Civil-Military Relations in Latin America

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Before the wave of military coups and military governments from the early 1960s until 1990, the social science and history literature on civil-military relations in Latin America was virtually devoid of serious empirical research. In response to the surge in military governments in the region, this literature burgeoned. This article gives priority to landmark theoretical treatments, comparative research, and selected country studies with extensive bibliographical materials. While this article may have inevitably omitted the favorite books and articles of some researchers, it includes work illustrating diverse theoretical, empirical, and normative approaches to civil-military relations in Latin America. It does not include the much broader literature on comparative civil-military relations. In a broad sense, “civil-military relations” refers to the contact points, formal and informal, of the armed forces with civilians and civilian policymakers as well as civilian perceptions of military institutions and military perceptions of civilian and government institutions. Such contact points may include, among many others, military participation in various government agencies and policymaking councils, legislative oversight of military budgets, approval of promotions of high-ranking officers, appointments to military academies, definition of the curriculum in military schools and academies, collaboration on formation of defense and national security policy, and connections of military officers to political parties, voluntary associations, religious institutions, and other arenas in which civilian and military contacts occur. Media access to, and coverage of, the armed forces may also be an important aspect of civil-military relations. After first identifying the “pioneers” in the study of civil-military relations in Latin America, the sections of this article then focus on studies of the constitutional missions of the Latin American armed forces and their statutory authority, from internal policing to developing numerous economic enterprises, public works, and providing disaster relief. A subsequent section considers the jurisdiction of military courts over civilians both in normal times and under regimes of exception and emergency authority (state of siege, state of assembly, state of internal commotion, and other temporary suspension of constitutional rights and liberties included in almost all Latin American constitutions). Following the sections on formal and institutional treatments of civil-military relations, the article turns to the vast literature on the causes of military coups in Latin America, comparative and case studies of civil-military relations from 1959 to 1990, the transitions back to civilian government (1978–early 1990s), discussions of “civilian control” or “civilian supremacy” over military institutions, and to the literature on post–Cold War civil-military relations in the region.

Pioneer Overview Studies

Before the 1960s, social science and history literature in English on civil-military relations in Latin America was virtually nonexistent. Alba 1959 anticipated the rise of military populist nationalism in the following decade. The Cuban Revolution (1959), and what Nunn 1992 [cited under “Time of the Generals” (1959–1990)] called the “time of the generals” (1961–1990), generated research funding and extensive publication on topics related to the armed forces in Latin America. Written by a pioneer in the field, Lieuwen 1961 noted that “no one had previously attempted to study the social and political role of Latin America’s armed forces” (p. viii). Lieuwen suggested that prior to World War I, two Ecuadorians touched on the subject of militarism, and that the topic of military coups and dictatorships in the region had been discussed in a number of pre–World War II studies—but not the general topic of civil-military relations per se. Studies did exist, however, on the role of the armed forces in particular countries. Johnson 1964 focused more particularly on the Latin American officer corps, including its training, professionalization, and role in public policy, both when in direct control of government as well as when it was not. Johnson 1964 refers to Lieuwen 1961 as “the first in English to treat the Latin American armed forces in general terms.” McAlister 1961 and McAlister 1966 (the latter cited under Review Essays) provided the first surveys of the professional academic literature on civil-military relations. Social and political “causes” of military intervention in politics were early themes, exemplified by Germani and Silvert 1961 and Nun 1965 (cited under Military Coups (1960s–1980s)). Non-external defense roles, including civic action and policing by the military, were considered in Glick 1964. Horowitz 1967 was a benchmark for early sociological theory focused on the armed forces. A four-case comparative study by historians in McAlister, et al. 1970, carried out from 1963 to 1966, assessed the political role of the armed forces in Argentina, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. The authors of this study prefaced their work by saying that “there are almost no empirical studies in depth of particular national situations which might provide the bases for comparison and sophisticated generalization [regarding the role of the military in Latin America]” (p. 2). Grigulevich 1982 is important as a seminal treatment of civil-military relations in Latin America by Soviet academics.

Alba, Víctor. El militarismo ensayo sobre un fenómeno politicosocial Iberoamericano. Mexico City: UNAM, 1959.
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Analysis of the attitudes and psychology of Latin American officers; precursor of the literature on the “modernizing” role of the armed forces. Alba’s subsequent study (El ascenso del militarismo tecnocratico, 1963) anticipated the rise of military populists and nationalists (Nasserists) in the region.
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Germani, Gino, and Kalman Silvert. “Politics, Social Structure and Military Intervention in Latin America.” European Journal of Sociology 2.1 (1961): 62–81.
DOI: 10.1017/S000397560000028XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Among the first studies to call for comparative study of Latin American coups and similar events in Asia and Africa. Focuses especially on underlying social conditions and lack of legitimate political institutions rather than only the immediate precipitating conditions for coups. A benchmark in the literature on civil-military relations.
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Glick, Edward. “The Nonmilitary Use of the Latin American Military: A More Realistic Approach to Arms Control and Economic Development.” Background 8.3 (1964): 161–173.
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Focuses especially on the developing civic action role of the Latin American armed forces in the 1960s and the connection between armed forces and economic development. A more general, comparative treatment of the topic by the author is Peaceful Conflict: The Nonmilitary Use of the Military (Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole, 1967).
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Grigulevich, J., ed. El Ejército y la Sociedad. Vol. 13, America Latina: Estudios de Científicos Soviéticos. Moscow: Academia de Ciencias de la URSS, 1982.
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Nine studies on the participation of the armed forces in socioeconomic and political processes in Latin America, viewed within a “Marxist-Leninist conception of history.” Includes a survey of work by pioneer Soviet social scientists (from the early 1960s) on Latin American armed forces. Case studies on Brazil, Peru, and Ecuador.
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Horowitz, Irving Louis. “The Military Elites.” In Elites in Latin America. Edited by Seymour Martin Lipset and Aldo Solari, 146–189. New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
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Synthesis of a pathbreaking sociologist’s early theorizing on civil-military relations in Latin America. Emphasizes the armed forces’ internal missions, role as political arbiters, relative autonomy, and potential role in economic modernization, as well as the connection between military elites and the United States. Extensive bibliographical notes.
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Johnson, John J. The Military and Society in Latin America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964.
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Historical treatment of the role of the military in Latin America since independence by one of the leading scholars on this topic in the mid-1960s. Special attention given to the soldier as citizen and bureaucrat, military views on national issues, and public perception of the armed forces. Two chapters on Brazil.
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Lieuwen, Edwin. Arms and Politics in Latin America. Rev. ed. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1961.
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The mentor to a generation of scholars dedicated to civil-military relations discusses the origins and evolution of Latin American militarism and caudillismo from 1914 to 1959. Provides brief descriptions for twelve countries, and considers changing military roles and the growth of professionalism. (See also an updated synthesis: The Latin American Military: A Study for the Sub-committee on American Republic Affairs of the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate, Washington, DC, 1967).
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McAlister, Lyle N. “Civil-Military Relations in Latin America.” Journal of Inter-American Studies 3.3 (July 1961): 341–350.
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Seminal article in the literature on civil-military relations in Latin America. Puts civil-military relations in Latin America into global comparative perspective and suggests an agenda for future research.
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McAlister, Lyle N., Anthony P. Maingot, and Robert A. Potash. The Military in Latin American Sociopolitical Evolution: Four Case Studies. Washington, DC: Center for Research in Social Systems, 1970.
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A pioneering comparative work, with case studies on the armed forces and civil-military relations in Argentina, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico. Extensive notes provide a key source on the state of the literature on civil-military relations in the mid-1960s. Tables on numerous topics, including “successful military coups” 1940–1967, and duration of military governments.
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Pioneer Case Studies and Comparative Monographs

After the publication of Lieuwen 1961 (cited under Pioneer Overview Studies), historians (some of them Lieuwen’s students) and social scientists began to research and publish studies on the armed forces and civil-military relations in individual countries. These early studies varied greatly in their research methods and the extent to which they framed country studies within the more general literature on civil-military relations. Lieuwen 1968 (cited under Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico), despite the author’s own seminal contributions, mostly concentrated on the uniqueness of the Mexican case. Few researchers obtained good access to defense ministries, military officers themselves, or military archives. Exceptions included Wiarda 1965 (cited under Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico), Potash 1969, and Nunn 1976 (both cited under South America). Boils 1975 (cited under Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico) framed the Mexican case with a more general neo-Marxist critique of the civil-military relations literature developing in the United States. Much more research was published in this period on Mexico and South America than on the Caribbean and Central America.

Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico

Civil-military relations after the transformation of the Mexican federal army with the 1910 revolution gained the attention of many scholars, but systematic studies were few. Lieuwen 1968 and Boils 1975 took very different approaches to the Mexican military, the first more historical and the latter framed by class analysis. Few early studies focused on the armed forces in Central America and the Caribbean. In part, this dearth of studies responded to the very late development of professional armed forces (other than the US-created constabularies from the early 1900s to midcentury). Wiarda 1965 combined historical and institutional analysis in a study of the Dominican Republic. Atkins 1981 supplemented Wiarda 1965 to assess post-1965 civil-military relations. Pérez 1976 remains the best treatment of Cuban civil-military relations before 1959. Holden 2004, despite the date of publication, is a pioneer study on the armed forces in Central America.

