Japanese Presence in Latin America (Latin American Studies)

Introduction

Although no consensus exists, one study argues that trans-Pacific contact or trade might have occurred as early as 1200 CE through shipwrecks or deliberate navigation to the coast of California by Japanese fishermen and sailors. The same study also points to linguistic and genetic similarities between the Japanese and the Zuni of New Mexico. In general, such theories have failed to gain wide acceptance and strong evidence for such early contact continues to elude scholars. What is known is that during Japan’s feudal era (1185–1868 CE), emigration was strictly forbidden. Nonetheless, scholarship exists depicting a small and limited number of Japanese immigrating in New Spain or during the colonial period contrary to Japanese law. Stronger and more widely accepted evidence for the movement of Japanese to the Americas is seen in the late 19th century. The Meiji period (1868–1912) and its rapid changes in domestic and foreign policy provided the circumstances for Japanese emigration to Latin America. This transformative period rapidly changed Japan, causing not only development but also high unemployment and displacement, especially for those in the rural areas. Seeking economic opportunities, an initial group of Japanese immigrants went to Hawaii in 1868, but due to poor treatment the Meiji government forbade any additional Japanese to emigrate. This lull in Japanese emigration lasted for a couple decades, when in 1885 the governments of Japan and Hawaii reached an agreement to send Japanese to Hawaii under better conditions and treatment. By the late 19th century and early 20th century Japan embarked on two types of colonization: the first included military and civilian occupation such as those that occurred in Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan; and the second involved movement of Japanese subjects to such places as the Americas where colonization was not occupation, but a form of settlement focused on strengthening Japan through commerce and remittances. In these early stages, the United States, Canada, and Mexico became the primary destinations for Japanese immigrants. However, as anti-Japanese sentiments developed in the early 20th century, especially in the United States and Canada, Japanese searched for alternative locations. Japanese emigration to Latin America during the 20th century is broken into four phases: one, pre–World War II, where the movement of Japanese to Latin America is significant and permanent communities are created; two, World War II and the return of Japanese back to Japan; three, postwar resumption of emigration; four, the phenomenon known as dekasegi migration of Nikkei Latin Americans to Japan.

General Overviews

According to some, the indigenous population of the Americas is of Asiatic origins. If this is accurate, Asians have occupied the Western Hemipshere for nearly 50,000 years. However, this western-centric belief counters indigenous creation stories that place them in this hemisphere not through migration, but by intervention through their various deities and spiritual beliefs. Putting aside these two competing positions, it is clear that Asians have played an important role in the history of the Western Hemisphere and are not “newcomers,” but arrived first in small numbers, during the 17th century. If the Manila galleons provided the initial small steps for the movement of Japanese to a region long occupied by humanity but newly “discovered” by Europeans, the modern period, with all its complexities, ushered in one the largest movements of people in history. The Western Hemisphere became the destination of choice for millions after 1492, including five million Asians. The imposition placed on Japan by Western imperialism in the 19th century forced Japan to reconfigure its society, emigration a by-product of this restructuring. The first official movement of Japanese immigrants in Latin America occurred in 1897 when thirty-four Japanese arrived at Puerto Madero (now Puerto Benito) off the coast of Chiapas, Mexico in an attempt to establish coffee plantations. This was quickly followed by Japanese immigrants arriving in Peru in 1899. By the early 20th century Japanese immigrants were finding their way to Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and in smaller numbers to the countries that make up the Caribbean and Central America. Scholars have provided a constant flow of studies to understand the process of Japanese emigration to Latin America. The following are examples of best general works produced taking a broad approach to the movement of Japanese to the Western Hemisphere.

English Language Studies

Azuma 2003 focuses on re-envisioning the role of Japanese immigrants, especially the Issei during the early 20th century. For a good examination, although controversial, of possible Japanese contact in the Americas before the Columbus voyages see Davis 2001. Endoh 2009 examines Japanese policies promoting emigration during the formative years of Japanese immigration. For a general understanding of the movement of immigrants in Latin America, Moya 2006 provides an excellent analysis of a variety of groups. For an understanding of the movement of Japanese to Latin America, Masterson and Classen 2003 provides a broad historical approach to the movement of Japaense to Latin America, as does Montiel 1981. Hirabayashi and Hu-DeHart 2002 and Fojas and Guevarra 2012 expand the discussion of Japanese and Asians in the Americas through a transnational and transcultural perspective.

