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Cherokee (Atlantic History)

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  1. Introduction
  2. The Cherokee are an Iroquois-speaking people who at the time of contact with Europeans in the 16th century occupied a sizeable homeland that extended over parts of modern-day Georgia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, and southwestern Virginia. Archeological evidence suggests that the Cherokee (or Tsa-la-gi)—who referred to themselves as the Aniyaunwiya (“The Principal People”)—occupied a mountainous region of southeastern North America, or the Mississippian culture area, from c. 1000 CE The Mississippian cultural area that the Cherokees became part of after their ancestors migrated southward from the Great Lakes region stretched from western Oklahoma, into southern Illinois, across to the Ohio River Valley, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean. The social and political structures that shaped proto-Cherokee and Cherokee life from c. 1000 CE underwent numerous historical changes. Prior to the 17th century, the Cherokee people’s ancestors lived in mound-building societies known as chiefdoms. Chiefdoms flourished until the 15th and early 16th centuries. A combination of factors—rapid environmental change, encounters with Europeans, and disease transfer—precipitated changes in the social and political fabric of Native American life in the Southeast. The Cherokees were part of these changes, forming decentralized forms of governance in towns and villages alongside rivers and streams. Cherokee towns therefore departed from the relatively rigid hierarchies of the chiefdoms and became politically autonomous, with matrilineal kinship ties connecting Cherokee people in Overhill Cherokees territory, the Middle Towns, and the Lower (or Valley) towns. These regional divisions often correlated to differences in dialect. What connected Cherokees from towns in these separate regions was membership in one of seven matrilineal clan groups. Clan identity was characterized by a totemic system that included the following matrilineal clans: Aniwahya (Wolf Clan); Ani Tsiskwa (Small Bird Clan); Anikawi (Deer Clan); Anigilohi (Twister Clan); Anisahoni (Blue Clan); Anigatogewi (Wild Potato Clan); and Aniwodi (Red Paint Clan). Prior to the United States government forcibly removing the vast majority of Cherokee people from their southeastern homelands in the late 1830s, the Cherokees were one of the largest, most influential, and culturally sophisticated Native American societies in eastern North America. Cherokee chiefs and traders figure prominently in trade and diplomacy with their European and Euroamerican counterparts throughout eastern North America and the broader Atlantic world during the 18th century, and in the wake of the American Revolution, Cherokees moved aggressively toward the creation of a centralized form of government that blended Cherokee traditions with the nascent American republic’s system of government. These changes provided the backdrop for the removal era. The Cherokees used their system of government and knowledge of the American legal system to fight growing calls for removal on a diplomatic and legal front. Their efforts eventually failed, and during the final two years of the 1830s approximately 17,000 Cherokees were forcibly removed from their southeastern homeland to Indian Territory, located in present-day eastern Oklahoma.
  3.  
  4. Reference Works
  5. A number of excellent reference works provide students with useful guides to the arc of Cherokee history from the era of chiefdoms to their nation (Conley 2007, Littlefield and Parins 2011). These works define key terms, events, and ceremonies, and identify important figures in Cherokee history.
  6.  
  7. Conley, Robert J. A Cherokee Encyclopedia. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2007.
  8.  
  9. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  10.  
  11. Conley provides students of Cherokee history and culture with an invaluable overview of Cherokee history from pre-contact to the end of the 20th century. Conley covers major historical events, key individuals, and religious and ceremonial traditions.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Littlefield, Daniel F., Jr., and James W. Parins, eds. Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal. 2 vols. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2011.
  17.  
  18. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  19.  
  20. An invaluable resource for the study of removal history; a thoroughly researched encyclopedia that touches on every facet of the removal era in the early 19th century.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Riggs, Brett H. Removal Period Cherokee Households and Communities in Southwestern North Carolina, 1835–1838. PhD diss., University of Tennessee, 1999.
  26.  
  27. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  28.  
  29. In this accessibly written and nicely illustrated volume, Riggs takes students inside the homes of Cherokee people on the eve of removal.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Textbooks and Narrative Surveys
  35. General Surveys focus on the narrative arc of Cherokee history from pre-contact to the present (Conley 2005, Mails 1992); explore the significance of disease transfer and violence on Cherokee populations (Thornton 1990); reveal the contentious political debates about Cherokee removal in the early republic; and introduce readers to Cherokee life in diaspora—that is, outside of ancestral Cherokee homelands in southeastern North America—following forced removal into the trans-Mississippi during the 1830s (Perdue and Green 2007).
  36.  
  37. Surveys of the Cherokees
  38. Surveys of Cherokee history typical cover pre-contact culture, archeology, and tradition, and devote considerable attention to the historical significance of colonial encounters with Europeans after the 16th century. These studies typically focus on Cherokee leaders and changes in the social and political history of the Cherokees (Woodward 1963), with particular attention to the era of removal in the 1820s and 1830s (Perdue and Green 2007).
  39.  
  40. Conley, Robert J. The Cherokee Nation: A History. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2005.
  41.  
  42. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43.  
  44. Conley’s classic narrative history of the Cherokees focuses on social and political changes from pre-contact to the early 21st century. Written with clarity and verve, this book is the ideal starting point for anyone beginning their study of Cherokee history.
  45.  
  46. Find this resource:
  47.  
  48.  
  49. Hoig, Stanley W. The Cherokees and their Chiefs: In the Wake of Empire. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1998.
  50.  
  51. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  52.  
  53. Hoig’s analysis emphasizes the importance of leadership in Cherokee history. Specifically, Hoig focuses on the rise of centralized Cherokee power with the formation of a national council and the establishment of the position of Principal Chief.
  54.  
  55. Find this resource:
  56.  
  57.  
  58. Mails, Thomas E. The Cherokee People: The Story of the Cherokees from Earliest Origins to Contemporary Times. Tulsa, OK: Council Oak, 1992.
  59.  
  60. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  61.  
  62. Mails focuses on the history of the Cherokees from pre-contact to the present. In addition to being a useful reference guide, Mails’s emphasis on the importance of Cherokee beliefs and oral traditions makes an important contribution to Cherokee studies.
  63.  
  64. Find this resource:
  65.  
  66.  
  67. Perdue, Theda, and Michael D. Green. The Cherokee Nation and the Trail of Tears. New York: Penguin, 2007.
  68.  
  69. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  70.  
  71. Purdue and Green examine the removal of the Cherokee people from their southeastern homelands. The authors address Cherokee history and politics, the political battles surrounding removal, and the efforts of the Cherokees to rebuild their lives in the trans-Mississippi West.
  72.  
  73. Find this resource:
  74.  
  75.  
  76. Starr, Emmet. History of the Cherokee Indians and their Legends and Folk Lore. Oklahoma City, OK: Warden, 1921.
  77.  
  78. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  79.  
  80. Starr’s pioneering volume on Cherokee history and culture explores the traditions of the Cherokee, and also provides genealogical information on scores of Cherokee families.
  81.  
  82. Find this resource:
  83.  
  84.  
  85. Summitt, April R. Sequoyah and the Invention of the Cherokee Alphabet. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012.
  86.  
  87. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. An introduction to Sequoyah, the Cherokee man responsible for inventing the first known written language in Native North America: the Cherokee syllabary. Ideal for undergraduate teaching, Summitt’s five short chapters narrate the historical context in which Sequoyah grew to adulthood, his struggle to devise the syllabary, the struggle to disseminate the syllabary among Cherokee people, and the mythology that quickly grew around Sequoyah.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93.  
  94. Thornton, Russell. The Cherokees: A Population History. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1990.
  95.  
  96. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97.  
  98. Thornton’s demographic history of the Cherokee people remains an indispensable resource for students and scholars of the Cherokee. This volume focuses on changes in population, the significance of disease and violence in post-contact Cherokee history, and changes in the racial demography of Cherokee communities.
  99.  
  100. Find this resource:
  101.  
  102.  
  103. Woodward, Grace S. The Cherokees. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.
  104.  
  105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  106.  
  107. Woodward’s classic study of the Cherokees focuses on the social and political history from the 16th century to the early 20th. The analysis is ethnocentric in nature, dwelling as it does on the “civilized” accomplishments of 19th-century Cherokees.
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. General Surveys
  113. The Cherokees appear in general textbooks and historical syntheses deigned for undergraduate readers and the interested general public (Adams and Macleod 2000). These works routinely focus on the era of removal in the early 19th century and the forced relocation of Cherokee, and other eastern Indians, to Indian Territory during the early republic. These works also provide introductory analysis of American Indian traditions, cultural life, and adaptations to life in a settler colonial context (Hudson 1978; Perdue and Green 2001).
  114.  
  115. Adams, Richard E. W., and Murdo J. Macleod, eds. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. 1, North America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  116.  
  117. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  118.  