Atkins, G. Pope. Arms and Politics in the Dominican Republic. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981.
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Atkins, a political scientist, offers the first monograph focused on Dominican civil-military relations after the 1965 US intervention. He notes the inapplicability of recent literature on civil-military relations to the Dominican case due to a lack of professional armed forces there. This is an insightful treatment of corruption and personalism in Dominican civil-military relations.
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Boils, Guillermo. Los militares y la política en México, 1915–1974. Mexico City: Ediciones El Caballito, 1975.
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Boils, a Mexican sociologist, provides theoretical, historical, and contemporary treatment of the role of the armed forces in politics. He argues that the social and economic crisis undermining the legitimacy of the regime provoked military intervention. An alliance of armed forces with US imperial interests shapes the nation’s current prospects. Useful as neo-Marxist critique of US literature on civil-military relations.
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Holden, Robert H. Armies without Nations: Public Violence and State Formation in Central America, 1821–1960. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
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The first systematic historical analysis of state formation, civil-military relations, and the role of the United States in Central America from independence until the Cuban Revolution. Insightful theoretical and comparative framework, extensive archival research, and incisive case studies. Very useful bibliography.
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Lieuwen, Edwin. Mexican Militarism: The Political Rise and Fall of the Mexican Army. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1968.
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Surveys the historical role of the Mexican army in politics from the late 19th century to the impact of the 1917 constitution and gradual professionalization into the 1940s. Controversial interpretations of the Mexican Revolution and national politics provoked much academic and political debate in Mexico and the United States. Extensive use of archival and special collection materials.
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Pérez, Louis A., Jr. Army Politics in Cuba, 1898–1958. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1976.
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The foremost expert on Cuban history and civil-military relations traces the institutional evolution of the Cuban army under US tutelage from the early 1900s to 1959. This is the best source on Cuban armed forces and politics before 1959, and an excellent treatment of the collapse of the army under Batista. Very extensive notes and bibliography.
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Wiarda, Howard J. “The Politics of Civil-Military Relations in the Dominican Republic.” Journal of Inter-American Studies 7.4 (October 1965): 465–484.
DOI: 10.2307/165269Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Treats historical origins and the US role in creating constabulary (1916–1924), the years of the Trujillo dictatorship, and relations between the armed forces and the Trujillo regime. Notes endemic corruption and nepotism under Trujillo, and the role of the armed forces in the immediate post-Trujillo years. Best short source on Dominican civil-military relations in this period.
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South America

Much of the early research on civil-military relations in South America was done by historians, supplemented by sociologists and a small number of political scientists. De Imaz 1964 was a path-breaking and much cited source on Argentine civil-military relations. Traditional historical research, such as Potash 1969 on Argentina, Burggraaff 1972 on Venezuela, and Pérez 1976 on Cuba, provided important first steps for individual countries, but mostly avoided regional generalizations or comparative analysis. Maullin 1971 examined the effects of counterinsurgency on civil-military relations in Colombia. Joxe 1970 provided novel sociological analysis of the role of the military in Chile (contrast with Nunn 1976, also on Chile, with extensive use of military journals and some interview material), while Villanueva 1971 (and subsequent work) offered the insights of a former officer into changing officer perceptions, attitudes, and civil-military relations in Peru. Stepan 1971 is an important case study on Brazil, and also a foundational theoretical contribution on civil-military relations in Latin America. Rouquié 1978 was arguably the most important contribution to the case study literature by a French social scientist.

Burggraaff, Winfield J. The Venezuelan Armed Forces in Politics, 1935–1959. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1972.
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Narrative account of army involvement in politics and the emergence of key officers as political leaders under successive governments before 1959. Discusses motivations for military involvement in politics. An original contribution on the Venezuelan case; almost no linkage to comparative literature in the social sciences on civil-military relations.
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de Imaz, Jose Luis. Los que mandan: Las fuerzas armadas en Argentina. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1964.
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(In English: Those Who Rule, translated and with an introduction by Carlos A. Astiz, with Mary F. McCarthy, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1970). Analyzes recruitment procedures and patterns, social and regional origins, education, military socialization, and career experiences of army generals, naval admirals, and air force brigadiers from 1936 to 1961. First data-based study of the social composition and educational backgrounds of Argentine officers.
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Joxe, Alain. Las fuerzas armadas en el sistema politico chileno. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Universitaria, 1970.
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A French sociologist analyzes the structure of the military, its economic importance, and its functions in contemporary Chilean society. He critiques literature on civil-military relations (Lieuwen 1961, Johnson 1964 [both cited under Pioneer Overview Studies], Nun 1965 [cited under Military Coups (1960s–1980s)], and argues that the apparent “apoliticism” of the Chilean military disguises a “latent and permanent participation” in politics, with direct intervention every 30–40 years.
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Maullin, Richard L. Soldiers, Guerrillas and Politics in Colombia. Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1971.
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Examines changes in military political roles and professional perceptions as a result of prolonged counterinsurgency operations. Also looks at the impact of US military assistance and civic action programs. Treats the military’s “developmentalist” orientation, new national security doctrines, and connections to partisan politics. Discusses application to Colombia of literature on civil-military relations.
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Nunn, Frederick M. The Military in Chilean History: Essays on Civil-Military Relations, 1810–1973. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1976.
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A leading expert on Chilean civil-military relations provides historical analysis of the role of the armed forces, especially the army, in Chilean politics. Nunn focuses on organization, training, socialization, professionalization, and contacts of military officers with civilian political and government elites from independence to the coup of 1973. Extensive bibliographical notes.
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Potash, Robert A. The Army and Politics in Argentina, 1928–1945. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969.
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The most important 1960s empirical study of the army and politics in Argentina, by a pioneer in the study of civil-military relations in Latin America. Followed by volumes on the same topic covering the periods 1954–1962 (1980) and 1962–1973 (1996), also published by Stanford University Press.
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Rouquié, Alain. Pouvoir militaire et société politique en République argentine. Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1978.
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In Spanish: Poder militar y sociedad política en la Argentina, 2 vols., translated by Arturo Iglesias Echegaray (Buenos Aires, Argentina: Emecé Editores, 1981–1982). A French social scientist provides a broad sociological interpretation of the history of the armed forces in Argentina society and politics. Great variety of archival, newspaper, and academic sources. Extensive bibliography. Volume 1 to 1943; Volume 2, 1943–1973. Along with Potash 1969 (and Potash’s later work on the Argentina military), most cited source on Argentine civil-military relations.
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Stepan, Alfred. The Military in Politics: Changing Patterns in Brazil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971.
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Long-term view of conditions that influence patterns of civil-military relations. Focuses on institutional, political, and immediate socioeconomic conditions affecting the role of the armed forces in society and politics. Special attention to 1945–1968 period. Provides comparative analysis of five coups and the emergence of military rule after 1964. Excellent select bibliography.
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Villanueva, Víctor. 100 años del ejército peruano: frustraciones y cambios. Lima, Peru: Editorial Juan Mejía Baca, 1971.
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Villanueva is a retired military officer and author of numerous titles on the Peruvian military. He describes here the growing frustration of military officers with Peruvian politics and politicians, which finally led to the coup and reformist-nationalist military government of 1968. He looks at the attitudes and organizational psychology of the army.
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Constitutional and Statutory Missions of the Armed Forces

Almost all Latin American constitutions establish permanent armed forces (sometimes including police) and broadly specify their missions, which usually include both external defense and maintaining internal order, along with other responsibilities. Latin American constitutions thus make the armed forces equivalent in constitutional status to the other branches (executive, legislative, and judicial). This feature of Latin American constitutional history and political practice makes it essential to understand the varying constitutional and statutory missions, authority, and sometimes even the jurisdiction of military courts over civilians as a framework for civil-military relations. Illustratively, in the 19th century more than 80 percent of Latin American constitutions established armed forces and defined their missions, much in the same way as they defined the authority of presidents, legislatures, and the judicial branch. The same held true for constitutional status for the separate jurisdiction (fuero) of military courts, often extending to civilians for certain crimes or during times of “crisis” defined by regimes of exception, such as a state of siege or “internal commotion.” Provisions for regimes of exception in Latin American constitutions (e.g., state of siege, state of assembly, internal commotion, state of emergency) frequently entail militarization of internal administration or even martial law. Supplementing the constitutional status of the armed forces are legislative enactments with semi-constitutional status (leyes orgánicas) or ordinary legislation detailing the armed forces modus operandi; codes of military justice define the operation of this special military jurisdiction, applied to varying extents to civilians. National security legislation, gun control laws, anti-terrorist laws, and other more specialized legislation also provide for military participation in a range of “nondefense” activities. These provisions are the constitutional and legal framework for civil-military relations, though they are often overlooked and generally under-researched in most treatments of the Latin American armed forces. Santa-Pinter 1965 insists that such constitutional missions are legitimate foundations for armed forces’ participation in politics and society. Loveman 1993 is the only detailed historical study in English of these constitutional and legal foundations in Spanish America. Rial 1992 offers a short overview of such provisions for South America after 1960. Stepan 1988 expands the discussion to “military prerogatives,” including constitutional missions, while Wiarda and Collins 2011 provide a brief current survey for all Latin America on this topic. Valadés 1974 and Gregorini Clusellas 1987 discuss “state of siege” and “constitutional dictatorship” provisions in comparative, historical perspectives. García Sayan 1987 provides a comparative survey and case studies on regimes of exception and human rights violations under military governments. Basombrío Iglesias 1999 considers changes in constitutional missions after transition to civilian government in the 1990s.