Azuma, Eiichiro. “The Politics of Transnational History Making: Japanese Immigrants on the Western ‘Frontier,’ 1927–1941.” Journal of American History 89.4 (March 2003): 1–58.
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This fascinating paper examines and interprets Japanese history in North America through the writings of the Issei. It argues that early historians of Japanese in North America tended to write a collective history through the collaboration of various groups and individuals as a form of resistance to their condition. This article also provides insight to the motives of Japanese imperialism and the desire to send immigrants overseas.
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Davis, Nancy Yaw. The Zuni Enigma: A Native People’s Possible Japanese Connection. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001.
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This volume argues that Japanese migrated to what is today California around 1200 CE. The author examines linguistic and genetic similarities between Japanese and the Zuni tribe of New Mexico. The author also studies commonalities in religious and creation beliefs to suggest contact. In general such theories of early contact have not gained wide traction, but this volume provides an intriguing possibility.
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Endoh, Taoke. Exporting Japan: The Politics of Emigration in Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009.
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This book examines the domestic origins of the Japanese government’s policies to promote the emigration of approximately 300,000 native Japanese citizens to Latin America between the 1890s and the 1960s. This is an important source to understand Japan’s desire to send immigrants abroad.
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Fojas, Camilla, and Rudy Guevarra. Transnational Crossroads: Remapping the Americas and the Pacific. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012.
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The essays bring to the forefront a global perspective on US imperialism in the Americas and the Pacific. The essays are also transnational and comparative regarding race and racial formations, and Asian migration to the Americas. Those looking for a source to compare and contrast various Asian groups and their experiences in the Americas will find this volume useful.
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Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, and Evelyn Hu-DeHart, eds. Special Issue: Asians in the Americas: Transculturations and Power. Amerasia Journal 28.2 (2002).
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This volume is co-edited by two of the leading scholars on Japanese and Chinese in the Americas, respectively. The volume examines the Asian experience in the Americas. Groups covered include Chinese in Panama, Indians to New Spain, Chinese in the Caribbean, Japanese in Cuba, teaching the Asian experiences in Latin America and the Caribbean, and a selected bibliography from 1990–2002.
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Masterson, Daniel M., and Sayaka Funada Classen. The Japanese in Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
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This study is a broad examination of the general Japanese experience in Latin America that includes Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. The smaller Japanese communities in Latin America are also explored and include Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Colombia, Central America, and Cuba. This book will be of use for those looking for a basic understanding of the Japanese experience in Latin America.
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Montiel, Luz Maria Martinez. Asiatic Migration in Latin America. Mexico City: Colegio de Mexico, 1981.
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This collection of essays examines Asian immigration in Latin America. Japanese emigration is covered in São Paulo, Brazil and the movement into Mexico. Included in this collection are essays on Chinese immigration to Sonora, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Cuba. Other groups discussed are Syrian Jews in Mexico, Lebanese in Mexico and in Tucuman, Argentina, and East Indians in the British Caribbean.
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Moya, José C., ed. “A Continent of Immigrants: Postcolonial Shifts in the Western Hemisphere.” Hispanic American Historical Review 86.1 (February 2006): 1–28.
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This special issue on immigration and the nation studies the movement of various groups to Latin America, primarily European. However, the introductory article by José Moya, “A Continent of Immigrants: Postcolonial Shifts in the Western Hemisphere,” offers insightful discussion regarding shifts that encouraged mass migration to the Americas.
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Spanish Language Studies

Spanish language sources provide excellent information on the debate and need for immigrants in particular Latin American countries. Romero 1911 is an excellent early source for the debate within Mexico and other regions of Latin America regarding Asian immigrants. Navarro 1960 examines Mexico and the development of colonization schemes and the pros and cons of Japanese immigration in Mexico. Yanagida and Rodríguez del Alisal 1992 also provides excellent information on the movement of Japanese to various points in Latin America.

Navarro, Moisés González. La colonización en México, 1877–1910. Mexico City: Talleres de Impresión de Estampillas y Valores, 1960.
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This book is a three-chapter study on the role of colonization in the development of Mexico during the late 19th and first half of the 20th century. The study provides insight as to why Mexico wanted immigrants, but also the problems encountered with immigrant groups. There is a discussion on Chinese and Japanese immigration in chapter 2 (pp. 37–94).
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Romero, José María. Comisión de Inmigración: Encargado de estudiar la influencia social y económica de la inmigración Asiática en México. Mexico City: Imprenta de A. Carranza E Hijos, 1911.
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This early-20th-century survey is divided into three parts. Part 1 covers the economic situation in Mexico and Latin America and the impact of immigration. Part 2 examines the movement of immigrants from various places of the globe and studies their characteristics and establishment of colonies. Part 3 provides insight into Asian immigration to Mexico, primarily from China and Japan.
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Yanagida, Toshio, and María Dolores Rodríguez del Alisal. Japoneses en América. Madrid: Editorial MAPFRE, 1992.
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Pioneering study on Japanese immigration in the Western Hemisphere, including Latin America and with emphasis on Peru, Mexico, the United States, and Canada. Discusses anti-Japanese movements and complications arising out of World War II.
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Japanese Language Studies

The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) specializes in providing assistance to developing countries, and the Japan International Cooperation Agency-Research Institute (JICA-RI) is the research component of JICA. JICA and JICA-RI should be consulted for a large array of studies on Japanese immigration in Latin America. Of special interest is Iju Kenkyu (Migration Research), located within JICA-RI. Both of these websites should be consulted for article-length studies on Japanese emigration to Latin America. Kodama 1992 provides one of the best broad examinations of Japanese in Latin America. This detailed study covers nearly every aspect of Japanese immigration history during the late 19th and first half of the 20th century.

Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
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JICA is an international assistance, development, and relief agency. JICA’s reach is global, and the agency seeks to end poverty through equitable growth. Such a vision requires an extensive network of agencies and cooperation with numerous global entities. A fundamental element of JICA is its research component: Japanese International Cooperation Agency-Research Institute.
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Japan International Cooperation Agency-Research Institute.
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Through the establishment of the JICA-Research Institute, information gained in the field is put to work, building broad networks of academics from Japan and elsewhere around the world to create new knowledge. Within this website, numerous studies on immigration in Latin America can be found as well as studies on the return migration of Nikkei to Japan.
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Kodama Masaaki. Nihon imin-shi kenkyu josetsu. Hiroshima, Japan: Keisui-sha, 1992.
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This study consists of three parts and twelve chapters. Part 1 examines Japanese contract labor; Part 2 studies immigration companies; Part 3 explores Japanese immigration during the later part of the Meiji period. Overall, this volume is richly detailed and informative with a broad perspective on Japanese immigration. (Title translation: Introduction to the study of Japanese immigration history.)
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Bibliographies