  119. This book contains essays written by leading experts in the field of Native American history. It includes analysis of how indigenous people dealt with environmental change, colonialism, and identity formation.
  120.  
  121. Find this resource:
  122.  
  123.  
  124. Foreman, Grant. The Five Civilized Tribes: Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1934.
  125.  
  126. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  127.  
  128. Foreman’s narrative analysis of the largest and most influential indigenous nations in the southeastern United States provides cultural background and detailed social histories of what were once called the “Five Civilized Tribes.”
  129.  
  130. Find this resource:
  131.  
  132.  
  133. Hudson, Charles. The Southeastern Indians. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1978.
  134.  
  135. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  136.  
  137. This remains the most comprehensive ethnohistory of Native Americans in the Southeast. Hudson weaves into his analysis the important historical place of the Cherokee people in the Southeast’s long historical and cultural development.
  138.  
  139. Find this resource:
  140.  
  141.  
  142. Perdue, Theda, and Michael D. Green. The Columbia Guide to American Indians of the Southeast. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
  143.  
  144. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  145.  
  146. Perdue and Green’s narrative survey of Southeastern Native American history introduces students to the traditions, history, and changes experienced among indigenous peoples in the Southeast from before contact with Europeans to the late 20th century.
  147.  
  148. Find this resource:
  149.  
  150.  
  151. Sturgis, Amy H. The Trail of Tears and Indian Removal. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2007.
  152.  
  153. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  154.  
  155. Sturgis focuses on the removal of Native peoples from the eastern United States in this introductory volume. Of particular utility for classroom adoption is her treatment of removal experiences and the efforts of Native Americans to reestablish homes and communities in the trans-Mississippi West.
  156.  
  157. Find this resource:
  158.  
  159.  
  160. Anthologies
  161. Anthologies of the Cherokees and other Southeastern Indians focus overwhelmingly on the 16th century through to the early 19th (Anderson 1991). This scholarship contextualizes American Indian cultures and traditions throughout the Native South, considers the social and economic changes caused by settler colonialism (Ethridge and Hudson 2002), and analyzes how Native peoples struggled to maintain their distinctive community identities during the late 18th and early 19th centuries (Deloria and Salisbury 2004).
  162.  
  163. Anderson, William L., ed. Cherokee Removal: Before and After. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1991.
  164.  
  165. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  166.  
  167. Anderson brings together leading Cherokee scholars to focus on the causes and consequences of forced removal among the Cherokee people. The authors address the politics of removal and relocation, land use patterns prior to removal, demographic changes, and the struggle of a small group of Cherokees to remain in the eastern United States.
  168.  
  169. Find this resource:
  170.  
  171.  
  172. Brooks, James F., ed. Confounding the Color Line: The Indian-Black Experience in North America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
  173.  
  174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  175.  
  176. Focusing on the complexities of Native American–African American intermixture, this anthology provides fresh historical perspectives about interracial sex, marriage, and social relations. The essays range from the 16th century to the early 21st century.
  177.  
  178. Find this resource:
  179.  
  180.  
  181. Deloria, Philip J., and Neal Salisbury, eds. A Companion to American Indian History. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
  182.  
  183. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  184.  
  185. Deloria and Salisbury bring together the leading scholars in the field to address major historiographical questions in Native American history such as first encounters, disease and warfare, indigenous knowledge systems, language, kinship and community, and adaptations to settler colonialism.
  186.  
  187. Find this resource:
  188.  
  189.  
  190. Ethridge, Robbie, and Charles Hudson, eds. Transformation of the Southeastern Indians, 1540–1760. Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 2002.
  191.  
  192. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  193.  
  194. Focusing on the 16th to the 18th centuries, the essays in this anthology address a transformative period in the history of the Native South. The essays are wide-ranging and deal with topics such as population movement, archeology, belief systems, captivity and slavery, and diplomacy and trade with imperial powers.
  195.  
  196. Find this resource:
  197.  
  198.  
  199. Ethridge, Robbie, and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, eds. Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.
  200.  
  201. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  202.  
  203. Ethridge and Shuck-Hall provide a conceptually original and sophisticated anthology that introduces readers to the concept of the “shatter zone” and the significance of disease, violence, slavery, and cultural change to indigenous people like the Cherokees.
  204.  
  205. Find this resource:
  206.  
  207.  
  208. Fogelson, Raymond, ed. Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 14, Southeast. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute, 2004.
  209.  
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211.  
  212. This exhaustive anthology of research essays covers every facet of life in the history of the Native South. Focusing on both small and larger tribal nations, the anthology is attentive to indigenous cultures and belief systems, and pays close attention to regional specificity in the Native South.
  213.  
  214. Find this resource:
  215.  
  216.  
  217. King, Duane H., ed. The Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.
  218.  
  219. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  220.  
  221. Focusing on Cherokee life from pre-contact to the late 20th century, this collection of original essays analyzes the complex history of the Cherokees. Topics covered include belief systems, law, settlement and population patterns, slavery, removal, and social change.
  222.  
  223. Find this resource:
  224.  
  225.  
  226. Williams, Walter L., ed. Southeastern Indians since the Removal Era. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1979.
  227.  
  228. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  229.  
  230. Williams’s anthology of original scholarly essays focuses on life among Native Americans who remained in the Southeast after removal. The essays pay particular attention to race and racial identities, the struggle for recognition, and socioeconomic revitalization.
  231.  
  232. Find this resource:
  233.  
  234.  
  235. Bibliographies
  236. Bibliographic resources pertaining to the Cherokees are numerous. These resources cover a significant chronology—typically from the 16th century to the 20th—and the Primary Sources they reference are located in American and foreign archival repositories (Anderson and Lewis 1983). The depth of the bibliographic records related to the Cherokees highlights the strategic importance of the Cherokees to colonial trade and diplomacy during the 17th and 18th centuries, and underscore the literate, politically savvy decision making of Cherokee chiefs and leaders (Southwell 2002).
  237.  
  238. Anderson, William L., and James A. Lewis. A Guide to Cherokee Documents in Foreign Archives. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1983.
  239.  
  240. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241.  
  242. An essential resource for students of the Cherokee people prior to the American Revolution, and for scholars interested in the Cherokee diaspora. Should be used with the 821 reels of microfilm from Cherokee Documents in Foreign Archives.
  243.  
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246.  
  247. Dickinson, W. Calvin, and Eloise R. Hitchcock. A Bibliography of Tennessee History, 1973–1996. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1999.
  248.  
  249. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  250.  
  251. Focused on Tennessee history, this is also a valuable bibliography for those interested in studying the Overhill Cherokees.
  252.  
  253. Find this resource:
  254.  
  255.  
  256. Fogelson, Raymond D. The Cherokees: A Critical Bibliography. Bloomington: Indian University Press, 1978.
  257.  
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259.  
  260. Remains an indispensable resource for students of the Cherokees.
  261.  
  262. Find this resource:
  263.  
  264.  
  265. Peterson, Herman A. The Trail of Tears: An Annotated Bibliography of Southeastern Removal. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 2010.
  266.  
  267. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  268.  
  269. Resources pertaining to the era of removal.
  270.  
  271. Find this resource:
  272.  
  273.  
  274. Southwell, Kristina L. Guide to Manuscripts in the Western Historical Collections of the University of Oklahoma. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002.
  275.  
  276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277.  
  278. An excellent resource, this guide will assist those interested in studying the history of the Cherokee people in Indian Territory.
  279.  
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282.  
  283. White, Phillip M. Bibliography of Native American Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2004.
  284.  
  285. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  286.  
  287. Bibliography of scholarly works pertaining to Native North Americans, including the Cherokees.
  288.  
  289. Find this resource:
  290.  
  291.  
  292. Primary Sources
  293. Primary source material for the study of the Cherokees focuses overwhelmingly on the 16th century to the mid-19th century. Primary source documentation reveals the impact of disease among the Cherokees; the importance of trade and diplomacy in the Cherokees’ colonial relations with Europeans (specifically the Spanish, French, and English) (William Henry Lyttelton Papers, Rozema 2002); the interactions between Cherokees and missions (McClinton 2007); and the politics of the removal era and its tragic human toll (Moulton 1985).
  294.  
  295. Bartram, William. Travels through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Florida, the Cherokee Country, the Extensive Territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confederacy, and the Country of the Chactaws; Containing An Account of the Soil and Natural Productions of Those Regions, Together with Observations on the Manners of the Indians. In William Bartram on the Southeastern Indians. Edited by Gregory A. Waselkov and Kathryn E. Holland Braund. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
  296.  
  297. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  298.  
  299. Printed by James & Johnson in 1791, a valuable ethnography of the Southeast and that region’s indigenous inhabitants. While many of Bartram’s observations were Eurocentric in nature, his writings provide insights into how Europeans perceived the natural environment of the South and its indigenous people.