Basombrío Iglesias, Carlos. “Militares y democracia en América Latina de los ’90 (Una revision de los condicionantes legales e institucionales para la subordinación).” In Control civil y fuerzas armadas en las nuevas democracias latinoamericanas. Edited by Rut Diamint, 105–162. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Nuevohacer, Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, 1999.
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Excellent comparative analysis of changes in the constitutional and legal status of the armed forces during and after transition to civilian government. Valuable notes and bibliography on civil-military relations for this period.
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García Sayan, Diego. Estados de emergencia en la region andina. Lima, Peru: Comisión Andina de Juristas, 1987.
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Leading legal experts and social scientists examine the impact of regimes of exception during military rule and authoritarian government, with emphasis on human rights violations. Case studies for Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Venezuela. Insightful discussions of application of military law to civilians. Excellent footnote references on civil-military relations.
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Gregorini Clusellas, Eduardo L. Estado de Sitio y la armonía en la relación individuo-estado. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Ediciones Depalma, 1987.
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Premier study of regimes of exception, with extensive useful footnotes on legal sources and cases. Extensive comparative study of various emergency regimes, such as state of siege, state of emergency, and others; compares Latin American cases to Europe, the Soviet Union, and the United States.
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Loveman, Brian. The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993.
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Historical treatment of the evolution and use of regimes of exception in Spanish America, detailed by country from independence until the 20th century. Analyzes the evolving constitutional missions of the armed forces for Mexico, Central America, and South America, with attention to the relationship between constitutional missions and civil-military relations. Extensive bibliography.
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Rial, Juan. Los militares en las constituciones de América del Sur. Montevideo, Uruguay: Peitho, 1992.
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Short separata by Uruguayan expert on civil-military relations that examines liberal constitutionalism and the evolution of institutional autonomy of the armed forces. Reviews constitutional provisions in post-1960 constitutions for ten South American nations, including those regarding defense ministries, officer appointment, budgets, relations with the executive and legislative branches, and participation in elections.
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Santa-Pinter, J. J. “Regulación constitucional de las fuerzas armadas en Hispanoamérica.” Revista de Estudios Políticos 139 (January/February 1965): 173–189.
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Detailed analysis of the many constitutional missions of the armed forces in Latin America. Includes discussion of appointment of officers, jurisdiction of military justice, and legislative-military relations. Emphasizes that military participation in national life is not “arbitrary” but rather constitutionally defined and mandated.
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Stepan, Alfred. Rethinking Military Politics: Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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An essential source for elaboration of the concept of “military prerogatives” ingrained in constitutions, legislation, and political practice. Author applies these concepts to civil-military relations after transition from military to civilian government in the 1980s. A frequently cited benchmark book in the study of Latin American civil-military relations.
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Valadés, Diego. La dictadura constitucional en América Latina. Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas, UNAM, 1974.
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Detailed discussion of the historical development and use of regimes of exception, such as state of siege and other periods in which constitutional rights and liberties (garantías) may be suspended. Includes textual citations from the constitutions of many Latin American nations and analyzes historical uses of emergency powers. Good bibliography.
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Wiarda, Howard J., and Hilary Collins. Constitutional Coups? Military Interventions in Latin America. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, June 2011.
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Surveys constitutional missions of the armed forces in all Latin America nations. Identifies three patterns: countries with no official armed forces (relying on national guards or police); countries whose armed forces have no, or an extremely limited, constitutional role; and (the majority) countries with armed forces featured prominently in their constitutions and whose constitutional roles include the maintenance of internal order.
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Military Justice

An often overlooked aspect of civil-military relations is the routine jurisdiction of military courts over civilians, along with expanded jurisdiction in times of political crisis, internal war, or declaration of regimes of exception such as state of siege, state of assembly, “internal commotion,” or other “emergency” periods. Such jurisdiction has varied greatly within the region from the 19th century to the 21st. Where it is extensive, application of military law and loss of constitutional garantías (rights and liberties) may have a significant impact on internal politics, the operation of civilian courts, and the relationships between civilian political parties, interest groups, and the armed forces. Frühling 1984 is an early analysis of the implications of military law under military governments, with a special focus on the Chilean dictatorship. With transition to civilian government, reforms of military justice systems have been proposed in much of the region. Mera 1998 is an outstanding collection of articles that includes regional comparisons and case studies on the application of military justice to civilians, and Baytelman 1998 is an excellent short regional overview of the topic. López Dawson 1995 treats the Chilean case, and Donayre Montesinos 2009 analyzes the Peruvian case in comparative perspective. Pereira 2005 examines the Brazilian case in comparative perspective (Chile and Argentina). Castro and Bermeo Lara 2008 and Rial 2010 survey military justice systems and proposals for reform in sixteen countries. Kyle and Reiter 2012 assesses the extent of military justice reform for seventeen countries. The website Human Rights in Latin America. Research Resources provides many links to sources on this topic.

Baytelman, Andrés A. “La justicia militar en América Latina.” In Special issue: Justicia military y estado de derecho. Edited by Jorge Mera. Cuadernos de Análisis Jurídico 40 (November 1998): 161–198.
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Excellent short overview of the structure, jurisdiction, and procedures of military justice in Latin America (before 2000) as applied to civilians. Cites legal texts from most countries of the region. Notes lack of independence of military tribunals due to military hierarchy, as well as the lack of serious study of the topic in the region.
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Castro, Gustavo Fabián, and Dolores Bermeo Lara, eds. Justicia Militar, Códigos Disciplinarios y Reglamentos Generales Internos. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Red de Seguridad y Defensa de América Latina (RESDAL), 2008.
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Regional and comparative survey of military justice systems in Latin America carried out in 2007–2008. Extensive citation and analysis of military codes and military courts. Executive summary also available online.
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Donayre Montesinos, Christian, ed. La Justicia militar en el derecho comparado y en la jurisprudencia constitucional. Lima, Peru: Editorial Palestra, 2009.
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Volume edited by a professor of constitutional law and expert on military justice. Chapters provide constitutional and legal analysis of military law in comparative perspective. Includes overview of Latin America and separate chapters on Brazil, Mexico, and Peru. Valuable notes on topic in several chapters.
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Frühling, Hugo. “Repressive Policies and Legal Dissent in Authoritarian Regimes: Chile, 1973–1981.” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 12 (1984): 351–374.
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An outstanding social scientist and legal scholar analyzes and documents the lack of recourse by civilians prosecuted by military courts during the first decade of the military regime (1973–1984). Valuable also for notes and references.
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Kyle, Brett J., and Andrew G. Reiter. “Dictating Justice: Human Rights and Military Courts in Latin America.” Armed Forces and Society 38.1 (January 2012): 27–48.
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X10390464Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines the advance of military court reform, focusing on the strength of civilian reformers versus levels of military autonomy. Looking at seventeen countries, the authors argue that these two variables contribute to understanding whether reforms adopted were minor, incomplete, complete, or contentious.
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López Dawson, Carlos. Justicia militar: Una nueva mirada. Santiago, Chile: Comisión Chilena de Derechos Humanos, 1995.
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Short history of military justice system, its status in international law, with special attention to Chile after 1973. Notes that most “crimes” for which civilians were tried were political crimes.
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Loveman, Brian. “Human Rights in Latin America. Research Resources.”
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Website with extensive links for sources on human rights and general military justice topics in Latin America and for ten individual countries.
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Mera, Jorge, ed. Special Issue: Justicia militar y estado de derecho. Cuadernos de Análisis Jurídico 40 (1998).
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Premier collection of articles on the topic of military justice and civil-military relations in Latin America, with comparative material on Europe. Theoretical, legal, political, and human rights issues addressed in comparative perspective. Also case studies. Footnotes and bibliography a treasure trove on this topic.
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Pereira, Anthony W. Political (In)Justice: Authoritarianism and the Rule of Law in Brazil, Chile, and Argentina. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005.
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Analyzes in comparative perspective the role of military courts during dictatorships in Brazil and the Southern Cone. Also includes comparative materials from Europe and the United States after 11 September 2001. Considers the extent of “judicialization” of regime repression and application of national security legislation. Rich interview sources.
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Rial, Juan, ed. La justicia militar: Entre la reforma y la permanencia. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Red de Seguridad y Defensa de América Latina (RESDAL), 2010.
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Excellent source on military justice and civil-military relations. Excellent overview chapter by Rial. Useful bibliographical references in notes. Based on a regional study with sixteen cases (2007–2008). Examines historical development of military justice systems, constitutional and statutory foundations, administrative functioning, and post-1990s reforms of military justice. Available online from RESDAL (click on Military Justice.
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Military Coups (1960s–1980s)

As much of Latin America experienced military coups and military government in the 1960s, an expanding literature developed on the origins and causes of military intervention in politics, ousters of incumbent governments, and installation of military rule. Contending interpretations in the literature focused on numerous underlying and “triggering” causes of coups. Fossum 1967 puts the Latin American cases into comparative perspective. Solaún and Quinn 1973 examines the “causes” of thirty coups. Internal political conditions and the institutional interests of the armed forces are the focus in Lieuwen 1961 (cited under Pioneer Overview Studies), Baker 1967, Needler 1966, and Needler 1975, while the role of economic crises is examined in Dean 1970. Nun 1965 emphasizes the role of class conflict, threats of popular mobilization and social movements, international conditions (especially the influence of the Cold War in Latin America), and US encouragement of coups to impede “communism” or to overthrow antagonistic governments.

