peru. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.
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  535. Lamana uses “alternative sources” to write a new narrative of the conquest of Peru. He focuses on primary sources from archives and accounts by native and Spanish authors. The arguments are theoretically sophisticated, but still useful for undergraduate students, who will especially appreciate the glossary, footnotes, and extensive bibliography.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. MacCormack, Sabine. On the Wings of Time: Rome, the Incas, Spain, and Peru. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. MacCormack makes exceptional use of 16th- and 17th-century historical accounts about Peru to reveal the influence of Rome on the Spanish understanding of the Inca empire and on the natives’ own conception of their past as formulated after the conquest. The bibliography contains extensive sources on Peru and Spain.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Pease, Franklin. Las crónicas y los Andes. 2d ed. Lima, Peru: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2010.
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  543. A revised edition of his original work from 1995. A large overview and key foundational text on the chroniclers and their Andean cultural context.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Specific Authors
  546.  
  547. Today, the most famous Andean chronicler is surely Guaman Poma, who wrote a letter to the king of Spain in the early 17th century. The letter, over one thousand pages long and profusely illustrated, is available for viewing in its entirety at the Guaman Poma Website. Adorno 2000 is the key scholarly resource on his work, while Adorno, et al. 1992 focuses on Guaman Poma’s illustrations. Titu Cusi Yupanqui, a member of the Inca dynastic line, is responsible for a 16th-century history of the Spaniards in Peru (Yupanqui 2006). The native author Pachacuti Yamqui Salcamaygua wrote his Relación de antigüedades deste reyno del Pirú in the early 17th century. It is mostly an alphabetic account of Peru but also contains significant drawings that are often used to reconstruct an Andean worldview; for more on this work, see Duviols and Itier 1993. The mestizo author Garcilaso de la Vega (El Inca) published his Comentarios reales in the early 17th century; it deals with the origins and growth of the Inca empire and the imposition of Spanish rule. This work is discussed in Zamora 1988 and in the edited volume Chang-Rodríguez 2010. The Suma y narración de los Incas was written by the Spaniard Juan Diez de Betanzos in the 16th century but seems to be a transcription of a Quechua oral narrative; see Martín Rubio, et al. 1999. For fuller bibliographies of each of these authors, consult their individual entries in Pillsbury 2008 (cited under Colonial Transition in Peru).
  548.  
  549. Adorno, Rolena. Guaman Poma: Writing and Resistance in Colonial Peru. 2d ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. The second edition of Adorno’s landmark study of Guaman Poma provides a new introduction that contextualizes his work and its historiography. Examines Guaman Poma’s text and imagery as an act of resistance against Spanish colonialism and shows how embedded in Andean culture were his thought processes.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Adorno, Rolena, Tom Cummins, Teresa Gisbert, Maarten van de Guchte, Mercedes López-Baralt, and John V. Murra. Guaman Poma de Ayala: The Colonial Art of an Andean Author. New York: Americas Society, 1992.
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  555. Focuses on Guaman Poma’s letter from a visual perspective and with an emphasis on the book’s illustrations and the dialogue between image and text.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel, ed. Entre la espada y la pluma: El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega y sus Comentarios reales. Lima, Peru: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2010.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. An edited volume that emerged out of a conference held in 2009 that brought together a number of scholars from a variety of disciplines to discuss more recent research into the mestizo author.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Duviols, Pierre, and César Itier. Relación de antigüedades deste reyno del Pirú. Lima, Peru: Institut Français d’Études Andines, 1993.
  562. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  563. This volume includes a facsimile of Pachacuti’s work along with a transcription, linguistic study, and commentary on the work.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Guaman Poma Website. A Digital Research Center of the Royal Library, Copenhagen, Denmark.
  566. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. This website includes a digital facsimile of Guaman Poma’s entire letter along with annotated transcriptions of each page. It also includes other digital resources related to Guaman Poma, including articles, archival documents, and a full bibliography.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Martín Rubio, María Carmen, Horacio Villanueva Urteaga, and Demetrio Ramos Pérez. Suma y narración de los Incas. Rev. ed. Cuzco, Peru: Fondo Editorial de la UNSAAC, 1999.