  300.  
  301. Find this resource:
  302.  
  303.  
  304. The Cherokee Phoenix.
  305.  
  306. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307.  
  308. The Hunter Library of Western North Carolina holds copies of the first Native American newspaper in the United States, The Cherokee Phoenix, from February 1828 to May 1834. Transcribed copies of the Phoenix are available online for the dates between February 1828 and June 1831.
  309.  
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312.  
  313. Dale, Edward Everett, and Gaston Litton, ed. Cherokee Cavaliers: Forty Years of Cherokee History as Told in the Correspondence of the Ridge-Watie-Boudinot Family. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1939.
  314.  
  315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316.  
  317. A collection of family letters from one of the most prominent 19th-century Cherokee families.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321.  
  322. Documenting the American South.
  323.  
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325.  
  326. Digitized archival holding of manuscripts, pamphlets, newspapers, oral histories, and sound recording related to the history of the American South and its place in the broader Atlantic world. This collection also contains considerable holdings related to Cherokee history, ranging from Cherokee medicine, speeches by Cherokee chiefs, maps of Cherokee Country, and removal politics in the 1820s and 1830s.
  327.  
  328. Find this resource:
  329.  
  330.  
  331. Edward E. Ayer Collection, at the Newberry Library. Chicago.
  332.  
  333. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334.  
  335. A massive collection containing over 130,000 bound volumes pertaining to Native American history. The collection also contains maps, paintings, drawings, manuscript sources, and atlases that are particularly important to the historian of the Cherokee experience.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339.  
  340. Gaul, Theresa Strouth, ed. To Marry an Indian: The Marriage of Harriet Gold & Elias Boudinot in Letters, 1823–1839. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
  341.  
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343.  
  344. A collection of letters pertaining to the marriage of Elias Boudinot and Harriet Ruggins Gold. This collection of letters is particularly revealing for how it highlights the depth of family and community hostility toward Gold following her decision to marry a Cherokee man.
  345.  
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348.  
  349. Jacobs, Wilbur R., ed. The Appalachian Frontier: The Edmond Atkin Report and Plan of 1755. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1967.
  350.  
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352.  
  353. This volume reveals the correspondence of the Charleston merchant Edmond Atkin and his advice to the British Board of Trade for devising a plan to establish “friendships” with the Cherokees to ensure French traders and diplomats did not make inroads in turning Cherokee chiefs against alliances with the British.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357.  
  358. King, Duane H., ed. The Memoirs of Lt. Henry Timberlake: The Story of a Soldier, Adventurer, and Emissary to the Cherokees, 1756–1765. Cherokee, NC: Museum of the Cherokee Indian, 2007.
  359.  
  360. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  361.  
  362. Reprint of Henry Timberlake’s memoirs and his recollections of his time among the Cherokees in North America and Britain.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366.  
  367. Loudoun Americana Papers at the Huntington Library. MSSLO 1-6999. The Huntington Library, Art Collections, and Botanical Gardens. The Huntington Library, San Marino California.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. This collection comprises the personal and official papers of John Campbell, 4th Earl of Loudoun (1705–1782). It contains 8,000 items in 141 boxes. Its utility to historians of the Cherokee experience lies in numerous areas, most notably the period of the Seven Years’ War.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375.  
  376. McClinton, Rowena, ed. The Moravian Springplace Mission to the Cherokees. 2 vols. Indians of the Southwest. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
  377.  
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379.  
  380. Primary documents focusing on the diaries of Anna Rosina Gambold and John Gambold and related to the Moravian mission to the 19th-century Cherokees.
  381.  
  382. Find this resource:
  383.  
  384.  
  385. Moulton, Gary E., ed. The Papers of Chief John Ross, 1807–1839. 2 vols. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1985.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. Personal letters and writings of John Ross, the principal chief of the Cherokee Nation between 1828 and his death in 1866.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393.  
  394. Perdue, Theda. Cherokee Editor: The Writings of Elias Boudinot. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1996.
  395.  
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397.  
  398. A collection of Elias Boudinot’s personal and published writings. Arguably the most important Cherokee intellectual of the 19th century.
  399.  
  400. Find this resource:
  401.  
  402.  
  403. Rozema, Vicki, ed. Cherokee Voices: Early Accounts of Cherokee Life in the East. Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, 2002.
  404.  
  405. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  406.  
  407. Cherokee perspectives on life in the Southeast. The reprinted primary sources focus on the colonial era and extend into the early republic.
  408.  
  409. Find this resource:
  410.  
  411.  
  412. William Henry Lyttelton Papers. William Clements Library. University of Michigan.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. The papers of William Henry Lyttelton span the years between 1755 and 1761 and focus on his times as governor of South Carolina and Jamaica. This archive is important to Cherokee historians for highlighting the military engagements between Cherokee warriors and the British, and for revealing the diplomatic discourse that existed between Lyttelton and Cherokee chiefs.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420.  
  421. Journals
  422. A growing number of journals devote space to Cherokee studies or history, and the importance of Cherokee history to a balanced understanding of the United States’ past. Scholarly journals publish research on the Cherokees spanning pre-contact cultures, archeology and traditions; explore Cherokee diplomatic and trade relations with Europeans during the 17th and 18th centuries; and focus on the impact of the United States’ Indian policies during the 19th and 20th centuries. Additionally, scholars pay considerable attention to evolving ethnohistory, Cherokee social and cultural beliefs, and practices after the 18th century.
  423.  
  424. American Indian Culture and Research Journal. 1974–.
  425.  
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427.  
  428. Published by UCLA’s American Indian Studies Center, this is one of the leading scholarly journals for Native American history and culture.
  429.  
  430. Find this resource:
  431.  
  432.  
  433. American Indian Quarterly. 1974–.
  434.  
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436.  
  437. Published by the University of Nebraska Press, the AIQ consistently contains some of the most cutting-edge scholarship in Native American studies.
  438.  
  439. Find this resource:
  440.  
  441.  
  442. Ethnohistory. 1954–.
  443.  
  444. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  445.  
  446. Published by Duke University Press, the journal consistently runs essays pertaining to Native American and Cherokee ethnohistory.
  447.  
  448. Find this resource:
  449.  
  450.  
  451. Journal of Cherokee Studies. 1976–.
  452.  
  453. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  454.  
  455. Published by the Museum of the Cherokee Indian in North Carolina. This unique and incredibly important publication serves as a repository for scholarship and the printing of Primary Sources about the Cherokees.
  456.  
  457. Find this resource:
  458.  
  459.  
  460. Native American and Indigenous Studies. 2014–.
  461.  
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463.  
  464. Published by the University of Minnesota Press for the Native American and Indigenous Studies Association (NAISA). An early-21st-century journal that promises to make an influential contribution to Native American studies scholarship.
  465.  
  466. Find this resource:
  467.  
  468.  
  469. Native South. 2008–.
  470.  
  471. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  472.  
  473. Published by the University of Nebraska Press. A multidisciplinary journal with a regular series of contributors interested in Cherokee issues.
  474.  
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477.  
  478. Studies in American Indian Literature. 1989–.
  479.  
  480. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  481.  
  482. Published by the University of Nebraska Press. Literary analysis of Native American works, including regular essays by and about Cherokee peoples.
  483.  
  484. Find this resource:
  485.  
  486.  
  487. Western Historical Quarterly. 1970–.
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. The official journal of the Western History Association. The WHQ remains an important venue for the publication of research about Cherokee history in the trans-Mississippi West.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495.  
  496. Wicazo Sa Review. 1985–.
  497.  
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499.  
  500. Published by the University of Minnesota Press. Founded as a journal for highlighting Native American scholarship, its contributors regular address a multitude of topics and disciplinary approaches to Cherokee history, language, and culture.
  501.  
  502. Find this resource:
  503.  
  504.  
  505. Specialized Studies
  506. Historians have produced a vast library of works covering a multitude of topics in Cherokee history, with particular focus given to Appalachian archaeology (Keel 1976, Gougeon and Meyers 2015) and Cherokee towns (Schroedl 1986, Rodning 2015). Pioneering studies published in the first half of the 20th century laid the foundation for the development of a rich historiography and literary scholarship that has emerged since the 1960s.
  507.  
  508. Archaeology
  509. Archaeological studies of the Native South have added new insights into our understanding of indigenous cultures. Works such as Schroedl 1986 and Rodning 2015 have proven critical to developing a fuller empirical picture of Cherokee towns and mortuary traditions, and have provided important insights into the extent of Native trade networks.
  510.  
  511. Gougeon, Ramie A., and Maureen Meyers, eds. Archaeological Perspectives on the Southern Appalachians: A Multiscalar Approach. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2015.
  512.  
  513. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  514.  