Baker, Ross K. A Study of Military Status and Status Deprivation in Three Latin American Armies. Washington, DC: American University Center for Research in Social Systems, 1967.
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Argues that threats to institutional self-interest (“status deprivation,” defined as “the desire for self-preservation, service integrity, autonomy, and corporate privilege”) was a critical factor in precipitating military coups. The emphasis is on military corporate concerns rather than international context or national politics.
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Beltrán, Virgilio Rafael, ed. El papel politico y social de las fuerzas armadas en América Latina: Ensayos. Caracas, Venezuela: Monte Avila Editores, 1970.
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Beltrán rejects a liberal normative approach to civil-military relations, insisting that the armed forces have a crucial role to play in national development and policymaking, just as the church, labor, business, and intellectuals do. He frames country studies with the general literature on civil-military relations in Europe and the United States. Chapters cover Bolivia, Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, Peru, Brazil, and Uruguay.
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Dean, Warren C. “Latin American Golpes and Economic Fluctuations, 1823–1966.” Social Science Quarterly 51.1 (June 1970): 70–80.
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One of the first studies to analyze the relationship between political instability, military coups, and economic activity (foreign trade) in Latin America from independence until the mid-20th century. Inspired further research on the relationship between economic conditions and military coups.
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Fossum, Egil. “Factors Influencing the Occurrence of Military Coups d’État in Latin America.” Journal of Peace Research 4.3 (1967): 228–251.
DOI: 10.1177/002234336700400302Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines variations among countries and conditions leading to successful coups (105) from 1907 to 1966. Considers background conditions, situational variables (especially deteriorating economic conditions and electoral periods), and contagion effects (other coups in the region). Includes appendix with list of coups and sources. Early effort to put Latin American cases within the general literature on coups in third world.
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Lambert, Jaques. “Les interventions militaires dans la politique en Ameríque Latine.” In Le role extra-militaire de l’armeé dans la Tiers Monde. Edited by Léo Hamon, 353–384. Paris: Presses Universitaire de France, 1966.
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Book chapter by one of the best-known European experts working on Latin America in this period, followed by comments of other specialists and rejoinders by Lambert. Lists the nature and political rationale of military coups from 1930 to 1962; discusses the origins and evolution of Latin American armies, the social origins of officers, and new tendencies of antipopulist and anticommunist coups in the 1960s.
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Needler, Martin. “Political Development and Military Intervention in Latin America.” American Political Science Review 60.3 (September 1966): 616–626.
DOI: 10.2307/1952974Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Political scientist assesses (and lists) fifty-six successful coups from 1935 to 1964. Asks three main questions on the frequency of coups, the changing functions of coups, and the effects of changes in the Latin American military on the form, structure, and timing of coups. Concludes that coups are most likely under deteriorating economic conditions, and most frequent in preelectoral or preinauguration periods.
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Needler, Martin. “Military Motivations in the Seizure of Power.” Latin American Research Review 10.3 (Autumn 1975): 63–79.
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Updates Needler 1966. Lists a range of institutional interests that might provoke coups. Excellent state of the art (as of 1975), with bibliography of general works, country studies, studies of individual coups, and insightful footnotes.
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Nun, José. “A Latin American Phenomenon: The Middle-Class Military Coup.” In Trends in Social Science Research in Latin American Studies: A Conference Report. Edited by José Nun, 55–91. Berkeley, CA: Institute of International Studies, 1965.
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A pathbreaking, controversial sociological analysis of the connection between the armed forces and fragmented Latin American middle class. Argues that the armed forces assumed responsibility of protecting the middle class against lower-class mobilization and social revolution. Inspired other researchers to delve into the socioeconomic complexity underlying the military coups and governments of the 1960s. (Reprinted as “The Middle-Class Military Coup,” in The Politics of Conformity in Latin America, edited by Claudio Veliz, 66–188, London: Oxford University Press, 1967.)
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Solaún, Mauricio, and Michael Quinn. Sinners and Heretics: The Politics of Military Intervention in Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1973.
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Comparative study of the causes of coups in Latin America from World War II until 1967. Uses thirty cases to “test” eleven explanations for military coups in Latin America. Good “state of the art” (1967) bibliography on civil-military relations and comparative politics.
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The “Time of the Generals” (1959–1990)

Much of the literature on the armed forces in Latin America during the last five decades focuses on the historical causes of political instability and military coups, policies of military governments, and the transition in many countries, since the 1980s, back to civilian government. After 1959, US regional policy in response to the Cuban Revolution, Cuban support for guerrilla movements in the Western Hemisphere, and the global Cold War greatly influenced military coups and also the repressive policies adopted by military governments. However, “civil-military relations” is a much broader topic than coups and policies of military regimes. Some researchers linked the Latin American cases to global and comparative research on the topic. Before the initial transitions back from military to civilian rule in Ecuador (1979) and Peru (1980), approximately 80 percent of South Americans lived under military governments; even where military governments were not formally in power (such as Colombia, Venezuela, and El Salvador), regimes of exception (such as state of siege) extended the range of military authority and participation in governance. After 1964 a growing literature focused on the rationale for military government, a “modernizing” and “developmentalist” mentality among a new generation of officers, and the expanded roles and missions of the armed forces. Lozada 1967 emphasizes the historical role of the armed forces in internal missions. Nunn 1992 puts South American cases of professional militarism into a global historical perspective. O’Donnell 1973 is an often-cited source on the topic of “modernization” and changes in civil-military relations. Pasquino 1974 is a rare European overview of the emerging US social science literature on the Latin American military in this period. Rouquié 1987 and Loveman 1999 take a long-term view on civil-military relations and the onset of an era of military governments after 1959. Biglaiser 2002 and Remmer 1989 focus more on varying policies of the military regimes and civil-military coalitions. Stepan 1988 is an often-cited reference point in discussions of tempering or eliminating “military prerogatives” in the region after transition to civilian rule.

Biglaiser, Glen. Guardians of the Nation? Economists, Generals, and Economic Reform in Latin America. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002
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Focuses on economic policies of military governments. Discusses policy choices, appointments to government posts of economists favoring neoliberal policies, policy formulation, privatization, and the role of ideas and ideology under military governments in Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. Also provides some comparative material on Brazil, Peru, Colombia, and Mexico.
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Loveman, Brian. For la Patria: Politics and the Armed Forces in Latin America. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1999.
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History of the role of the armed forces in Latin American politics. Chapters 6–9 focus on the policies and ideology of military governments from 1960 to 1990, as well as transition to civilian government and constraints on democratic consolidation. Treats national security doctrine and human rights violations by military regimes. Extensive bibliography.
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Lozada, Salvador María. Las fuerzas armadas en la política Hispanoamericana. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Editorial Columba, 1967.
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Argentine social scientist and law professor addresses the involvement (ingerencia) of the armed forces in politics, their constitutional missions, military coups, and the influence and pressure on governments and civil society by the armed forces. Considers civil-military relations from historical, philosophical, and legal perspectives. Unique and thought-provoking treatment of the topic.
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Nunn, Frederick M. The Time of the Generals: Latin American Professional Militarism in World Perspective. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
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Invaluable resource on “military lore,” military professionalization, and professional militarism in comparative perspective. Focuses especially on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru, but puts these cases in regional and global perspective. Extensive bibliographical notes. An earlier publication by this author, Yesterday’s Soldiers (1983), focuses on the influence of German and French military missions.
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O’Donnell, Guillermo. Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism: Studies in South American Politics. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California, 1973.
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An Argentine political scientist’s formulation of the concept of “bureaucratic authoritarian” regimes, which became widely applied to Latin American military governments, but was also the subject of extensive theoretical debate, and was then reconsidered by O’Donnell himself. The Argentine case was important for the inspiration of the concept, but it has been applied by many authors to other military governments.
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Pasquino, Gianfranco. Militari e Potere in America Latina. Bologna, Italy: Societa Editrice il Mulino, 1974.
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Pasquino, a prominent Italian political scientist and politician, provides a comparative perspective on the military, socioeconomic development, and political power in Latin America. He focuses especially on Argentina, Peru, Chile, and Brazil, presenting a unique typology for characterizing civil-military relations. Appendix summarizes main theoretical points. Footnotes reference most US and Latin American sources on military in politics to 1974.
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Remmer, Karen. Military Rule in Latin America. Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1989.
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A political scientist analyzes the origins and political and economic consequences of military rule, and compares and contrasts these with policies of civilian regimes. Creates a typology of military regimes often cited in the literature. Part 2 of the book focuses on the Chilean case.
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Rouquié, Alain. The Military and the State in Latin America. Translated by Paul Sigmund. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
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Historical treatment of the armed forces in Latin America by an outstanding French expert; chapters 8–11 focus on the 1959–1990 period. Also examines the role of US policy in the region. Useful notes and bibliography. (Edition in Spanish: El estado militar en América Latina, Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1984).
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Stepan, Alfred. Rethinking Military Politics, Brazil and the Southern Cone. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988.
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Comparative analysis by a leading theorist on civil-military relations and military government of military prerogatives and transition toward civilian government in Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile. Focuses especially on the Brazilian case, the relative autonomy of military institutions, and the system of military intelligence.
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Edited Collections and Regional Studies