Bibliographies on Japanese immigration have primarily been developed by US-based scholars. No Spanish or Japanese language bibliographies were found. Nevertheless, the bibliographies below are excellent resources. Chu 2002 provides a partially annotated Asian bibliography that includes the Japanese diaspora. Another pan-Asian bibliography is Lamgen 1990, which also includes the Caribbean. Kikumura-Yano 2002 is an impressive and large encyclopedia that includes a bibliography for each country discussed with sources from English, Spanish, Portuguese, and Japanese languages, with the majority of the case studies from Latin America. Latin America and Japan: A Bibliography is a very useful biblography created by students in 1975 that has circulated widely and is easily accessible at the Latin American Studies Center, California State University Los Angeles. Smith, et al. 1967 is a country-specific bibliography on Brazil. Although older, it contains excellent sources in English and Portuguese. Tàpies Avila 2011 is included because this piece examines articles published on Japanese immigration over a forty-year period in International Migration Review.

Chu, Clara M. “Asians in Latin America: A Selected Bibliography, 1990–2002.” Amerasia Journal 28.2 (2002): 235–245.
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A collection of 1,000 titles organized by country and alphabetically. The bibliography is partially annotated and includes studies on Asians in general, Chinese, Japanese, East Indians, Javanese, and Koreans.
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Kikumura-Yano, Akemi, ed. Encyclopedia of Japanese Descendants in the Americas: An Illustrated History of the Nikkei. New York: AltaMira, 2002.
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A comprehensive guide to the history of Japanese immigrants in the Western Hemisphere. This volume examines the Nikkei as they settled in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, and the United States. Each chapter provides four primary areas of information: a historical overview, a bibliographic essay, an annotated bibliography, and supplementary materials including demographic data and rare historical photographs.
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Lamgen, Leon. Asians in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Bibliography. Asian/American Center Working Paper Series. New York: Asian/American Center, Queens College, 1990.
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A bibliography containing over 1,000 titles, but not annotated. Works are arranged alphabetically according to country, and within each country alphabetically by national group.
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“Latin America and Japan: A Bibliography.” Latin American Studies Center, California State University Los Angeles, 1975.
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This is a nineteen-page bibliography created by students who took an advanced course to fulfill a graduation degree. Although somewhat dated, it nevertheless provides solid bibliographical material for students looking for materials of Japanese–Latin American foreign relations, Japanese–Latin American economic history, and the movement of Japanese to Latin America. This bibliography is not annotated.
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Smith, Robert J., Hiroshi Saito, John B. Cornell, and Takashi Maeyama. The Japanese and Their Descendants in Brazil: An Annotated Bibliography. São Paulo, Brazil: Centro de Estudos Nipo-Brasileiros, 1967.
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A 188-page bibliography with sources in Japanese, Portuguese, and English. Includes material on anti-Japanese sentiment and Japanese secret societies. Additional material includes the themes of emigration and immigration.
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Tàpies Avila, R. “Japan and International Migration: A Literature Review of the Articles of the International Migration Review (IMR).” Monitoring the Economy and Society of Japan 3.10 (January 2011): 1–17.
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This article examines Japanese migration in general from a historical-structural perspective, and then analyzes the thirteen articles written by different authors between 1969 and 2002. The following topics are addressed: Japanese foreign emigration to America, labor immigration in Japan, the formation of transnational communities and ethnic relations involving Japanese or their descendants.
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Colonial Era

The movement of Europeans to the Americas through conquest and eventual settlement created the infrastructure for the exploitation of the natural resources of the region as well as the development of enterprises that instigated the migration of peoples from throughout the world during the lengthy colonial period. This was particularly true for the Spanish and Portuguese as they carved out their colonial empires, developed mining and agricultural industries, and introduced wage labor and slavery. The presence of Japanese during this era is small but visible through a variety of studies that examine not the emigration of Japanese per se, but the foreign relations between the colonial entity of New Spain and Japan. A consequence of these foreign relations in the early colonial era was a brief commercial enterprise between New Spain and Japan that resulted in the small movement of Japanese to the Americas. The books and articles that follow under this section provide ample evidence of the presence of Japanese during the colonial period, contradicting the long-held belief that no Japanese traveled abroad due to Japanese restrictions. Individuals conducting research on Asians prior to the 19th centry will find these sources very valuable.

English Language Studies

Two older studies are representative of early attempts to analyze colonial relations between Spanish-speaking America and Japan. Dixon 1911 and Murakami 1917 provide insight to Japanese relations with New Spain and the early migration of Japanese to Americas during the colonial period. Reyes and Palacios 2011 provides more recent scholarship and some the best evidence of the settlement of Japanese in Mexico.

Dixon, James M. “Early Mexican and Californian Relations with Japan.” Annual Publication of the Historical Society of Southern California 8.3 (1911): 217–227.
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This article addresses early commercial and trade relations between New Spain and Japan during the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
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Murakami, Naojiro. “Japan’s Early Attempts to Establish Commercial Relations with Mexico.” In The Pacific Ocean in History. Edited by H. Morse Stephens and Herbert E. Bolton, 467–480. New York: Macmillan, 1917.
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This study examines the early attempts by Japan to begin trade and relations with Mexico (New Spain) in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The study provides solid information on Japan’s and Spain’s ultimately failed attempt to forge relations. The article also briefly discusses the first Japanese merchants that went to Mexico in 1610.
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Reyes, Melba Falck, and Hector Palacios. “Japanese Merchants in the 17th Century Guadalajara.” Revista Iberoamericana 22.2 (2011): 191–237.
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Addresses the arrival of two Japanese entrepreneurs who joined Guadalajara society as administrators and tax collectors for the Catholic Church. Also provides evidence of the arrival of Japanese to Mexico during colonial era.
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Spanish Language Studies

Scholarship in the Spanish language also examines the early contacts between New Spain and Japan. Lera 1905, Ortega 1923, Cruz 1964, and Akasaka 1971 all study the development of commercial and diplomatic relations between New Spain and Japan. A departure from these earlier studies is Calvo 1983, which examines the same period but provides a more critical examination by analyzing the concept of whiteness and how in this particular case-study Japanese were seen as part of the higher echelons of Spanish colonial society.