  515. Focused on the Southern Appalachians, this anthology brings together leading scholars in the field of archaeological study to reveal the reasons for the rise and fall of complex chiefdoms. The contributors analyze a range of sources—from pottery to architecture—and the chapters highlight important regional developments and the significance of external networks of trade.
  516.  
  517. Find this resource:
  518.  
  519.  
  520. Keel, Bennie C. Cherokee Archaeology: A Study of the Appalachian Summit. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1976.
  521.  
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523.  
  524. This major archaeological analysis of three important Appalachian sites—the Tuckasegee Site, the Garden Creek Site, and the Warren Wilson Site—reveals the extent to which pre-contact sites of Cherokee settlement were enmeshed in long-distance trade networks. With the arrival of Europeans in the 16th century, these networks expanded across the Atlantic and included items such as glass beads, wine bottles, and iron axes, all of which hint at the changes in Cherokee material culture that occurred after the 16th century.
  525.  
  526. Find this resource:
  527.  
  528.  
  529. Rodning, Christopher. Center Places and Cherokee Towns: Archaeological Perspectives on Native American Architecture and Landscape in the Southern Appalachians. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2015.
  530.  
  531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  532.  
  533. This outstanding archaeological analysis of Cherokee towns spans the centuries between the Cherokees’ first contact with the Spanish in the 16th century to routine encounters with English settler colonialism in the 18th. Rodning focuses particularly on the importance of architecture and town planning to Cherokee identity, with much of his data coming from the Coweta Creek site in western North Carolina.
  534.  
  535. Find this resource:
  536.  
  537.  
  538. Schroedl, Gerald F., ed. Overhill Cherokee Archaeology at Chota-Tanasee. Report of Investigations, University of Tennessee, Publications in Anthropology 42. Knoxville: Tennessee Valley Authority, 1986.
  539.  
  540. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. A report of archaeological research commenced in 1974, this work focuses on two important towns among the Overhill Cherokees during the 17th and 18th centuries. The work is primarily descriptive in its treatment of burial sites and domestic and public structures, and does not offer the types of critical insights that connect Cherokee town sites to larger networks of trade and diplomacy.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546.  
  547. Cherokees in the Colonial Era
  548. Focusing on the period from the 16th century to the era of the American Revolution, historical studies of Cherokees in colonial America pay particular attention to town life (Boulware 2011, Chambers 2010, Tortora 2015); the history of trade; and warfare between European colonizers and Cherokees (Hatley 1995, Oliphant 2001, Ray 2015). Scholarly studies of the impact of the arrival of the English in the Carolinas in the 1670s, such as Brown 1938 and Hatley 1995, reveal the trans-Atlantic political and economic linkages that the Cherokees became part of in the ensuing decades. Studies in this section also analyze changes in Cherokee culture and belief systems that took place with the arrival of missionaries and the introduction of Christianity.
  549.  
  550. Boulware, Tyler. “The Effect of the Seven Years’ War on the Cherokee Nation.” Early American Studies 5.2 (Fall 2007): 395–426.
  551.  
  552. DOI: 10.1353/eam.2007.0009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  553.  
  554. Historical analysis of the impact of the Seven Years’ War on the Native South. Boulware focuses particularly on Cherokee diplomacy and the sociopolitical changes that the war accelerated among the Cherokees.
  555.  
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558.  
  559. Boulware, Tyler. Deconstructing the Cherokee Nation: Town, Region, and Nation among Eighteenth-Century Cherokees. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011.
  560.  
  561. DOI: 10.5744/florida/9780813035802.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  562.  
  563. Historian Tyler Boulware reveals the centrality of towns to 18th-century Cherokee life in this deeply researched monograph. While sensitive to the historical significance of kinship among the Cherokees, Boulware highlights the importance of town and region to Cherokee politics, economics, and diplomatic history.
  564.  
  565. Find this resource:
  566.  
  567.  
  568. Brown, John P. Old Frontiers: The Story of the Cherokee Indians from Earliest Times to the Date of their Removal to the West, 1838. Kingsport, TN: Southern Publishers, 1938.
  569.  
  570. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571.  
  572. A pioneering study of frontier relations between Cherokees and people of European descent along the colonial frontiers of southeastern North America.
  573.  
  574. Find this resource:
  575.  
  576.  
  577. Chambers, Ian. “The Movement of Great Tellico: The Role of Town and Clan in Cherokee Spatial Understanding.” Native South 3.1 (2010): 89–102.
  578.  
  579. DOI: 10.1353/nso.2010.0003Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  580.  
  581. A fascinating historical study of one of the most important centers of trade and diplomacy among the 18th-century Cherokees.
  582.  
  583. Find this resource:
  584.  
  585.  
  586. Corkran, David H. The Cherokee Frontier: Conflict and Survival, 1740–62. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962.
  587.  
  588. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589.  
  590. One of scores of studies to engage seriously with Native American history in the 1960s, Corkran’s analysis of colonial encounters between Cherokees and Europeans helped to inspire a generation of scholarship devoted to Native American history in the Southeast.
  591.  
  592. Find this resource:
  593.  
  594.  
  595. Dunaway, Wilma. “Incorporation as an Interactive Process: Cherokee Resistance to Expansion of the Capitalist World-System, 1560–1763.” Sociological Inquiry 66.4 (1996): 455–470.
  596.  
  597. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-682X.1996.tb01187.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  598.  
  599. Social and economic analysis of the ways in which Cherokees responded to the transition from exchange to trade economies, and the rise of capitalist systems.
  600.  
  601. Find this resource:
  602.  
  603.  
  604. Hatley, Tom. The Dividing Paths: Cherokees and South Carolinians Through the Revolutionary Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
  605.  
  606. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  607.  
  608. Remains one of the most thoroughly researched and influential histories of the Cherokees’ history with Europeans and Euroamericans in 18th-century South Carolina.
  609.  
  610. Find this resource:
  611.  
  612.  
  613. Hudson, Charles, and Carmen Chaves Tesser, eds. The Forgotten Centuries: Indians and Europeans in the American South, 1521–1704. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1994.
  614.  
  615. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  616.  
  617. In this interdisciplinary work that combines Archaeology, anthropology, and history, the contributors focus on the 16th and 17th centuries. Stories of Cherokee travel, diplomacy, and trade are part of a broader history of the Native South that includes chiefdoms such as the Apalachees and coalescent societies that emerged after the decline of the chiefdoms, such as the Choctaws.
  618.  
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621.  
  622. Kelton, Paul. “The British and Indian War: Cherokee Power and the Fate of Empire in North America.” William and Mary Quarterly 69.4 (October 2012): 763–792.
  623.  
  624. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  625.  
  626. This important essay focuses on the role of the Cherokees in the Seven Years’ War. Kelton reveals how the Cherokees emerged as influential diplomats and proved critical to the formation of pro-English alliances in opposition to French-allied Native Americans, thereby highlighting how Cherokee leaders played pivotal roles in shaping imperial struggles in North America.
  627.  
  628. Find this resource:
  629.  
  630.  
  631. Kelton, Paul. Cherokee Medicine, Colonial Germs: An Indigenous Nation’s Fight Against Smallpox, 1518–1824. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015.
  632.  
  633. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  634.  
  635. Important new research that examines how Cherokees struggled to address outbreaks of smallpox within their communities from the early 16th century. Kelton argues that the idea of diseases being spread inadvertently among Native peoples tends to overlook the impacts that colonial policy and violence had in magnifying the effects of disease outbreaks.
  636.  
  637. Find this resource:
  638.  
  639.  
  640. Malone, Henry Thompson. Cherokees of the Old South: A People in Transition. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1956.
  641.  
  642. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. When originally published, Malone’s book was one of a select few that treated the history of the Cherokee with the scholarly rigor it deserved. While some of the analysis is now dated, the archival research that informed the author’s conclusions continues to shape the field of Cherokee historiography. Reprinted Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2010.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648.  
  649. Oliphant, John. Peace and War on the Anglo-Cherokee Frontier, 1756–63. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001.
  650.  
  651. DOI: 10.1057/9780230599178Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652.  
  653. A close reading of the historical changes wrought by the Seven Years’ War along the Anglo-Cherokee frontier in the Old South. Should be read alongside Hatley’s The Dividing Paths, and newer scholarship by historians such as Tyler Boulware.
  654.  
  655. Find this resource:
  656.  
  657.  
  658. Ray, Kristofer. “Cherokees and Franco-British Confrontation in the Tennessee Corridor, 1730–1760.” Native South 7.1 (2014): 33–67.
  659.  
  660. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661.  
  662. A thoroughly researched essay that examines the importance of the Tennessee River, a strategically important waterway controlled by the Overhill Cherokees. For the British, access to and control over the Tennessee corridor was critical to British trade and colonial expansion into the Ohio and Illinois Valleys. The Cherokees therefore used their geopolitical position of influence to shape diplomatic and trade “friendship” with the British.