The predominance of military regimes in much of Latin America generated numerous research projects, conferences, and edited collections of articles on civil-military relations in the region. Arriagada 1981 treats the development of military institutions, professional education and ideology in the Southern Cone. Wesson 1982 is a survey by country experts of military governments and dilemmas of military rule, especially in the Southern Cone. By the early 1980s, with transition to civilian government in Ecuador (1979) and Peru (1980), the prospect for return to civilian government and the conditions that would make that possible became a focus of much research. Bustamante 1988 and Handelman and Sanders 1981 reflect that trend. Goodman, et al. 1990 amplifies the trend, in comparative perspective, with the end of the Cold War. Lowenthal and Fitch 1986 updates Lowenthal 1976 and reviews developments in the literature on the military regimes, while Loveman and Davies 1997 is the third edition of a work first published in 1978 to take into account policy consequences of military rule and the ongoing constraints on democratization. Varas 1988 brings together theorists and country experts to explore the continuing, but varying, relative autonomy of military institutions after transition to elected government (except in Chile).

Arriagada, Genaro. El pensamiento politico de los militares: Estudios sobre Chile, Argentina, Brasil y Uruguay. Santiago, Chile: Centro de Investigaciones Socioeconómicas (CISEC), 1981.
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A leading Chilean intellectual and politician examines the military profession, organization and life style; militarism; and praetorianism in relation to Latin American society and politics. He considers the impact of European training missions and geopolitical doctrines in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay.
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Bustamante, Fernando, ed. Democracia y fuerzas armadas en Sudamérica. Quito, Ecuador: CORDES, 1988.
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Regional and country studies on prospects for democratization and changes in civil-military relations. Former presidents, policymakers, military officers, and academics analyze the extent of “military autonomy” and the changing conditions for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela. Useful for diversity of views and the state of civil-military relations in South America just before the end of the Cold War.
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Goodman, Louis W., Johanna Mendelson Forman, and Juan Rial Roade, eds. The Military and Democracy: The Future of Civil-Military Relations in Latin America. Lexington, KY: Lexington Books, 1990.
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Articles by leading experts on civil-military relations frame transitions to democratic government in terms of global trends (e.g., end of Cold War), with general theoretical treatments on civil-military relations, regional studies, and chapters on Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Very useful as insight into the “mindset” of mainline scholars on the problem of changing civil-military relations.
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Handelman, Howard, and Thomas Sanders, eds. Military Government and the Movement toward Democracy in South America. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1981.
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Treats politics and military rule in Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile during late 1970s, with attention to internal opposition and prospects for return to civilian rule. Focused on completed transitions from military governments and the potential for return to civilian rule in Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile.
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Loveman, Brian, and Thomas M. Davies Jr., eds. The Politics of Antipolitics: The Military in Latin America. 3d ed. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1997.
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Regional and country experts consider the historical background to the military regimes after 1959, motivations for establishing military governments, and consequences of military rule. Includes translations of military speeches and proclamations in a section called “The Military Speaks for Itself.” Case material on Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, El Salvador, and Guatemala.
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Lowenthal, Abraham, ed. Armies and Politics in Latin America. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1976.
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Theoretical consideration on the military in Latin America and case studies (Chile, Argentina, and Brazil); also treats civil-military relations in Mexico and the Dominican Republic. Essays by well-known theorists and country experts. One of the first edited collections to consider the military governments of this period.
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Lowenthal, Abraham, and J. Samuel Fitch, eds. Armies and Politics in Latin America. Rev. ed. New York: Holmes & Meier, 1986.
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Collection of theoretical and empirical treatments of the military in Latin America, including Lowenthal’s introduction, a review of the literature to 1974, and Fitch’s first chapter, “Armies and Politics in Latin America: 1975–1985,” which frames discussion of changes in the role of military in the region from 1975 to 1985. Useful for source citations.
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Varas, Augusto, ed. La autonomía militar en America Latina. Caracas, Venezuela: Nueva Sociedad, 1988.
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In English: Democracy under Siege: New Military Power in Latin America (New York: Greenwood, 1989). Comparative studies of institutional autonomy and civil-military relations after the era of military dictatorships. Theoretical considerations and case studies for most of South America, Central America, Mexico, Cuba, and the Dominican Republic.
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Wesson, Robert, ed. New Military Politics in Latin America. New York: Praeger, 1982.
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Case studies of military government in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Peru, and of the role of the military in Colombia and Venezuela. Essays by Edwin Lieuwen on the problem of military government, Wesson on populism and military coups, and Martin Needler on problems facing military governments.
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Review Essays

With a growing number of military regimes in Latin America, more research inspired periodic efforts to review existing knowledge, research frameworks and methodologies, and avenues for future research. McAlister 1966 was the first serious effort to survey the literature on civil-military relations, with special attention to the recent work on Latin America. Lowenthal 1974 and Rankin 1974 provide different approaches to this task ten years after the Brazilian coup of 1964. Ames 1988 and Slatta 1987 undertake a similar task just before the end of the Cold War. Pion-Berlin 1995, Ruhl 1998, and Sigmund 1993 review studies focused on transitions to civilian government and efforts to consolidate democratic regimes after 1990. Skaar 2014 surveys work on changing military role perception and the military as post-1980 economic actor.

Ames, Barry. “Military and Society in Latin America.” Latin American Research Review 23.2 (1988): 157–169.
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Ames, a political scientist, reviews ten books devoted to research on the Latin American military in the leading Latin American studies journal. He emphasizes the importance of also analyzing nonmilitary political actors to understand the role of the military in particular cases.
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Lowenthal, Abraham F. “Armies and Politics in Latin America.” World Politics 27.1 (October 1974): 107–130.
DOI: 10.2307/2009928Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Survey of key works on civil-military relations from 1968 to 1973 by a leading Latin Americanist. Provocative review with extensive bibliographic footnotes. Discusses Lieuwen 1968 (cited under Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico); Burggraaff 1972, Joxe 1970, Potash 1969, Stepan 1971, and Villanueva 1971 (all cited under South America); and O’Donnell 1973 (cited under “Time of the Generals” [1959–1990]); Also looks at Luigi Einaudi and Alfred Stepan, Latin American Institutional Development: Changing Military Perspectives in Peru and Brazil (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, April 1971).
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McAlister, Lyle. “Recent Research and Writings on the Role of the Military in Latin America.” Latin American Research Review 2.1 (Autumn 1966): 5–36.
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First serious review of the 1960s of literature on civil-military relations in Latin America. Essential starting point for understanding the history of academic work on civil-military relations in Latin America, with consideration of the theoretical and comparative literature on the armed forces in politics in the social sciences. Considers most sources listed as “pioneers” in the present article.
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Pion-Berlin, David. “The Armed Forces and Politics: Gains and Snares in Recent Scholarship.” Latin American Research Review 30.1 (1995): 147–162.
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Critical review of nine books in the post-1989 literature on civil-military relations, focused on treatments of military rule, military political thought, and the challenges of democratization. Questions whether the literature has properly framed the issue of “military autonomy” in the democratization process. Useful notes.
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Rankin, Richard C. “The Expanding Institutional Concerns of the Latin American Military Establishments: A Review Article.” Latin American Research Review 9.1 (Spring 1974): 81–108.
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Review of research published since McAlister 1966. Excellent summary of the theoretical debates on civil-military relations at time of publication. Notes provide extensive discussion of the literature. Stresses the need to study armed forces in the context of overall political structure and the interaction of military institutions with civil society.
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Ruhl, J. Mark. “Changing Civil-Military Relations in Latin America.” Latin American Research Review 33.3 (1998): 257–269.
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An expert on Latin American politics reviews six prominent books on the transition from military to civilian rule in Latin America after 1980. Emphasizes variation in the region’s civil-military relations after return to civilian rule, and notes disagreements over the extent of military autonomy and the impact of new missions, especially of the drug wars.
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Sigmund, Paul. “Approaches to the Study of the Military in Latin America.” Comparative Politics 26.1 (October 1993): 111–122.
DOI: 10.2307/422176Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Useful connection of the literature on military institutions and military rule to changes in regional politics from 1960 until the early 1990s. Review article assesses: Lowenthal and Fitch 1986 and Wesson 1982, and Goodman, et al. 1990 (all cited under Edited Collections and Regional Studies); Rouquié 1987, Stepan 1988, and Remmer 1989 (all cited under “Time of the Generals” (1959–1990)); Zagorski 1992 (cited under Civil-Military Relations Post-1990).
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Skaar, Elin, and Camila Gianella Malca. “Latin American Civil-Military Relations in a Historical Perspective: A Literature Review.” CMI Working Paper (January 2014).
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Identified as a work in progress, this paper is cited here with permission of the author. Reviews the literature on civil-military relations in South and Central America with a focus on three main themes: (1) the military as a political actor, (2) the military as an economic actor, and (3) changing military self-perceptions and roles in the post-1980 period. Excellent discussion of the history of the literature and discussion of human rights violations, civilian control over the military, defense budgets, military economic influence, and changing self-perceptions. Extensive list of selected references.
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Slatta, Richard W. “Recent Literature on the Latin American Military.” Military Affairs 51.2 (April 1987): 75–78.
DOI: 10.2307/1987582Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Excellent short review essay with extensive bibliography on general and comparative treatments, country studies, Central American regional studies, motivations for coups, impacts of military rule, and the United States and the Latin American military. Expresses concern for the legacies of the debt crisis and military regimes on newly installed civilian governments.
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Case Studies and Comparative Monographs