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. A revised version of the 1987 edition. Includes a transcription of Betanzos’s work, along with an introduction to the source and preliminary studies of it.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Yupanqui, Titu Cusi. History of How the Spaniards Arrived in Peru. Translated by Catherine Julien. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2006.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. A translation into English of Titu Cusi Yupanqui’s relation with an introductory text that contextualizes the source.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Zamora, Margarita. Language, Authority and Indigenous History in Comentarios reales de los Incas. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
  578. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511519390Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. An intertextual study of Garcilaso de la Vega’s history of the Inca as shaped by Renaissance humanism and the mestizo author’s Christian beliefs.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. Huarochirí Manuscript
  582.  
  583. The Huarochirí Manuscript is difficult to categorize. It is a compilation of texts in Quechua that detail Andean religious traditions, but it also contains historic accounts and information on ancestor worship, astrology, and myths. It is clearly a product of the early colonial era but provides unique insights into an Andean worldview, especially in terms of its reconceptualization of preconquest religious practices in the wake of Spain’s Christianization efforts. The manuscript has been translated into Spanish in Taylor 1999 and into English in Salomon and Urioste 1991; both of these sources also provide useful commentaries on the work. Durston 2007 proposes an identification of the work’s author.
  584.  
  585. Durston, Alan. “Notes on the Authorship of the Huarochirí Manuscript.” Colonial Latin American Review 16.2 (December 2007): 227–241.
  586. DOI: 10.1080/10609160701644516Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. In this article, Durston presents evidence to support his identification of a native nobleman and scribe named Cristóbal Choquecasa as the author, in the full sense of the term, of the Huarochirí Manuscript. This identification has implications for our understanding of this work.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Salomon, Frank, and George L. Urioste, trans. The Huarochirí Manuscript: A Testament of Ancient and Colonial Andean Religion. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1991.
  590. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. An English translation of the Huarochirí Manuscript that provides a wealth of contextual information and explanations of the work.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Taylor, Gerald, ed. Ritos y tradiciones de Huarochirí. 2d ed. Lima, Peru: Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 1999.
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  595. A revised edition of an original 1987 publication. Taylor has done extensive scholarship on the Huarochirí Manuscript. This volume contains a paleography of the manuscript and its translation into Spanish along with abundant notes and interpretations of the work.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Christian Art and Architecture in Peru
  598.  
  599. Just as in Mexico, the Spaniards devoted a great deal of effort to the evangelization of the native peoples of the Andes, many of whom contributed to the construction and decoration of churches in the first century after the conquest. For studies of Andean architecture in the service of Christianity, see Gutiérrez 1986 and Gisbert and Mesa 1997. Bailey 2010 focuses on church art and architecture. For overviews of the paintings that often decorated these churches, see Gisbert 1992 and Macera 1993. Numerous paintings from the later colonial period focused on Christian subject matter but contain references to indigenous beliefs and cultural constructs; for studies of these, see Mesa and Gisbert 1982, Dean 1999, and Mujica Pinilla 2002. Articles in Cummins, et al. 2005 (cited under Colonial Transition in Peru), specifically by Estenssoro Fuchs and Wuffarden, also treat colonial Andean paintings.
  600.  
  601. Bailey, Gauvin Alexander. The Andean Hybrid Baroque: Convergent Cultures in the Churches of Colonial Peru. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2010.
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  603. Though focusing on the later colonial period, this substantial volume is an impressive resource on art and architecture associated with colonial Andean churches. By “hybrid baroque,” the author means the coming together of European Renaissance and baroque stylistic forms with native Andean symbolism. Profusely illustrated and extensively researched.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Dean, Carolyn. Inka Bodies and the Body of Christ: Corpus Christi in Colonial Cuzco, Peru. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.
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  607. Dean brings Cuzco’s Corpus Christi festival to life via her study of paintings of the festival and associated historic documents. The festival elucidates the imposition of colonial rule over native Andean society but also functioned as a form of negotiation and power for indigenous rulers.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Gisbert, Teresa. “La pintura mural andina.” Colonial Latin American Review 1.1–2 (1992): 109–145.
  610. DOI: 10.1080/10609169208569791Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611. A concise overview of mural painting in the Andes. Gisbert shows that mural painting was used in the Andes before the conquest and that it was reinforced by the humanistic impulses of the friars wishing to evangelize the natives.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Gisbert, Teresa, and José de Mesa. Arquitectura andina, 1530–1830. 2d ed. La Paz, Bolivia: Embajada de España en Bolivia, 1997.
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  615. This foundational text for the study of Andean architecture treats the entire colonial period. It considers the classical traditions of the architecture introduced into the Andes by religious personnel and the response of the Andean world to these new architectural forms. The authors trace specific forms and uses of space to native contributions (expanded and updated 2d edition of an original from 1985).