  663.  
  664. Find this resource:
  665.  
  666.  
  667. Ray, Kristofer, ed. Before the Volunteer State: New Thoughts on Early Tennessee History, 1540–1800. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2015.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. The essays in this collection highlight how the emergence of Tennessee must be understood as a product of local, continental, and Atlantic world developments in trade, migration, and settlement. At the center of these developments were Native peoples, such as the Cherokees, who played critical roles in shaping the Southeast.
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675.  
  676. Tortora, Daniel. Carolina in Crisis: Cherokees, Colonists, and Slaves in the American Southeast, 1756–1763. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015.
  677.  
  678. DOI: 10.5149/northcarolina/9781469621227.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679.  
  680. Examination of the Anglo-Cherokee War from 1758 to 1761. With emphasis on Cherokee perspectives of this critical epoch, Tortora examines how the war destabilized colonial South Carolina and led to the renewal of the Cherokee-British alliance.
  681.  
  682. Find this resource:
  683.  
  684.  
  685. Wood, Douglas. “‘I Have Now Made a Path to Virginia’: Outacite Ostenaco and the Cherokee-Virginia Alliance in the French and Indian War.” West Virginia History 2.2 (2008): 31–60.
  686.  
  687. DOI: 10.1353/wvh.0.0018Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  688.  
  689. Underscoring how Cherokee chiefs were key diplomatic players during the French and Indian War, this essay focuses on the famous Cherokee chief Ostenaco, a leader of the Cherokee people who traveled regularly to engage in diplomacy with the British in Virginia and South Carolina, and who famously departed North America in May 1762 to visit King George III in London.
  690.  
  691. Find this resource:
  692.  
  693.  
  694. Cherokees in the Era of Revolution and Early Republic
  695. The Revolutionary era left much of Cherokee Country devastated (Calloway 1995). Towns lay in ruins and Cherokees migrated within Cherokee Country in search of safety and to start life anew. The historiography of the Revolutionary era and early republic explores these facets of Cherokee history in detail—from how Cherokees dealt with sociocultural changes to the emergence of traditionalist movements (Pate 1969). Historians pay particular attention to political changes among the Cherokees as they began to shift away from town-based governance to more centralized forms of government (Champagne 1992, McLoughlin 1986).
  696.  
  697. Austen, Barbara. “Marrying Red: Indian/White Relations and the Case of Elias Boudinot and Harriet Gold.” Connecticut History 45.2 (Fall 2006): 256–260.
  698.  
  699. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  700.  
  701. A fascinating historical analysis of the ramifications in Cornwell, Connecticut, of a white woman, Harriet Ruggles Gold, marrying a Cherokee, Elias Boudinot, in March 1826.
  702.  
  703. Find this resource:
  704.  
  705.  
  706. Bolton, S. Charles. “Jeffersonian Indian Removal and the Emergence of Arkansas Territory.” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 62.3 (2003): 253–271.
  707.  
  708. DOI: 10.2307/40024265Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709.  
  710. Historical analysis of Thomas Jefferson’s ideas about Native American removal. Bolton offers original insights into why some Cherokees chose to migrate into the Arkansas River Valley years and in some cases decades before removal in the late 1830s.
  711.  
  712. Find this resource:
  713.  
  714.  
  715. Calloway, Colin. The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in Native American Communities. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
  716.  
  717. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511816437Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718.  
  719. Examines the role played by Cherokees and other Native Americans in the American Revolution. Calloway also explores the impact that the Revolution had on Native communities and the sociopolitical changes that it sped into effect.
  720.  
  721. Find this resource:
  722.  
  723.  
  724. Champagne, Duane. Social Order and Political Change: Constitutional Governments among the Cherokee, the Choctaw, the Chickasaw, and the Creek. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
  725.  
  726. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727.  
  728. An influential study that focuses on social and political change in the Native South. Champagne’s analysis transcends the chronological boundaries of the era of Revolution and early republic, but overlaps in significant ways with those historical epochs to make a provocative argument for Native American political innovation and social adaptation.
  729.  
  730. Find this resource:
  731.  
  732.  
  733. Countryman, Edward. “Indians, the Colonial Order, and the Social Significance of the American Revolution.” William & Mary Quarterly 53.2 (1996): 342–362.
  734.  
  735. DOI: 10.2307/2947405Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  736.  
  737. A brilliant piece of historical analysis that explains in precise detail why the Revolutionary era was such an abject disaster for Native Americans, including Cherokees, in the Southeast.
  738.  
  739. Find this resource:
  740.  
  741.  
  742. Cumfer, Cynthia. Separate Peoples, One Land: The Minds of Cherokees, Blacks, and Whites on the Tennessee Frontier. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007.
  743.  
  744. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  745.  
  746. One of the best studies to weave together historical analysis of racial encounters among Cherokees and people of African ancestry in modern-day Tennessee and the implications of those encounters for sovereignty and ownership over land.
  747.  
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750.  
  751. Dowd, Gregory. A Spirited Resistance: The North American Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745–1815. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
  752.  
  753. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  754.  
  755. This study draws our attention to Indian prophets who attracted Native American followers during the latter half of the 18th century and beginning of the 19th. These prophets and their followers—Shawnee, Delaware, Creek, and Cherokee—sought ways to unite in a pan-Indian effort to halt the spread of settler colonialism into Indian Country.
  756.  
  757. Find this resource:
  758.  
  759.  
  760. McLoughlin, William G. Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986.
  761.  
  762. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  763.  
  764. Using the framework of romantic nationalism, McLoughlin’s pioneering study of the Cherokee examined how Cherokee leaders rebuilt their communities around centralized governance and the nation-state model.
  765.  
  766. Find this resource:
  767.  
  768.  
  769. Pate, James. “The Chickamauga: A Forgotten Segment of Indian Resistance on the Southern Frontier.” PhD diss., Mississippi State University, 1969.
  770.  
  771. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  772.  
  773. This study focuses on Cherokee traditionalist Dragging Canoe and his Cherokee followers. The Chickamaugas, who considered themselves the “real Cherokees,” called for a return to traditional Cherokee culture and social practices to bring a world destabilized by settler colonialism back into a state of neutrality, or balance.
  774.  
  775. Find this resource:
  776.  
  777.  
  778. Young, Mary E. “The Cherokee Nation: Mirror of the Republic.” In Special Issue: American Culture and the Indian Frontier. Edited by David Johnson. American Quarterly 33.5 (Winter 1981): 502–524.
  779.  
  780. DOI: 10.2307/2712800Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  781.  
  782. A highly influential study that, when read in combination with William McLoughlin’s Cherokee Renascence, sharpens the scholarly analysis of the Cherokee people’s political history.
  783.  
  784. Find this resource:
  785.  
  786.  
  787. Cherokees during the Removal Era
  788. Cherokee removal is one of the most written about events in American history (Ehle 1988). Both popular and scholarly histories of Cherokee removal focus on the legal and political dimensions of the era (Norgren 2004), with considerable attention given to the Jackson administration’s Indian policies, and Principal Chief John Ross, who proved instrumental in framing Cherokee resistance to removal (Hicks 2011). Scholars also focus on the experience of forced removal, thereby revealing the human toll that the Jackson administration’s removal policy had on individuals and their families (Bowes 2007).
  789.  
  790. Bowes, John P. The Trail of Tears: Removal in the South. New York: Chelsea House, 2007.
  791.  
  792. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  793.  
  794. Narrative history of removal and the forced migration to Indian Territory. Written for a popular readership with a focus on the politics of removal and leading political figures.
  795.  
  796. Find this resource:
  797.  
  798.  
  799. Cave, Alfred A. “Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830.” The Historian 65.6 (December 2003): 1330–1353.
  800.  
  801. DOI: 10.1111/j.0018-2370.2003.00055.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  802.  
  803. An incisive piece of historical analysis that contends that President Jackson was in breach of the Constitution when the federal government enforced the removal of the Cherokees from the Southeast in the 1830s.
  804.  
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807.  
  808. Ehle, John. Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation. New York: Anchor, 1988.
  809.  
  810. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  811.  
  812. A popular and widely cited narrative history of Cherokee dispossession and removal.
  813.  
  814. Find this resource:
  815.  
  816.  
  817. Finger, John R. The Eastern Band of the Cherokees, 1819–1900. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984.
  818.  
  819. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  820.  
  821. A sweeping narrative history of the Cherokees in eastern North America. Finger’s analysis continues to influence scholars of the social and political history of the Cherokees.
  822.  
  823. Find this resource:
  824.  
  825.  
  826. Hicks, Brian. Toward the Setting Sun: John Ross, the Cherokees, and the Trail of Tears. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2011.
  827.  