There are many monographs analyzing the emergence and performance of military regimes in the post-1959 period. Listed below are “top choices” (among many others that could be listed) on individual countries that provide special insight into civil-military relations, including divisions within the military governments, contacts with political parties, interest groups, and social movements, and efforts to restructure political institutions. All the works listed have extensive notes and bibliographies referring readers to the still-growing literature on the military regimes in these countries. Except for Mexico and Colombia, the cases in this section all experienced long-term military governments after 1964. Pedano and Palermo 2003 covers Argentina; Malloy and Gamarra 1988 treats Bolivia; Skidmore 1988 is the premier work on Brazil; Huneeus 2000 is an outstanding source on Chile; Isaacs 1993 is best single source on Ecuador; Camp 1992 is unrivaled for insight on Mexican politics and the armed forces; while Ibarrola 2003 provides insights on Mexico by a leading journalist. Astori, et al. 1996 is an essential source on the policies of the military regime in Uruguay, and Leal Buitrago 1994 is the best single source on civil-military relations in Colombia during this period.

Astori, Danilo, Gerardo Caetano, and José Luis Castagnola. El Uruguay de La Dictadura (1973–1985). Montevideo, Uruguay: Ediciones De La Banda Oriental, 1996.
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Excellent summary of the economic policies of the military regime from 1973 to 1985. Raises questions regarding the linkage between neoliberal policies and authoritarian politics. Also considers the role of civilian politicians, administrators, and economists in the military government.
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Camp, Roderick A. Generals in the Palacio: The Military in Modern Mexico. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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Framed by general theories of civil-military relations, a leading expert on Mexican politics investigates social composition, experiences, military education, promotion policies, and “nonmilitary” functions of the Mexican armed forces. Camp speculates on the future of civil-military relations as civilian elites become more dependent on the military to maintain internal order. Contains valuable interview material and extensive notes and sources.
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Huneeus, Carlos. El régimen de Pinochet. Santiago, Chile: Editorial Sudamericana, 2000.
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In English: The Pinochet Regime, translated by Lake Sagaris (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2006). Arguably the single best overview of the military regime in Chile from 1973 to 1990, by a leading Christian Democrat intellectual and former Chilean ambassador to Germany. Insightful material on social and political support for the junta, civilian advisors, policymakers, and collaborators with military government. Extensive bibliography.
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Ibarrola, Javier. El ejército y el poder: Impacto e influencia política en el México moderno. Mexico City: Oceano, 2003.
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Detailed inside journalism on civil-military relations under each Mexican president since the 1940s. Rare insights into the role of the Mexican armed forces in politics and policymaking, Covers national security doctrine, military education, changing missions, corruption, and the drug war. Foresees increasing role for military as economic and security situation worsens.
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Isaacs, Anita. Military Rule and Transition in Ecuador, 1972–92. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1993.
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Reviews the literature on civil-military relations in Latin America and then considers the Ecuadorian military in detail, including the military governments, civilian opposition, and the transition back to civilian rule. Essential source on the military governments in Ecuador during this period. Useful bibliography on Ecuadorian politics.
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Leal Buitrago, Francisco. El oficio de la Guerra: La seguridad nacional en Colombia. Bogota, Colombia: TM Editores, 1994.
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Outstanding work on national security and civil-military relations in Colombia from 1958 to the early 1990s. Includes research on national police, effects of insurgency, the war on drugs, and the militarization of politics and internal administration. Extensive comparative materials, notes, and bibliography.
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Malloy, James M., and Eduardo Gamarra. Revolution and Reaction: Bolivia, 1964–1985. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1988.
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Analysis of the alternatives available to Bolivian policymakers (sixteen different governments) and political constraints on development from the Barrientos government (1964) until 1985. Excellent source on the Banzer government (1971–1978). Discusses the particularities and policies of varying military governments over twenty years. Useful references on Bolivian politics and armed forces.
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Pedano, Gonzalo, and Vicente Palermo. La dictadura militar, 1976–1983: Del golpe de estado a la restauración democrática. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Paidós, 2003.
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Analyzes the conditions leading to military dictatorship, characteristics of the military regime, internal factionalism, factors that led to the war in 1982 against Great Britain over the Malvinas (Falklands Islands), and the end of military rule. Compares and contrasts the Argentine case with military governments in the rest of the Southern Cone.
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Skidmore, Thomas E. The Politics of Military Rule in Brazil, 1964–85. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
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Detailed account of the origins of the 1964 coup, policies and internal dilemmas of military governments in Brazil, and constraints on the democratization process, by one of the most prominent Brazilianists in the United States. Arguably the best single source on Brazilian civil-military relations and public policy in this period. Extensive references.
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Civil-Military Relations Post-1990

In the late 1980s and into the 1990s there was a boom in writing on transitions to civilian government; constraints on, and challenges to, efforts to consolidate democracy; and the changes occurring in civil-military relations in a post–Cold War international system that was increasingly becoming “globalized.” Academics and policymakers debated the extent to which civilians could and had established “control” over military institutions through constitutional, legislative, and political innovation, new roles for the armed forces in the 1990s and beyond, and the future of civil-military relations in the region. Since 2000 the number of articles and books dedicated to civil-military relations has declined, but in some ways the quality and precision of work published has improved. Most of the work, such as Zagorski 1992, Kruijt 1996, Agüero 1998, Bruneau 2005, Fitch 1998, Arceneaux 2001, Pion-Berlin 2005, Ruhl 2004, and Varas 2011, Pérez 2015 reflects the continued research of established experts in the field. Sotomayor Velázquez 2008 represents the work of a more recent entry into this field, currently serving (as of late 2012) as an assistant professor at the Naval Post Graduate School in Monterrey, California. Rittinger and Cleary 2013 studies the efforts of leftist and populist governments to prevent coups in the last decades.