Akasaka, José Kouichi Oizumi. Japón y Mexico: Intercambio comercial-diplomático entre el Japón y la Nueva España. Mexico City: Editorial Letras, S.A., 1971.
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The study contains important information on Japanese diplomacy and early attempts to open up Japan as well as the small movement of Japanese to New Spain. This 132-page study contains a 2-page bibliography. Overall this book provides information on contact between Japan and New Spain during a period when it was believed that little contact occurred between the two entities.
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Calvo, Thomas. “Japoneses en Guadalajara: “Blanco de honor” durante el seiscientos Mexicano.” Revista de Indias 43.172 (1983): 533–547.
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Addresses the small contingent of Japanese residing in Guadalajara during the 17th century and their integration into colonial society based on markers of whiteness. This scholarship provides additional evidence for the early movement of Japanese to Mexico and the Spanish colonial empire.
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Cruz, Francisco Santiago. Relaciones diplomáticas entre la Nueva España y el Japón. Mexico City: Editorial Jus, S.A. México, 1964.
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This is a history of relations between Mexico and Japan during the 17th and 18th centuries. This text tracks the first attempt of diplomatic and commercial interchange at the beginning of the 17th century and its antecedents regarding the early trips from Europe to Japan in the middle of 16th century.
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Lera, C. A. Primeras relaciones oficiales entre el Japón y España tocantes a México. Tokyo: n.p., 1905.
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Early scholarship describing contact between Japan and New Spain. A book composed of three parts that primarily examines Japanese society from its economic infrastructure, trade, and transportation. However, the first part examines Japan’s relations with Spain and Mexico (New Spain) during the late 16th century.
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Ortega, Ángel Núñez. Noticia histórica de las relaciones políticas y comerciales entre Mexico y el Japón, durante el siglo XVII. Mexico City: Publicaciones de la Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, 1923.
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Provides an examination of the objectives of the embassy sent to Japan by the Viceroy Don Luis de Velasco, the results of it, the difficulties encountered, and the circumstances in which it occurred. The author also addresses the commercial movement between New Spain and Japan.
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Postcolonial Era

The postcolonial migration of Japanese in Latin America has received much attention, especially since the 1990s. The Japanese are part of the mass migration of peoples to the Western Hemisphere after much of Latin America gained independence in the early 19th century. The books and articles in this section are a broad examination of the Japanese in Latin America. Most attempt a synthesis leaving country-specific studies to others. One major theme that emerges in these studies is an analysis of the Nikkei, people of Japanese descent and their descendants. The Nikkei are an important barometer of the experiences and achievements of the Japanese diaspora in the Americas, so their history and lived experience provide a crucial understanding of the Japanese and their host country. Also included in this section are journals that specifically examine the Japanese diaspora or the Japanese experience in the Americas. The fact that there are specific journals dedicated to the dissemination of information on Japanese in the Americas indicates a strong interest in this group and the significance of the various fields that explore the impact of Japanese in the Americas. Finally, online sources have become an excellent source of information, especially websites dedicated to the dissemination and preservation of the Japanese experience in the Americas. All of the websites are layered with additional information to lead scholars, students, and the general population into multiple directions that cater to specific needs.

English Language Studies

Masterson and Funada-Classen 2004 provides an overview of the movement of Japanese to Latin America by examining a significant number of Latin American countries and their Japanese population. Adachi 2010, Befu 2010, and the Discover Nikkei: Japanese Migrants and Their Descendants website are representations of scholarship and general information moving beyond just a historical analysis. Rather, a strong focus is on the post–World War II experience and the Nikkei, not only in their host country in Latin America, but also the movement back to Japan by many Latin American individuals of Japanese descent (see Nikkei in Japan). Rustomji-Kerns 1999 is a broad analysis of Asians in the Americas but provides insightful information by using a multidisciplinary approach to the understanding of Asians in the Americas. Amerasia Journal: Asian American/Pacific Islander/Transcultural Studies is the flagship journal for the Asian American experience (Japanese American) in the Americas. However, this journal defines “American” in a very broad sense, which also includes the dissemination of information on Japanese in Latin America. Articles published in this journal are accessible online and in print. PAN-JAPAN: The International Journal of the Japanese diaspora is the only journal in existence that dedicates itself to publishing articles on the Japanese diaspora at the global level. Densho is a website the preserves the memory of Japanese incarcerated in the Americas during World War II. This site provides excellent primary sources for scholars examining the Japanese experience prior to and during World War II.