  828. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  829.  
  830. Narrative history of Cherokee removal, focusing particularly on John Ross and the Ross family.
  831.  
  832. Find this resource:
  833.  
  834.  
  835. Langguth, A. J. Driven West: Andrew Jackson and the Trail of Tears to the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010.
  836.  
  837. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  838.  
  839. A popular history that explores the politics of the removal era. Written with journalistic flair and buttressed by in-depth research.
  840.  
  841. Find this resource:
  842.  
  843.  
  844. Norgren, Jill. The Cherokee Cases: Two Landmark Federal Decisions in the Fight for Sovereignty. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004.
  845.  
  846. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  847.  
  848. Legal history of two of the most important cases in 19th-century American history: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia and Worcester v. Georgia.
  849.  
  850. Find this resource:
  851.  
  852.  
  853. Smith, Daniel Blake. An American Betrayal: Cherokee Patriots and the Trail of Tears. New York: Henry Holt, 2011.
  854.  
  855. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856.  
  857. Analysis of Cherokee removal that takes the romantic perspective of Cherokee “patriots” fighting to maintain the sovereignty of their political homeland.
  858.  
  859. Find this resource:
  860.  
  861.  
  862. Cherokees and Slavery
  863. Captivity and slavery has a long history among the Cherokee (Halliburton 1977). The Cherokee referred to the enslaved as atsi nahsa’I (one who is owned) (Perdue 1979). Traditionally, Cherokee captives faced one of two fates: death or captive labor. Those who labored as captives remained outside the responsibilities and obligations associated with clan membership. However, it was possible for an atsi nahsa’I to be adopted into a clan (Minges 2003). During the latter half of the 18th century, these traditional forms of captivity began to break down. Cherokees started adopting European forms of racial slavery, a major social and cultural transition that is the focus of much historical scholarship (Miles 2005, Yarbrough 2008).
  864.  
  865. Gallay, Alan. The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670–1717. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
  866.  
  867. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  868.  
  869. Remains the best and most thoroughly researched book about the transition from captivity practices to commercial slavery in the Native South, and the rise in English ascendancy in the Carolinas.
  870.  
  871. Find this resource:
  872.  
  873.  
  874. Halliburton, Rudi, Jr. Red over Black: Black Slavery among the Cherokee Indians. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1977.
  875.  
  876. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  877.  
  878. Halliburton’s focus is on the rise of racial slavery and Cherokee relations with enslaved African Americans. This is a pioneering history of race and slavery among the Cherokees that has inspired many studies that followed it.
  879.  
  880. Find this resource:
  881.  
  882.  
  883. May, Katja. African Americans and Native Americans in the Creek and Cherokee Nations, 1830s to 1920s: Collision and Collusion. New York: Garland, 1996.
  884.  
  885. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  886.  
  887. May provides a comparative historical analysis of the status of African Americans in the Cherokee and Creek Nations.
  888.  
  889. Find this resource:
  890.  
  891.  
  892. Miles, Tiya. Ties that Bind: The Story of an Afro-Cherokee Family in Slavery and Freedom. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
  893.  
  894. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  895.  
  896. The story of Shoeboots, a prominent Cherokee slaveholder, and the historical significance of men of his status who had interracial families in the Cherokee Nation.
  897.  
  898. Find this resource:
  899.  
  900.  
  901. Miles, Tiya. The House on Diamond Hill: A Cherokee Plantation Story. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010.
  902.  
  903. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  904.  
  905. A detailed history of the Vann family, a prominent slaveholding family in the Cherokee Nation prior to the outbreak of the Civil War.
  906.  
  907. Find this resource:
  908.  
  909.  
  910. Minges, Patrick. Slavery and the Cherokee Nation: The Keetoowah Society and the Defining of a People. New York & London: Routledge, 2003.
  911.  
  912. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  913.  
  914. A history of slavery among the Cherokees and the relationship of slaveholding Cherokees to the Keetoowah Society of Cherokees.
  915.  
  916. Find this resource:
  917.  
  918.  
  919. Naylor, Celia E. African Cherokees in Indian Territory: From Chattel to Citizens. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008.
  920.  
  921. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  922.  
  923. Naylor’s focus is on the connection between the American South and West, and the transition from slavery to uncertain freedom for African Cherokees. One of the more insightful studies of the changing status of people with African ancestry in the Cherokee Nation.
  924.  
  925. Find this resource:
  926.  
  927.  
  928. Perdue, Theda. Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.
  929.  
  930. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  931.  
  932. Perdue’s field-defining work on Cherokee slavery. Her focus on the shift from captivity to racial slavery helps to illuminate other social and political changes in Cherokee history, such as the changing status of women.
  933.  
  934. Find this resource:
  935.  
  936.  
  937. Snyder, Christina. Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.
  938.  
  939. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  940.  
  941. Indigenous-centered history of the changing nature of captivity and enslavement among Native American societies in the American Southeast.
  942.  
  943. Find this resource:
  944.  
  945.  
  946. Yarbrough, Fay. Race and the Cherokee Nation: Sovereignty in the Nineteenth Century. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.
  947.  
  948. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  949.  
  950. A deeply researched and carefully argued book that explores the social, legal, and political dimensions of race and racism among the Cherokees.
  951.  
  952. Find this resource:
  953.  
  954.  
  955. Cherokees in Diaspora
  956. The history of Cherokees living in diaspora is commonly associated with the forced removals of the late 1830s. While it is true that the vast majority of Cherokees were forced by the federal government to rebuild their lives in the trans-Mississippi West (Clarke 1971), it is also true that travel and migration was not unknown to Cherokees prior to the Trail of Tears (Smithers 2015). Increasingly, historians have become much more sensitive to the significance of Cherokee travel—including diplomatic travel to 18th-century England (Foreman 1943, Vaughan 2006) and migrations before and after removal—while not losing sight of the trauma caused by forced removal (McLoughlin 1993).
  957.  
  958. Clarke, Mary W. Chief Bowles and the Texas Cherokees. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971.
  959.  
  960. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  961.  
  962. Clarke examines one of the most important war chiefs of the Cherokees who migrated and settled in east Texas during the early 19th century. Reprinted Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
  963.  
  964. Find this resource:
  965.  
  966.  
  967. Denson, Andrew. Demanding the Cherokee Nation: Indian Autonomy and American Culture, 1830–1900. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
  968.  
  969. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  970.  
  971. Spanning the cis- and trans-Mississippi regions, this important political history of Cherokee Nation begins in the era of removal and ends during the tragic epoch of allotment, in which the federal government terminated tribal governments and allotted land to individuals based on Indian “blood quantum.”
  972.  
  973. Find this resource:
  974.  
  975.  
  976. Foreman, Carolyn T. Indians Abroad, 1493–1938. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1943.
  977.  
  978. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  979.  
  980. This pioneering study drew attention to the travels of Native American diplomats, including Cherokees, to the United Kingdom and continental Europe, and the kidnapping of indigenous Americans and their forced travels to Europe.
  981.  
  982. Find this resource:
  983.  
  984.  
  985. McLoughlin, William G. After the Trail of Tears: The Cherokees’ Struggle for Sovereignty, 1839–1880. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993.
  986.  
  987. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  988.  
  989. Social and political history of the Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory.
  990.  
  991. Find this resource:
  992.  
  993.  
  994. Smithers, Gregory D. The Cherokee Diaspora: An Indigenous History of Migration, Resettlement, and Identity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.
  995.  
  996. DOI: 10.12987/yale/9780300169607.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  997.  
  998. A history of Cherokee migrations, resettlements, and identity formations since the 18th century. The author focuses in particular on the struggle to define Cherokee identity while living in diaspora.
  999.  
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001.  
  1002.  
  1003. Sturm, Circe. Blood Politics: Race, Culture, and Identity in the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
  1004.  
  1005. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1006.  
  1007. Historical anthropology that focuses on questions of race and identity among the Cherokee people.
  1008.  
  1009. Find this resource:
  1010.  
  1011.  
  1012. Vaughan, Alden T. Transatlantic Encounters: American Indians in Britain, 1500–1776. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
  1013.  
  1014. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015.  
  1016. Focuses on Cherokee and other Native American travelers to Britain.
  1017.  
  1018. Find this resource:
  1019.  
  1020.  
  1021. Cherokees and the American Civil War
  1022. The majority of works dealing with Cherokee involvement in the American Civil War address the history of Confederate Cherokees (Anderson 1931, Cunningham 1959). In fact, Cherokees fought for both the Confederate and Union causes during the American Civil War (Confer 2007). Although Cherokees perceived the war as a foreign conflagration and its leaders initially adopted a position of neutrality, the interests of prominent Cherokees and their white allies in racial slavery meant that the Cherokee people in both Indian Territory and North Carolina became embroiled in the war (Gammon 1977). Historians focus on these issues, drawing particularly on the rich archives of written documents left by prominent Cherokee leaders (Anderson 1931, Cunningham 1959, and Godbold and Russell 1990).