Agüero, Felipe. “Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America.” Mershon International Studies Review 42.2 (November 1998): 383–404.
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Excellent five-country comparison of the transitions from military to civilian governments. Analysis of the relative success of military regimes in institutionalizing political change, circumstances of transition, and outcomes. Useful bibliography on transition to civilian rule. (See also Agüero’s “Towards Civilian Supremacy in South America,” in Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives, edited by Larry Diamond, Marc E. Plattner, Yun-han Chu, and Hung-mao Tien, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.)
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Arceneaux, Craig L. Bounded Missions: Military Regimes and Democratization in the Southern Cone and Brazil. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.
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Comparative institutional approach to military regimes, regime breakdown or replacement, and transitions to civilian government, with chapters on Argentina, Chile, Brazil, and Uruguay. Systematic analysis of institutional constraints and changes during transition and the challenges of democratization. Extensive notes and bibliography on theoretical aspects of civil-military relations and research on Latin America.
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Bruneau, Thomas. “Civil-Military Relations in Latin America: The Hedgehog and the Fox Revisited.” Revista Fuerzas Armadas y Sociedad Año 19.1 (2005): 111–131.
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Important contribution to the debate over the nature of civil-military relations post-1990 in the region, arguing that beyond civilian “control” there is a need for institutionalized (ministry of defense, legislatures, interagency process, intelligence) civilian effectiveness and efficiency over the range of tasks performed by armed forces, including peacekeeping operations, humanitarian assistance, counterterrorism, drug wars, and fighting organized crime. For a contrary view, see Pion-Berlin 2005.
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Fitch, J. Samuel. The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
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Reviews the literature on civil-military relations, asking how they have changed since the transition to democracy. Analyzes the persistence of national security doctrines and varied policies adopted in the region toward armed forces during the post-military government period. Valuable original interview material (with Argentine and Ecuadorian officers) on attitudes toward the role of the armed forces in politics and society. Informative notes.
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Kruijt, Dirk. “Politicians in Uniform: Dilemmas about the Latin American Military.” Revista Europea de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe/European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 61 (December 1996): 7–19.
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Surveys military role in the 1970s and 1980s, then the new missions, threats, challenges, and enemies of the armed forces, including ethnic conflict, narco-violence, and organized crime in the post–military regime era. Identifies one main challenge as the tension between security missions and civilian control/military accountability. Good short bibliography up to the mid-1990s.
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Pérez, Orlando J. Civil-Military Relations in Post-Conflict Societies. Transforming the Role of the Military in Central America. New York: Routledge, 2015.
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Expert on Central American and Caribbean civil-military relations combines consideration of theories on CVR in Latin America with updated empirical studies of post-1990 military roles, missions, and beliefs in Central America. Compares and analyzes civil-military relations in postconflict Central America in four main areas: institutional changes to increase civilian supremacy, missions that civilian-led governments have constructed for the armed forces, role beliefs of military officers and the extent to which they are compatible with civilian authorities, and public attitudes toward the armed forces.
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Pion-Berlin, David S. “Political Management of the Military in Latin America.” Military Review 85.1 (January–February 2005): 19–31.
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Argues that over the previous decade the balance of power shifted in favor of civilian governments with military down-sizing, loss of prerogatives, and increased civilian control over definition of military missions ( with some exceptions, such as Venezuela and Ecuador). See Bruneau 2005 for opposing assessment. (Also published in Portuguese and Spanish in the same journal, March–April).
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Rittinger, Eric R., and Matthew R. Cleary. “Confronting Coup Risk in the Latin American Left.” Studies in Comparative International Development 48.4 (December 2013): 403–431.
DOI: 10.1007/s12116-013-9128-9Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
One of the few studies to bring the study of coups into the 21st century. Argues that the relative lack of coups in recent years is due in large part to extensive “coup proofing” strategies, especially by governments of the radical left in Ecuador, Bolivia, and Venezuela.
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Ruhl, J. Mark. “Curbing Central America’s Militaries.” Journal of Democracy 15.3 (July 2004): 137–151.
DOI: 10.1353/jod.2004.0052Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Excellent short overview on post-conflict Central American civil-military relations. Notes progress in limiting coups and military intervention in politics, declines in the size and budgets of armed forces, reduced jurisdiction of military courts, and military participation in government economic enterprises. Also looks at the continuing relative autonomy of military institutions, the lack of accountability to the rule of law, and the role in internal security and domestic political intelligence.
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Sotomayor Velázquez, Arturo C. “Los civiles y militares en América Latina: avances y retrocesos en materia de control civil.” Revista Mexicana de Política Exterior 83 (2008): 41–83.
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Useful regional overview (from Mexico to the Southern Cone) of the literature on civil-military relations and changes (or lack thereof) in civilian control. Considers oversight through defense ministries, legislative budget review, changes in military missions (internal order, overseas peacekeeping), and civilian knowledge and expertise in defense policy. Notes reference most recent literature.
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Varas, Augusto. Democratic Transitions and the Latin American Military. ARI Thematic Studies. Amman, Jordan: Arab Reform Initiative, 2011.
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Insightful short synthesis of civil-military relations in 2011. Analyzes the challenges of establishing civilian control over the military with transition to civilian government from military regimes. Notes successes and impediments. Concludes that the Latin American experience demonstrates that the success of those seeking to enforce a democratization agenda on military institutions depends on a variety of factors.
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Zagorski, Paul W. Democracy vs. National Security: Civil-Military Relations in Latin America. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992.
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Focused on changing patterns of civil-military relations during and after transition to civilian rule. Chapter 4 (“Patterns and Strategies of Civil-Military Relations”) is especially useful for alternatives available for civilian control and analysis of experience in Peru, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Chile.
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Edited Collections

As civilian governments replaced military regimes in Latin America from the 1980s into the 1990s, attention shifted among scholars to changes in civil-military relations, legacies of the military governments (including accountability for human rights violations), and possibilities of consolidating democracy in the region. Also of interest were the new missions for the armed forces, from participation in international peacekeeping to the drug war and domestic tasks such as environmental protection. Listed in this section are edited collections with varying approaches to the challenges of post–Cold War civil-military relations in Latin America. Agüero and Stark 1998 and Diamint 1999 include excellent theoretical discussions of the challenges facing civilian governments after the transition from military rule. Casas-Zamora 1997 frames a unique volume on Central American cases with concepts from Agüero 1995 (cited under Civil-Military Relations Post-1990: Case Studies and Comparative Monographs). Millett and Gold-Biss 1996 and Pion-Berlin 2001 offer varying views on challenges to hemispheric security and civil-military relations after the Cold War; the former includes chapters by US Army (retired and active-duty) area specialists. Olmeda 2005 is almost encyclopedic in coverage, while Mares 1998 compares the Latin American experiences with civil-military relations in Asia and central Europe after the Cold War. Agüero and Fuentes 2009 uniquely covers the role of the armed forces in leftist governments and the relative autonomy of the armed forces, from Chile to Cuba. Red de Seguridad y Defensa de América Latina 2010 updates previous regional surveys of civil-military relations by leading regional experts, and Donadio 2010 is the most comprehensive collection of research on regional defense policy and civil-military relations. In Mares and Martínez 2013 regional specialists update analysis of civil-military relations in the transitions to democracy, changes in civil-military relations since the 1990s, and the impact of new internal and external military missions on civil-military relations.

Agüero, Felipe, and Claudio Fuentes, eds. Influencias y resistencias: Militares y poder en América Latina. Santiago, Chile: Catalonia, 2009.
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Well-known specialists on civil-military relations and several younger scholars assess changing civil-military relations in countries with leftist and radical governments (Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Cuba), as well as changing civil-military relations in Mexico, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, and Peru. Valuable insights on diverse institutional interests, political projects, economic influence, internal security functions, and the relative autonomy of the armed forces across the region.
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Agüero, Felipe, and Jeffrey Stark, eds. Fault Lines of Democracy in Post-Transition Latin America. Coral Gables, FL: North-South Center Press, University of Miami, 1998.
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Addresses a broad range of issues confronting post-transition elected governments, ranging from redesign of institutions for representation, accountability, and political participation to judicial reform and civil-military relations (three chapters from different theoretical and empirical perspectives by Wendy Hunter, Michael C. Desch, and Fernando Bustamante). Excellent introduction by Agüero and bibliographical references at the end of each chapter.
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Casas-Zamora, Kevin, ed. Relaciones cívico-militares comparadas: entendiendo los mecanismos de control civil en pequeñas democracias (América Latina). San José, Costa Rica: Fundación Arias para la Paz y el Progreso Humano, Centro para la Paz y la Reconciliación, 1997.
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Unique collection of comparative case studies by country specialists (Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Chile, and Uruguay) on mechanisms for civilian control of military and limitations in Central America. Editor is former vice president of Costa Rica. (See also: Kevin Casas and Arnoldo Brenes, eds. Soldiers as Businessmen: The Economic Activities of Central America’s Militaries, San José, Costa Rica: Arias Foundation for Peace and Human Progress, 1998.)
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Diamint, Rut, ed. Control civil y fuerzas armadas en las nuevas democracias latinoamericanas. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Nuevohacer, 1999.
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Leading experts on civil-military relations in Latin America provide new theoretical thinking on the role of the armed forces and military professional education, and discourse in regional politics after transition from military rule; case studies for Brazil, Bolivia, Uruguay, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Mexico, and Central America. Extensive notes and bibliography for individual chapters.
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Donadio, Marcela, ed. La reconstrucción de la seguridad nacional: Defensa, democracia y cuestión militar en América Latina. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Promoteo, 2010.
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Comprehensive overview by well-known experts of defense policies, civil-military relations, and challenges of democratization in Latin America and the Caribbean from 1990 to 2010. Ranges from bilateral relations to regional anti-drug war policies and the Honduras coup of 2009. Chapter footnotes provide valuable citations.
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Mares, David, ed. Civil-Military Relations: Building Democracy and Regional Security in Latin America, Southern Asia, and Central Europe. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1998.
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Useful theoretical contribution on “conceptions of civil-military relations” by the editor, putting the Latin American experience in comparative perspective. Latin American cases Venezuela, Chile, Guatemala, Brazil, compared with Czech and Slovak republics, Poland, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Thailand. Emphasizes normative and institutional aspects of civil-military relations.
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Mares, David, and Rafael Martínez, eds. Debating Civil–Military Relations in Latin America. Eastbourne, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2013.
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Excellent collection of articles, by well-known experts on civil-military relations (CVM). Attempts to move beyond the undifferentiated focus on “civilian control of the armed forces” to consider security sector reform (SSR) and the post-1990 role of the armed forces. Treats the diverse roles in neopopulist regimes (plebiscitarian democracy) versus republican/constrained democracy. Several chapters seek to assess the extent of democratization and the performance of the security sector (military, police, intelligence agencies, judiciary and other key institutions) in the first decades of the 21st century on a variety of dimensions. Also includes chapters on new internal missions, peacekeeping, and performance of the armed forces in Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Ecuador.
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Millett, Richard, and Michael Gold-Biss, eds. Beyond Praetorianism: The Latin American Military in Transition. Coral Gables, FL: North-South Center Press, University of Miami, 1996.
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Focuses on important changes and continuities in civil-military relations after the Cold War. Valuable country studies framed by discussions of dilemmas of hemispheric security. Includes chapters on Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Peru, Brazil, Argentina, and Peru.
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Olmeda, José A., ed. Democracias fragiles: las relaciones civiles-militares en el mundo Iberoamericano. Madrid: Tirant lo Blanch, 2005.
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Massive (800+ pages) collection of historical and theoretical considerations of civil-military relations in Latin America, followed by country and regional case studies. Authors include some of most well-known American, European, and Latin American experts on the topic. Includes consideration of transitions, the role of defense ministries, and legislative oversight. Extensive notes and bibliography. Available online with registration.
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Pion-Berlin, David, ed. Civil-Military Relations in Latin America: New Analytical Perspectives. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001.
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Leading scholars on civil-military relations examine the historical foundations, trends, and new frameworks for analysis of civil-military relations since the transition from military to civilian governments. Editor emphasizes that the book brings together “alternative approaches under one editorial roof.” Excellent 2001 bibliography.
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Red de Seguridad y Defensa de América Latina. Atlas comparativo de la defensa en América Latina y Caribe. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Red de Seguridad y Defensa de América Latina, 2010.
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Fourth edition of a regional survey of civil-military relations by a transnational research group created in 2001. Analysis of status of civil-military relations for eighteen countries and the Anglophone Caribbean. Articles on the legal framework for civil-military relations, defense ministries, professional military education, defense budgets, and hemispheric relations. (English edition: A Comparative Atlas of Defence in Latin America and Caribbean.) Sixth edition retains focus on the different legal frameworks, structures of defense systems, political concepts, budget figures, military missions, and the size of the forces, with country studies. Chapter 10 on Costa Rica, Panama and Haiti. Available online.
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Case Studies and Comparative Monographs