Adachi, Nobuko, ed. Japanese and Nikkei at Home and Abroad: Negotiating Identities in a Global World. Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2010.
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The book’s major focus is on the ethnic identity of post–World War II Japanese transnational migrants and Nikkei. Among the topics are transnational migrants in post–World War II global society, reforming Japanese cultural values in a Brazilian forest, the transnational networking of people of Japanese descent, and Latino transnational culture and identity in greater Tokyo.
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Amerasia Journal: Asian American/Pacific Islander/Transcultural Studies. 1971–.
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Established in 1971 and considered the leading interdisciplinary journal in Asian American Studies. This journal has published many articles that examine the Japanese experience in Latin America. University of California at Los Angeles.
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Befu, Harumi. “Japanese Transnational Migration in Time and Space: An Historical Overview.” In Japanese and Nikkei at Home and Abroad: Negotiating Identities in a Global World. Edited by Nobuko Adachi. New York: Cambria, 2010, 31–50.
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Provides an overview of the historical development of Japanese transnational migration. Three major historical periods are covered. Argues that Japanese transnational migration is not new but originated in the mid-14th century. The article also examines gender aspects of transnational migration.
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Densho.
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This website has an extensive archive with digitized oral histories. It also contains a large array of bibliographical material and articles on the Japanese experience. This site is very useful for those seeking information on the overall Japanese experience in the Americas. The site has a section on Japanese in Latin America.
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Discover Nikkei: Japanese Migrants and Their Descendants.
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Discover Nikkei is an international network that celebrates cultural diversity and explores both global and local identities. The project connects generations and communities by sharing stories and perspectives of the Nikkei, people of Japanese descent who have migrated and settled throughout the world.
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Masterson, Daniel M., and Sayaka Funada-Classen. The Japanese in Latin America. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2004.
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This study is a broad examination of the general Japanese experience in Latin America that includes Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. The smaller Japanese communities within Latin America are also explored, including those in Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Chile, Colombia, Central America, and Cuba. This book will be of use for those looking for a basic understanding of the Japanese experience in Latin America.
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PAN-JAPAN: The International Journal of the Japanese Diaspora. 2000–.
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Established in 2000, the journal aims to develop research on the “Japanese diaspora,” the spread of people of Japanese ancestry or origin throughout the world. This journal studies the migration of Japanese people across the world’s boundaries. Perspectives take the range from the sociological to the political, from the legal to the economic. Historical and current contexts are addressed, and multidisciplinary approaches are examined. Illinois State University.
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Rustomji-Kerns, Roshni, Rajini Srikanth, and Leny Mendoza Strobel. Encounters: People of Asian Descent in the Americas. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999.
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This insightful collection of articles examines the experiences of individuals of Asian descent. The various essays explore the creation of multicultural and multiethnic societies in both North and South America. The various authors use personal stories, diaries, and literary and artistic works to bring out the voices of groups and individuals of Asian background in their respective countries in the Western Hemisphere.
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Japanese Language Studies

Although not plentiful, scholarship in Japanese has also contributed to the understanding of the movement of Japanese at the global and Western Hemispheric perspective. Kodama 1992 is one of the best examples to discuss, from a macro perspective, the development of Japanese emigration. Tasato 1989 is also broad in that it examines the movement of Okinawans to various locations throughout Latin America.

Kodama Masaaki. Nihon imin-shi kankyu josetsu. Hiroshima, Japan: Keisui-sha, 1992.
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This volume provides a comprehensive survey of Japanese immigration at the global level. This study goes into great detail regarding the regulation of Japanese emigration from Japan, recruitment activities of immigration companies, domestic factors, population conditions, and analyzes the various prefectures that sent the most Japanese overseas. (Title translation: Introduction to the study of Japanese immigration history.)
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Tasato Yūtetsu. Nanbei ni okeru Okinawa-ken shusshin imin ni kansuru chirigakuteki kenkyū. Naha-shi, Japan: Ryūkyū Daigaku Hōbun Gakubu Chirigaku Kyōshitsu, 1989.
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The paper studies the Ryukyuans (Okinawans) in Latin America. The report provides information on the history and countries of destination for Okinawan immigrants. (Title translation: A research report on the Okinawan immigrants in Latin America.)
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Japanese Diaspora Studies

This section includes scholarship and online sources that specifically examine Japanese (Asians) in Latin America from diasporic perspective. The examination of Japanese in the Americas as a diaspora is an outgrowth in the development of scholarship examining the Japanese experience, especially in the Western Hemisphere. Although literature on Japanese in the Americas is nearly 500 years old, it has been only since the 1980s that scholars have begun to conceptualize Japanese as a diasporic community. Using an abbreviated definition from Parrenas and Siu 2007, diaspora in the context of the Asian experience refers to “displacement from the homeland under the nexus of unequal global political and economic system; the simultaneous experience of alienation and the maintenance of affiliation to both country of residence and the homeland; and the sense of collective consciousness and connectivity with other people displaced from the homeland across the diasporic terrain (pp. 1–2).” Anderson and Lee 2005 provides additional theoretical grounding for the examination of Japanese as a diasporic community. Two chapters are devoted to the concept of displacement and diaspora; Jeffrey Lesser’s chapter specifically examines the Nikkei in Brazil and their transnational experiences. The contributing authors in Adachi 2006 provide a broad overview on Japanese diasporas that include countries in South America. Hirabayashi, et al. 2002 examines the Japanese from a global and diasporic perspective. The large collection of essays provides further evidence that the Japanese in the Americas resemble a diaspora. Hu-DeHart and López 2008, introducing another collection of essays, submits a similar argument by using case studies on Japanese communities in Latin America and the Caribbean. Takenaka 2009 and Takenaka, et al. 2010 provide evidence that the Japanese communities exhibit many characteristics of a diasporic community that includes a strong attachment to the “homeland,” whether real or imagined. Diásporas de Asia Oriental provides excellent information on Japanese communities in Latin America with its emphasis on diasporic communities.