  1023.  
  1024. Anderson, Mabel W. The Life of General Stand Watie: The Only Indian Brigadier General of the Confederate Army and the Last General to Surrender. 2d ed. Pryor, OK: Mabel Anderson, 1931.
  1025.  
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027.  
  1028. Anderson’s biography of the Cherokee General Stand Watie was among the first in a long list of such studies. Anderson provides insights into Watie’s life, his aspirations, and his life as a soldier during the Civil War.
  1029.  
  1030. Find this resource:
  1031.  
  1032.  
  1033. Confer, Clarissa W. The Cherokee Nation in the Civil War. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2007.
  1034.  
  1035. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1036.  
  1037. Confer’s historical narrative focuses on Cherokee experiences during the Civil War in the trans-Mississippi West. Significantly, she broadens the scope of Cherokee studies by incorporating the experiences of ordinary Cherokees.
  1038.  
  1039. Find this resource:
  1040.  
  1041.  
  1042. Cunningham, Frank. General Stand Watie’s Confederate Indians. San Antonio, TX: Naylor, 1959.
  1043.  
  1044. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1045.  
  1046. Biography of Stand Watie and the proslavery Confederate Cherokees he led into battle. Reprinted Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998.
  1047.  
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049.  
  1050.  
  1051. Debo, Angie. “Southern Refugees of the Cherokee Nation.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 35.2 (1932): 255–266.
  1052.  
  1053. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1054.  
  1055. Analysis of the refugee crisis that plagued the Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory after the Civil War.
  1056.  
  1057. Find this resource:
  1058.  
  1059.  
  1060. Gammon, Tim. “Black Freedmen and the Cherokee Nation.” Journal of American Studies 11.3 (December 1977): 357–364.
  1061.  
  1062. DOI: 10.1017/S002187580000459XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1063.  
  1064. A study of the fate of Cherokee freedmen in the Cherokee Nation. Gammon pays particular attention to the precarious legal and social status of African Americans in the Cherokee Nation after the war.
  1065.  
  1066. Find this resource:
  1067.  
  1068.  
  1069. Godbold, E. Stanly, Jr., and Mattie U. Russell. Confederate Colonel and Cherokee Chief: The Life of William Holland Thomas. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1990.
  1070.  
  1071. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1072.  
  1073. Biography of William Holland Thomas, a white man adopted by the Cherokees during the early 19th century. Thomas led Cherokee warriors into battle in the South during the Civil War.
  1074.  
  1075. Find this resource:
  1076.  
  1077.  
  1078. Graves, William H. “The Five Civilized Tribes and the Beginning of the Civil War.” Journal of Cherokee Studies 10.2 (Fall 1985): 205–211.
  1079.  
  1080. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1081.  
  1082. A brief historical overview of the political positions of the Cherokees, Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, and Chickasaws just prior to the Civil War.
  1083.  
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085.  
  1086.  
  1087. Cherokee Biographies
  1088. Biographies of Cherokee leaders have proven popular among general and scholarly audiences. These studies cover the period from the late 18th century extending into the late 19th. Above all, these studies document the rise of a Western-educated, literate, and politically savvy Cherokee elite following the American Revolution (Moulton 1978; Parins 1991 and Parins 2006).
  1089.  
  1090. Moulton, Gary. John Ross, Cherokee Chief. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1978.
  1091.  
  1092. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1093.  
  1094. Moulton’s comprehensive study of John Ross’s life remains the best biography of the most important leader in 19th-century Cherokee history.
  1095.  
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097.  
  1098.  
  1099. Parins, James W. John Rollin Ridge: His Life and Works. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
  1100.  
  1101. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1102.  
  1103. A fine biography of John Rollin Ridge, the son of John Ridge and one of the Cherokee men who signed the Treaty of New Echota. Rollin Ridge spent most of his life in California.
  1104.  
  1105. Find this resource:
  1106.  
  1107.  
  1108. Parins, James W. Elias Cornelius Boudinot: A Life on the Cherokee Border. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
  1109.  
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111.  
  1112. An excellent biography of Elias Cornelius Boudinot, son of Elias Boudinot and one of the Cherokee men who signed the Treaty of New Echota. Elias Cornelius spent much of his adult life as a lawyer representing Cherokee interests in Washington, DC.
  1113.  
  1114. Find this resource:
  1115.  
  1116.  
  1117. Wilkins, Thurman. Cherokee Tragedy: The Ridge Family and the Decimation of a People. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1986.
  1118.  
  1119. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1120.  
  1121. A biographical study of the Ridge family and their rise and fall in Cherokee social and political life.
  1122.  
  1123. Find this resource:
  1124.  
  1125.  
  1126. Cherokee Women
  1127. One of the most productive areas of historical scholarship for the past generation has been the study of Cherokee women (Perdue 1998). These studies focus particularly on the 18th and 19th centuries and highlight changes in the social status and political influence of Cherokee women as the Cherokees moved toward a centralized form of governance at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century (Carney 2005, Johnston 2003).
  1128.  
  1129. Carney, Virginia M. Eastern Band Cherokee Women: Cultural Persistence in their Letters and Speeches. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2005.
  1130.  
  1131. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1132.  
  1133. A precious resource that allows readers into the literary and cultural worlds of Cherokee women. The focus on letters and oral narratives is particularly useful to understanding the maintenance of Cherokee traditions.
  1134.  
  1135. Find this resource:
  1136.  
  1137.  
  1138. Johnston, Carolyn Ross. Cherokee Women in Crisis: Trail of Tears, Civil War, and Allotment, 1838–1907. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2003.
  1139.  
  1140. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1141.  
  1142. Explores the lives of Cherokee women through the tumult of removal, the outbreak of the Civil War, and the trauma of allotment.
  1143.  
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145.  
  1146.  
  1147. McLoughlin, William G. “Cherokee Anomie, 1794–1890: New Roles for Red Men, Red Women, and Black Slaves.” In Uprooted Americans: Essays to Honor Oscar Handlin. Edited by Richard J. Bushman, Neil Harris, David Rothman, Barbara Miller Solomon, and Stephan Thernstrom, 125–160. Boston: Little, Brown, 1979.
  1148.  
  1149. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1150.  
  1151. A broad-ranging essay that focuses on Cherokee efforts to rebuild their social and political institutions, with a special focus on issues of gender and race.
  1152.  
  1153. Find this resource:
  1154.  
  1155.  
  1156. Mihesuah, Devon A. Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851–1909. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1998.
  1157.  
  1158. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1159.  
  1160. An important study that directed scholarly attention to the important role that Cherokee-run educational institutions had in shaping ideals of race and gender in the half century after the American Civil War.
  1161.  
  1162. Find this resource:
  1163.  
  1164.  
  1165. Miles, Tiya. “‘Circular Reasoning’: Recentering Cherokee Women in the Anti-removal Campaigns.” American Quarterly 61.2 (June 2009): 221–243.
  1166.  
  1167. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1168.  
  1169. An insightful piece of scholarship that redirects our attention to the important roles that Cherokee women played in the critique of removal policies.
  1170.  
  1171. Find this resource:
  1172.  
  1173.  
  1174. Perdue, Theda. Cherokee Women: Gender and Cultural Change, 1700–1835. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998.
  1175.  
  1176. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1177.  
  1178. A groundbreaking book that explored in rich details the history of Cherokee women.
  1179.  
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181.  
  1182.  
  1183. Perdue, Theda. “Mixed Blood” Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2003.
  1184.  
  1185. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1186.  
  1187. Based on a series of lectures by the author, the essays in this book address issues of race, gender, and sexuality in Cherokee history.
  1188.  
  1189. Find this resource:
  1190.  
  1191.  
  1192. Tucker, Norma. “Nancy Ward, Ghighau of the Cherokees.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 53.2 (June 1969): 192–200.
  1193.  
  1194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1195.  
  1196. A classic study of the Cherokee Beloved Woman Nancy Ward, or Nanyehi.
  1197.  
  1198. Find this resource:
  1199.  
  1200.  
  1201. Cherokee Language and Culture
  1202. The Cherokee were among the most literate people in 19th-century America. Sequoyah’s invention and popularization of the Cherokee syllabary, a phonetic language system, paved the way for a written Cherokee language (Cushman 2011). The Cherokee Phoenix (Tsalagi Tsulehisanvhi) newspaper (Bender 2002), first published in 1828, was the first American Indian newspaper in the United States. The Phoenix was published in both English and in Cherokee. Since then, efforts to keep the Cherokee language alive have remained an important part of Cherokee culture and identity (Justice 2006).
  1203.  