The studies listed in this section are key studies on post–military government civil-military relations, emphasizing research that provides comparative analysis. Published at different moments after transition, the literature reflects changing perceptions (and “snapshots”) of the extent to which civilian control was established over military institutions, as well as changing conceptualizations of the nature and range of civil-military relations. An important focus is on new (or expanded) roles for the armed forces, including new missions as service providers, anticrime forces, responders to natural disaster, military economic enterprises, military participation in the war on drugs, and the effects on civil-military relations of participation in international peacekeeping missions. Many of the studies focus on the extent to which civilian control has been established over military institutions, usually with some comparative material. Fuentes Saavedra 2006 examines changing civil military relations in comparative perspective, with particular emphasis on Ecuador and Chile. Pion-Berlin 1997 and McSherry 1997 offer competing interpretations of post-1990 civil-military relations in Argentina. Trinkunas 2005 and Weeks 2003 offer differing, if somewhat overlapping, frameworks for conceptualizing civil-military relations, in addition to valuable case studies on Venezuela and Chile. Agüero 1995 and Zaverucha 1994 provide excellent comparative material on Spain, South America, and Brazil. Mani 2011 examines different entrepreneurial roles of the armed forces in comparative perspective, while Jaskoski 2013 investigates changing military roles and missions in Peru and Ecuador. Sotomayor 2014 evaluates the impact on civil-military relations in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay of participation in UN peacekeeping missions. Avilés 2010 offers a provocative theory to explain expanding military roles and missions in Ecuador and Venezuela, reduced military prerogatives in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia (until 2005).

Agüero, Felipe. Soldiers, Civilians, and Democracy: Post-Franco Spain in Comparative Perspective. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
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Premier comparative research on South American transitions and post-Franco Spain. Focused on Spain, but provides insightful analysis of the varied institutional impediments and opportunities for changing civil-military relations in Greece, Portugal, and South America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay). Theoretical discussion very useful; notes (sixty pages) provide extensive bibliographical references.
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Avilés, William. Globalization and Military Power in the Andes. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
DOI: 10.1057/9780230115446Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Seeks to explain reduction of military prerogatives and relative autonomy in Colombia, Peru, and (a less clear case) Bolivia until 2005 in the face of counterinsurgency campaigns and expansion of military roles and missions in Ecuador and Venezuela. Primary thesis centers on the relative success of neoliberal political coalitions associated with a global capitalist agenda. Where “limited” democracies or “elite” democracies gave way to populist anti-neoliberal governments, the role of the armed forces expanded (Venezuela, Ecuador) as it had previously in Cuba. Concludes that governments rejecting “the end of history” with liberal capitalist globalization offer new (and continued) opportunities for the military to participate in social and economic development in ways far beyond the limited role prescribed by traditional liberal democratic theory.
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Fitch, J. Samuel. The Armed Forces and Democracy in Latin America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
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Based on more than 160 interviews with retired and active-duty officers in Ecuador and Argentina, this study examines the role of beliefs and behavior after transition from military to civilian rule. Also considers the extent to which military autonomy has declined, as well as the extent to which old “guardianship” roles have persisted into the late 1990s. Includes consideration of political attitudes and party identification of officers.
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Fuentes Saavedra, Claudio. La transición de los militares: Relaciones civiles-militares en Chile, 1990–2006. Santiago, Chile: LOM Ediciones, 2006.
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Chilean expert on military and police emphasizes that new political contexts, changing coalitions, new economic conditions, enhanced roles for the judiciary, and the development of civilian skills and knowledge in the area of defense and security policy have contributed to changes in civil-military relations. Discusses military budgets and the legacies of the military regime (1973–1990).
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Jaskoski, Maiah. Military Politics and Democracy in the Andes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013.
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Based on interviews with more than 150 Peruvian and Ecuadorian officers and public officials, this study questions traditional theories regarding motivations for military political decision making and tactical operations, analyzes the “privatization” of police and military services by corporate interests, and sheds light on corruption in the armed forces. Also looks at the shirking of counterinsurgency missions and changes in military role perceptions in response to shifting political circumstances.
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Mani, Kristina. “Military Entrepreneurs: Patterns in Latin America.” Latin American Politics and Society 53.3 (2011): 25–55.
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Examines the political and economic implications of the armed forces’ participation in different types of entrepreneurial roles in comparative perspective. A related article (“Militares Empresarios: Approaches to Studying the Military as an Economic Actor.” Bulletin of Latin American Research 30.2 (2011): 183–197 supplements this article. Concludes that “the military retains important economic roles as owners, managers, and stakeholders in a variety of economic enterprises” (p. 25) and that military entrepreneurship has important political implications.
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McSherry, J. Patrice. Incomplete Transition: Military Power and Democracy in Argentina. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.
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A political scientist reviews the conditions leading to military governments before 1976, the 1976–1983 dictatorship, and the transition to civilian government. Emphasizes the continuation of national security ideology, institutions, “dirty war” practices, and rebellions until Menem administration. Assesses definitions and control of military missions, doctrine, education, promotions, and accountability to civilian institutions. Extensive bibliography.
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Pion-Berlin, David. Through Corridors of Power: Institutions and Civil-Military Relations in Argentina. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997.
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Evaluates the transition to civilian government (1983–1995) in Argentina, with a focus on the successes and failure of policies rather than placing a narrow lens on “civilian control.” Focuses on institutions that frame civil-military relations, with a comparative analysis for Uruguay and Chile. Notes and bibliography integrate case study into the general literature on civil-military relations.
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Sotomayor, Arturo C. The Myth of the Democractic Peacekeeper. Civil-Military Relations and the United Nations. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014.
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Professor at the Naval Postgraduate School (Monterey, California) assesses the effects on Argentine, Brazilian, and Uruguayan civil-military relations of participation in UN peacekeeping missions. Extensive interviews call into question assumptions in the literature about the uniformly benign effects of such missions for military professionalization and more democratic civil-military relations. Excellent bibliography on international peacekeeping missions, changing civil-military relations in South America, and selected sources on international relations theory.
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Trinkunas, Harold. Crafting Civilian Control of the Military in Venezuela: A Comparative Perspective. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
DOI: 10.5149/9780807877036_trinkunasSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Best available source in English on civil-military relations in Venezuela to 2005, with a focus on shifting civil-military jurisdictional boundaries. Extensive bibliography on comparative civil-military relations and the Venezuelan case. Valuable interview material with officers and civilians. Theoretical discussion of democracy and civilian control of the armed forces precedes Venezuelan case.
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Weeks, Gregory. The Military and Politics in Postauthoritarian Chile. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2003.
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Reviews the literature on civil-military relations in Latin America. Suggests new framework for assessing the range of potential civil-military conflicts. Considers the challenges of civil-military relations in Chile from 1988 to 2003, and analyzes the changes in formal, semi-formal, and informal contact points between the armed forces and civilian elites. Useful notes and extensive bibliography.
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Zaverucha, Jorge. Rumor de sabres: Controle civil ou tutela militar? Săo Paulo, Argentina: Editora Atica, 1994.
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An expert on civil-military relations in Brazil compares transitions from military to civilian government in Brazil, Argentina, and Spain. He contrasts the successful imposition of civilian control in Spain to the limited successes (to 1994) in Argentina and Brazil. Provides a useful institutional and political history for each case. Bibliography includes Latin American and European cases.
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