Adachi, Nobuko, ed. Japanese Diasporas: Unsung Pasts, Conflicting Presents, and Uncertain Futures. London: Routledge, 2006.
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This is a collection of fifteen essays broken into three parts. Many of the leading scholars on Japanese in the Americas contribute to this collection. Especially noteworthy are the chapters that examine the rationalization for the movement of Japanese abroad. Chapters that examine the Latin American experience specifically address Brazil, Peru, and Japanese Latin Americans during World War II.
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Anderson, Wanni W., and Robert G. Lee, eds. Displacements and Diasporas: Asians in the Americas. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2005.
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The essays explore the experiences of Asians across the Americas and how they have been shaped by the social dynamics and politics of settlement locations as much as by transnational connections and the economic forces of globalization. Together the essays provide a valuable comparative portrait of Asians across the Americas. Engaging issues of diaspora, transnational social practice and community building, gender, identity, and institutionalized racism.
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Diásporas de Asia Oriental.
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This is a Spanish/English website that examines the movement of Japanese to Latin America and the movement of Nikkei back to Japan. Contains a digital archive with interviews and a general history of Japanese in the Americas with special emphasis on Brazil.
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Hirabayashi, Lane Ryo, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James A. Hirabayashi, eds. New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and the People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America to Japan. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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An extensive collection of essays brought together under the editorial guidance of leading scholars of Japanese in the Americas. This edited volume contains twenty essays with nine specifically examining the Japanese experience in Latin America. The volume also contains essays studying the dekasegi phenomenon or the movement of Nikkei back to Japan. The volume is multidisciplinary.
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Hu-DeHart, Evelyn, and Kathleen López. “Asian Diasporas in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Historical Overview.” In Special Issue: Afro-Asia. Edited by Evelyn Hu-DeHart and Kathleen López. Afro-Hispanic Review 27.1 (Spring 2008): 9–21.
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This special issue contains seventeen articles and this introduction by the guest editors. The collection studies the movement of three Asian groups—East Indian, Chinese, and the Japanese—to Latin America and the Caribbean. The introduction provides and excellent overview and context for the articles within this special issue. An important collection due to region and locations, especially the Caribbean.
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Parrenas, Rachel S., and Lok C. D. Siu, eds. Asian Diasporas: New Formations, New Conceptions. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.
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This volume contains an introduction and twelve essays studying Asian diasporas from the global perspective and the emergence of Asians outside of the United States. The chapters are primarily historical and ethnographic in nature and move beyond the theoretical approaches by discussing the everyday lived experiences of those impacted by displacement and their interaction within the framework of the host and sending countries.
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Takenaka, Ayumi. “How Diasporic Ties Emerge: Pan-American Nikkei Communities and the Japanese State.” Ethnic & Racial Studies 32.8 (October 2009): 1325–1345.
DOI: 10.1080/01419870701719055Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper examines the development of global ethnic ties, focusing on pan-American Nikkei activities among later-generation descendants of Japanese immigrants. One of the major arguments found in this paper states that Japanese descendants have cultivated diasporic ties not because of marginalization or victimization, but because of their elevated social status and assimilation in the host society.
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Takenaka, Ayumi, Kasten Paerregaard, and Ulla Berg. “Peruvian Migration in a Global Context.” Latin American Perspectives 37.5 (2010): 3–11.
DOI: 10.1177/0094582X10379102Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This issue of Latin American Perspectives contains an introduction and seven essays analyzing the emigration of Peruvians to other regions of the globe. Since the 1990s an increasing number of Peruvians have immigrated to regions as far as Spain and Japan. There are currently an estimated 60,000 Peruvians of Japanese ancestry living in Japan.
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Argentina

Like in many places in the Americas, a small, rather insignificant number of Japanese resided in Argentina before the 20th century. The first official movement of Japanese immigrants began to arrive in 1908–1909 via Brazil. This initial group, from Okinawa and Kagoshima prefecture, became disenchanted with Brazil after their work contracts expired and struck out for Argentina with the hopes of a better future and opportunities. The Japanese movement to Argentina represented a small fraction of the total immigrants arriving into the country during the early 20th century. Nevertheless, the movement of Japanese can also be seen as a by-product of the anti-Japanese movement in North America with Argentina representing an alternative location. Early settlers found employment as manual laborers, but by the second decade of the 20th century a pattern of self-employment emerged. The majority of the Japanese population lived in a handful of Argentine provinces that included Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Santa Fe, Corrientes, and Mendoza. By the beginning of the 1920s, nearly 2,000 Japanese resided in the country. By the outbreak of World War II, the population of Japanese had increased to nearly 6,000. By most accounts the impact of WWII on the Japanese population in Argentina was negligible primarily due to the neutrality of Argentina, which did not declare war on Japan until January 1945. Furthermore, the majority of the Japanese Argentine population was well embedded within society; as a result, there was no movement to repatriate back to Japan during or after the war. The postwar years brought economic and social prosperity to the Japanese in Argentina with multiple generations having been born since the early 20th century. The population of Argentinians of Japanese ancestry reached its zenith in the late 1980s, when it reached roughly 46,000. However, as Argentina suffered through a variety of economic crises during the late 20th century, the Japanese population experienced dwindling opportunities and a decline in its population. One of the causes for the decline in the population has been the return of many Japanese Argentinians to Japan as temporary workers known as dekasegi. In the early 21st century there are approximately 35,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry residing in Argentina.

English Language Studies

Overall, there is a limited amount of scholarship on the Japanese community in Argentina in the English language. In fact, there is no book-length study on Japanese Argentinians in the English language. This is likely due to the small population. Tigner 1967, Eidt 1968, and Tigner 1981 pioneered much of the early scholarship on the Japanese in Argentina. However, since the late 20th century interest in the Japanese population has increased and is represented by the work of Imai 1997 and Marcelo 2002.