  1204. Bender, Margaret C. Signs of Cherokee Culture: Sequoyah’s Syllabary in Eastern Cherokee Life. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002.
  1205.  
  1206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207.  
  1208. Anthropological study of the significance of the syllabary in the cultural life of Eastern Cherokees.
  1209.  
  1210. Find this resource:
  1211.  
  1212.  
  1213. Cushman, Ellen. The Cherokee Syllabary: Writing the People’s Perseverance. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2011.
  1214.  
  1215. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1216.  
  1217. Ethnohistory of writing in Cherokee culture. Cushman details the origins and design of the syllabary, its transmission throughout Cherokee communities, its uses in written forms such as newspapers, and its retention and preservation in the 21st century.
  1218.  
  1219. Find this resource:
  1220.  
  1221.  
  1222. Hill, Sarah H. Weaving New Worlds: Southeastern Cherokee Women and their Basketry. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997.
  1223.  
  1224. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1225.  
  1226. A cultural history focused on women and the significance of traditional art forms like basketry.
  1227.  
  1228. Find this resource:
  1229.  
  1230.  
  1231. Justice, Daniel Heath. Our Fire Survives the Storm: A Cherokee Literary History. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006.
  1232.  
  1233. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1234.  
  1235. This outstanding literary analysis covers the 19th and 20th centuries, and engages with the writings of some of the most important Cherokee thinkers of the period.
  1236.  
  1237. Find this resource:
  1238.  
  1239.  
  1240. McLoughlin, William G. The Cherokee Ghost Dance: Essays on the Southeastern Indians, 1789–1861. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1984.
  1241.  
  1242. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1243.  
  1244. Original essays that explore the historical significance of the ghost dance movement among the Cherokees. McLoughlin draws on a small collection of surviving Primary Sources to present the “ghost dance” as an example of a “traditionalist” revival movement. That movement revived traditional Cherokee dance as a way of signaling opposition to the pressures of Anglo-American settler colonialism.
  1245.  
  1246. Find this resource:
  1247.  
  1248.  
  1249. Nelson, Joshua B. Progressive Traditions: Identity in Cherokee Literature and Culture. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
  1250.  
  1251. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1252.  
  1253. Literary analysis that addresses complex questions about the meaning of Cherokee identity.
  1254.  
  1255. Find this resource:
  1256.  
  1257.  
  1258. Power, Susan C. Art of the Cherokee: Prehistory to the Present. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2007.
  1259.  
  1260. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1261.  
  1262. A richly illustrated art history of the Cherokee people.
  1263.  
  1264. Find this resource:
  1265.  
  1266.  
  1267. Teuton, Christopher B. Cherokee Stories of the Turtle Island Liars’ Club. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.
  1268.  
  1269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1270.  
  1271. A study of gagoga, or Cherokee storytelling.
  1272.  
  1273. Find this resource:
  1274.  
  1275.  
  1276. Post-Removal Cherokees in North Carolina
  1277. The history of post-removal Cherokees in North Carolina focuses on the struggles of Cherokee people to eke out an existence amid continual encroachments from outsiders (Finger 1991); to safeguard their territorial holdings; and to maintain their cultural traditions and ceremonies (Neely 1991).
  1278.  
  1279. Finger, John R. “The Saga of Tsali: Legend Versus Reality.” North Carolina Historical Review 56.1 (1979): 1–18.
  1280.  
  1281. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1282.  
  1283. Analysis of the historical legend surrounding the Cherokee Tsali, often celebrated in Cherokee folklore for resisting federal troops during removal.
  1284.  
  1285. Find this resource:
  1286.  
  1287.  
  1288. Finger, John R. “The North Carolina Cherokees, 1838–1866: Traditionalism, Progressivism, and the Affirmation of State Citizenship.” Journal of Cherokee Studies 5 (Spring 1980): 17–29.
  1289.  
  1290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1291.  
  1292. A brief history of the Cherokees who remained in North Carolina in the generation after removal.
  1293.  
  1294. Find this resource:
  1295.  
  1296.  
  1297. Finger, John R. Cherokee Americans: The Eastern Band of Cherokees in the Twentieth Century. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1991.
  1298.  
  1299. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1300.  
  1301. A history of the Cherokees in the eastern half of the United States during the 20th century.
  1302.  
  1303. Find this resource:
  1304.  
  1305.  
  1306. Hobson, Geary, Janet McAdams, and Kathryn Walkiewicz, eds. The People who Stayed: Southeastern Indian Writing after Removal. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010.
  1307.  
  1308. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1309.  
  1310. Literary analysis that explores Native American experiences in the Southeast after removal.
  1311.  
  1312. Find this resource:
  1313.  
  1314.  
  1315. King, Duane H., ed. “Primary Accounts of the Tsali Incident.” Journal of Cherokee Studies 4 (Fall 1979): 213–233.
  1316.  
  1317. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1318.  
  1319. Reprinting of the competing narratives related to Tsali’s resistance to removal.
  1320.  
  1321. Find this resource:
  1322.  
  1323.  
  1324. Mooney, James. James Mooney’s History, Myths, and Sacred Formulas of the Cherokees. Washington, DC: Bureau of Ethnology, 1891.
  1325.  
  1326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1327.  
  1328. An invaluable collection of oral traditions assembled by the Smithsonian Institution’s James Mooney at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Although Mooney’s Cherokee informants told him what he wanted to hear or lied to protect sacred traditions, the anthology is a valuable historical resource. Reprinted Cherokee, NC: Cherokee, 2006.
  1329.  
  1330. Find this resource:
  1331.  
  1332.  
  1333. Neely, Sharlotte. Snowbird Cherokees: People of Persistence. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1991.
  1334.  
  1335. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1336.  
  1337. Ethnohistorical analysis of the Snowbird community, the name given to the Cherokee descendants of Native Americans in Graham County, North Carolina. This isolated Cherokee community is significant for the ways in which it reveals elements of cultural continuity and tradition, while also nurturing an adaptive culture that reflects influences from throughout the Atlantic world.
  1338.  
  1339. Find this resource:
  1340.  
  1341.  
  1342. Cherokees and the Allotment Era
  1343. Cherokee lawyers and political leaders mounted a prolonged and skillful campaign against the allotment process (Genetin-Pilawa 2012), the breakup of communally held lands into individual land allotments based on one’s Native American “blood quantum,” during the final decades of the 19th century and first decade of the 20th (McDonnell 1991). Historians have drawn on a vast archive of written documents to construct a vivid picture of the Cherokee struggle against allotment and the dismantling of their sovereignty at the hands of the federal government (Bloom 2002, Hagan 2003).
  1344.  
  1345. Bloom, Khaled J. “An American Tragedy of the Commons: Land and Labor in the Cherokee Nation, 1870–1900.” Agricultural History 76.3 (Summer 2002): 497–523.
  1346.  
  1347. DOI: 10.1525/ah.2002.76.3.497Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1348.  
  1349. Bloom focuses on the impact of allotment on Cherokee socioeconomic life in Indian Territory. Emphasizing how Cherokee people held land in common, Bloom reveals how the American political campaign to divide communally held lands into individual allotments was informed by a belief that communal landholding was incompatible with American settler expansion.
  1350.  
  1351. Find this resource:
  1352.  
  1353.  
  1354. Genetin-Pilawa, C. Joseph. Crooked Paths to Allotment: The Fight over Federal Indian Policy after the Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.
  1355.  
  1356. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1357.  
  1358. One of the best histories of the allotment era, with attention given to the Cherokees, and prescient insights into the federal government’s shifts in policy.
  1359.  
  1360. Find this resource:
  1361.  
  1362.  
  1363. Hagan, William T. Taking Indian Lands: The Cherokee (Jerome) Commission, 1889–1893. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003.
  1364.  
  1365. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1366.  
  1367. A detailed study of the Jerome Commission’s efforts to acquire land from the Cherokees and the breakup of communal landholdings.
  1368.  
  1369. Find this resource:
  1370.  
  1371.  
  1372. McDonnell, Janet A. The Dispossession of the American Indian, 1887–1934. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991.
  1373.  
  1374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1375.  
  1376. Reveals the magnitude of the loss and suffering caused by the Dawes Commission, the federal commission authorized by an act of the United States Congress in 1893 to collect the names and establish the “blood quantum” of the Cherokee, Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Seminole Indians, for the purpose of allotting lands to individual Native American people and terminating tribal governments.
  1377.  
  1378. Find this resource:
  1379.  
  1380.  
  1381. Stremlau, Rose. Sustaining the Cherokee Family: Kinship and the Allotment of an Indigenous Nation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
  1382.  
  1383. DOI: 10.5149/9780807869109_stremlauSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1384.  
  1385. A stunningly original history of Cherokees striving to cultivate families and revivify kinship bonds.
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