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Gutiérrez, Ramón. Arquitectura del altiplano peruano. 2d ed. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Libros de Hispanoamérica, 1986.
  618. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619. Though this is not the most easily accessible book, it is a major foundation work on the study of colonial Andean architecture, both religious and secular. Gutiérrez makes extensive use of archival sources to elucidate his study. First published in 1979.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Macera, Pablo. La pintura mural andina siglos XVI–XIX. Lima, Peru: Editorial Milla Batres, 1993.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. Though it takes a long chronological focus, this book treats mural painting in 16th-century Cuzco as a place where the European and indigenous worlds came together.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Mesa, José de, and Teresa Gisbert. Historia de la pintura cuzqueña. 2d ed. 2 vols. Lima, Peru: Fundación A. N. Wiese, 1982.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. A pioneering and extensive study of the Cuzco school of painting, which refers to works by native artists that often focus on Christian subject matter. The authors see in this school of painting a unique manifestation of an Andean art form.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Mujica Pinilla, Ramón, ed. Barroco peruano. 2 vols. Lima, Peru: Banco de Crédito del Perú, 2002.
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631. This edited volume contains articles that treat colonial Andean art (and writing). The contributions by Mujica Pinilla introduce strong iconographic interpretations of art used in the evangelization efforts in the Andes.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Performance Art
  634.  
  635. Various types of performance, such as poetry, theater, dance, and music, are treated here together because the documentation on such types of performance in the 16th century is quite sparse. For an overview of ancient Andean music, see Olsen 2002, and for an examination of native dance in the colonial period, see Estenssoro Fuchs 1992. Various articles in Pillsbury 2008 (cited under Colonial Transition in Peru) treat native poetry and drama, and Rowe 1946 (cited under Peru and the Inca World) also considers these topics briefly. The earliest example of a Quechua drama is Ollantay, which most likely dates to the colonial era; for a critical analysis, see Calvo Perez 1998. Itier 2010 is a study of a 17th-century religious drama written in Quechua. Chang-Rodríguez 1999 treats Andean drama from the later colonial period. For a fuller treatment of Quechua poetry and culture, see Harrison 1989.
  636.  
  637. Calvo Pérez, Julio, ed. Ollantay: Análisis crítico, reconstrucción y traducción. Cuzco, Peru: Centro de Estudios Regionales Andinos Bartolome de las Casas, 1998.
  638. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  639. The Quechua drama known as Ollantay is critically examined in this edited volume.
  640. Find this resource:
  641. Chang-Rodríguez, Raquel. Hidden Messages: Representation and Resistance in Andean Colonial Drama. Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 1999.
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. A compilation of previous studies by Chang-Rodríguez on four dramas from the colonial Andes (two in Quechua and two in Spanish). The author seeks to situate these works in their colonial context, especially in terms of the evangelization of the Andes and imposition of colonial rule.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Estenssoro Fuchs, Juan Carlos. “Los bailes de los indios y el proyecto colonial.” Revista Andina 10 (1992): 353–389.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. Examines native dance performances, their incorporation into Catholic ceremonies, and their prohibition in the 1580s, revealing the mistrust some Spaniards had of these native traditions. This same author treats the use of performance as a tool of conversion in Estenssoro Fuchs 1998, cited under Colonial Transition in Peru.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Harrison, Regina. Signs, Songs, and Memory in the Andes: Translating Quechua Language and Culture. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989.
  650. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  651. Harrison’s work considers Quechua poetry but also takes a larger look at Quechua culture, especially emphasizing the dialogue that went on soon after the conquest.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Itier, César. El robo de Proserpina y sueño de Endimión: Auto sacramental en quechua. Lima, Peru: Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos, 2010.
  654. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  655. Itier, a leading scholar on theater in colonial Cuzco, translates and studies the oldest Quechua drama known, a 17th-century play written by the mestizo cleric Juan de Espinosa Medrano. Itier’s study provides insights on the role of native beliefs in the conversion process in Peru.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Olsen, Dale A. Music of El Dorado: The Ethnomusicology of Ancient South American Cultures. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. A study of ancient Andean music through the field of ethnomusicology. Though focused on the preconquest past, this is a useful source for understanding the significance of music to the native Andeans as it elucidates the colonial source material on the topic.
  660. Find this resource:
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