Eidt, Robert C. “Japanese Agricultural Colonization: A New Attempt at Land Opening in Argentina.” Economic Geography 44.1 (January 1968): 1–20.
DOI: 10.2307/143340Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines Japanese emigration to Argentina during the post–World War II period. This article explores the semi-official organization known as Kaigai Kyokai Kabushiki (Federation of Overseas Associations, Inc.) that recruited and provided transportation for immigrants, purchased land, and helped in developing the infrastructure for settlement projects. A very useful article that provides a historical background to the movement of Japanese to Argentina.
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Imai, Keiko. Japanese Immigrants in Argentina. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Japanese Institute, 1997.
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Studies the movement of Japanese to Argentina and argues that based on Argentinian immigration policies those who arrived were considerably different from those who emigrated to Brazil or Peru. The article analyzes the structure of economic activities of Japanese immigrants and their descendants, focusing on commerce and manufacturing.
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Marcelo, Higa G. “The Emigration of Argentines of Japanese Descent to Japan.” In New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America to Japan. Edited by Lane Ryo Hirabayashi, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James Hirabayashi, 261–278. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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Higa examines the flow of Argentina’s Nikkei to Japan. The main focus is to understand why Japanese Argentinians chose this return path, to consider its implications, and to examine the impact of dekasegi (temporary work) on ideas such as settlement and Nikkei identity.
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Tigner, James Lawrence. “The Ryukyuans in Argentina.” Hispanic American Historical Review 47.2 (May 1967): 203–224.
DOI: 10.2307/2511480Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article examines Japanese from the Okinawan islands who settled in Argentina. The author provides valuable information regarding assimilation and intermarriages with other ethnic and racial groups. Provides information on the condition of the Ryukyuans during the World War II era.
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Tigner, James Lawrence. “Japanese Immigration into Latin America.” Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 21.4 (November 1981): 457–482.
DOI: 10.2307/165454Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
An excellent overview of Japanese immigration into Latin America by one of the pioneers in the field. The article provides information on the movement of Japanese to Mexico and South America with excellent charts and analysis.
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Spanish Language Studies

Most of the scholarship on the Japanese population in Argentina has been written in the Spanish language. The following is a small representation of the overall scholarship that should be consulted and will provide a basic understanding of the Japanese experience in Argentina. Erb, et al. 1968; Imai 1995; and Higa 1995 provide the historical background on the Japanese presence and community. Sanchis Muñoz 1997 examines foreign relations between Argentina and Japan as well as Japanese in Argentina. Laumonier 1987 and Higa, et al. 2010 provide detailed studies on the Japanese community. Higa’s publication also celebrates the hundred-year anniversary of the Japanese in Argentina and provides the latest data on the population. The Asociación Japonesa de Córdoba and Centro Nikkei Argentino websites are informative sources with additional links and material on the Japanese community.

Asociación Japonesa de Córdoba.
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This website provides historical information on the Japanese community in Córdoba, Argentina. It also contains useful links regarding community contacts and activities.
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Centro Nikkei Argentino.
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A very useful online site for information on the Japanese community in Argentina and beyond that is open to the public. Contains useful links for community organizations and contacts. Also has a large and comprehensive library database on Japanese in Argentina and the Americas that is downloadable.
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Erb, Hebe Haydée, Teresa Gashu, Lucía Gibó, Nidia Edda Milanese, and Susana Elena Molfino. “La inmigración japonesa en la Republica Argentina.” Separata del Boletín de Estudios Geográficas 58.15 (January–March 1968): 33–51.
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A pioneering study on the history of the Japanese in Argentina that provides an analysis of various Japanese settlements throughout Argentina.
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Higa, Antonio, Choichi Shakihara, Seibun Komesu, Ezequiel Hokama, and Claudio Avruj. Japón en Buenos Aires: Los 100 anos de la inmigración de japoneses oriundos de Okinawa. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Gobierno de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, 2010.
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This commemorative issue examines the one-hundred-year presence of Japanese from Okinawa and includes statistical information, historical overview, and the current status of Argentinians of Okinawan ancestry.
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Higa, Marcelo G. “Desarrollo histórico de la inmigración japonesa en la Argentina hasta la Segunda Guerra Mundial.” Estudios migratorios latinoamericanos (CEMLA) 10.30 (August 1995): 471–512.
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Historical overview by one of the leading scholars on Japanese in Argentina. Examines the Japanese population in Argentina through World War II.
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Imai, Keiko. “Los inmigrantes japoneses en Argentina: Historias personales de empresarios pioneros.” Estudios migratorios latinoamericanos (CEMLA) 10.30 (August 1995): 453–470.
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In this paper, the author analyzes the structure of economic activities of Japanese immigrants and their descendants in Argentina, focusing on commerce and manufacturing industry, through the personal histories of three representative entrepreneurs and their businesses.
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Laumonier, Isabel. Los Japoneses. Vol. 2, Panorama histórico de la colectividad japonesa. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Buenos Aires Dirección Nacional de Migraciones de la Republica Argentina (DNM: Agencia de Cooperación Internacional del Japón [JICA]), 1987.
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This study contains information based on a census of the Japanese community taken in 1986 and 1987, primarily in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, and Misiones.
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Sanchis Muñoz, Jos R. Japón y la Argentina: Historia de sus relaciones. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Sudamericana, 1997.
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A well-documented study on the history of Japanese in Argentina. Contains many documents regarding treaties between the two countries. A Japanese version is also available.
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Japanese Language Studies

Japanese language studies, which are limited, provide insight to the movement of Japanese to Argentina. Gashu 1956 and Ishikawa 1997 are solid studies of Japanese emigration and its causes, with demographic information on the Japanese immigrants.

Gashu Kuhei. Aruzenchin dōhō gojūnenshi (アルゼンチン同胞五十年史). Tokyo: Seibundō Shinkōsha, 1956.
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This book provides information on the movement of Japanese to Argentina and the development of rural communities over a fifty-year period.
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Ishikawa Tomonori. Nihon imin no chirigakuteki kenkyū: Okinawa, Hiroshima, Yamaguchi. Okinawa-ken Ginowan-shi, Japan: Yōju Shorin, 1997.
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The study provides information on the emigration of Japanese from three different prefectures to various locations throughout the world including Latin America and Argentina. Also provides an analysis of the Japanese government’s policies regarding emigration.
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Bolivia

The first Japanese settlers came from neighboring Peru, when their contracts ended prior to the 1950s. Most Japanese settlers had origins from Okinawa, while many came from Gifu, Hiroshima, Kanagawa, and Osaka prefectures. In 1899, Mapiri River Region in La Paz experienced the first entrance of ninety-one Japanese workers assigned to rubber plantations. The end of World War I and the Great Depression impacted the Japanese as many were displaced in the rubber and mining industries and relocated to the cities of La Paz, Oruro, and Cochabamba to engage in commerce. When World War II began, twenty-nine Japanese Bolivians were deported to United States. Except for those deportees, WWII had very little impact on the Japanese living in Bolivia. The Bolivian government did not enact any anti-Japanese measures during the war. Postwar developments increased the Japanese population in Bolivia, as it signed agreements to accept Japanese refugees from Okinawa in the early 1950s. Through these historical experiences, Bolivia has three distinct Japanese communities: those in the highland Andes, those in the Amazon River Basin, and those in the eastern Bolivian communities of the Santa Cruz region and known as Colonia Okinawa and Colonia San Juan de Yapacani. Today there are approximately 12,000 Bolivians of Japanese ancestry.

English Language Studies

In general, there is a critical shortage of English language studies on the Japanese in Bolivia. The following selections represent the best scholarship in English. Tigner 1963 provides the best overview regarding the movement of Japanese from Okinawa during the post-WWII period. Hiraoka 1972 follows up with an analysis that provides detailed information on the eastern Japanese colonia of San Juan de Yapacani. Kashiwazaki 1983 depicts a shift in the scholarship, with a longer historical trajectory and moving towards an understanding of the Japanese experience based on fieldwork and detailed study of the community. Amemiya 2002, Suzuki 2010a, and Suzuki 2010b each represent the new scholarship that has emerged on Japanese Bolivians in the early 21st century. The latest scholarship distinguishes itself from previous studies by moving beyond the historical study and navigating the complexities of race relations, ethnic identity, being Nikkei, and return migration to Japan.

Amemiya, Kozy. “The “Labor Pain” of Forging a Nikkei Community: A Study of Santa Cruz Region in Bolivia.” In New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Edited by Lane Hirabayashi, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James Hirabayashi, 90–107. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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Analyzes the identities of those Japanese that came to Bolivia as adults or children (Issei) versus those who have been born in Bolivia (Nisei). The article argues that the Nisei generation not only relies less on Japanese culture and customs, but also has moved away from any reliance on the Japanese government.
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Hiraoka, Mario. “Structural Variations among Dwelling in the Japanese Colony of San Juan de Yapacaní, Bolivia.” Pacifica: Association of Pacific Coast Geographers Yearbook 34 (1972): 137–152.
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This study examines the Japanese pioneer community of San Juan de Yapacani, Bolivia. Provides groundbreaking work on the establishment of Japanese communities.
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Kashiwazaki, Hiroshi. “Agricultural Practices and Household Organization in a Japanese Pioneer Community of Lowland Bolivia.” Human Ecology 11.3 (September 1983): 283–319.
DOI: 10.1007/BF00891377Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article describes the colonization process of the Japanese pioneer farmers in the Bolivian subtropical lowlands. This article is a quantitative study of farm households that test two hypotheses: one, pioneer agriculture stimulates the formation of a large family household to cope with an assumed labor shortage; and two, existing variation in household organization produces variations in agricultural practices.
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Suzuki, Taku. Embodying Belonging: Racializing Okinawan Diaspora in Bolivia and Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2010a.
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Explores the movement of the Okinawan communities in Latin America and Japan. This study also examines the movement of thousands of Bolivians of Japanese ancestry back to Japan as migrant laborers. The study uses two locations, one in Bolivia and the other in Yokohama, Japan, to explore the meaning of assimilation and acculturation. This is an excellent study on Okinawan Bolivians as return migrants to Japan.
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Suzuki, Taku. “Learning to Be Transnational.” Critical Asian Studies 42.1 (March 2010b): 63–88.
DOI: 10.1080/14672710903537480Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article examines Japanese language education and speech practices among Okinawan-Bolivians in a rural agricultural community called Colonia Okinawa. Okinawan-Bolivians’ heritage language education and speech practices suggest that immigrants who were marginalized in the nation-states of their migratory/ancestral origin, like Okinawans, consciously transform their linguistic heritage from a sub-national one to a national one in order to gain socioeconomic advantages in their migratory destination.
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Tigner, James Lawrence. “The Ryukyuans in Bolivia.” Hispanic American Historical Review 43.2 (May 1963): 206–229.
DOI: 10.2307/2510492Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
According to the article, by 1952 the Japanese settlers in Bolivia were the best integrated into the native culture. The author analyzes the high degree of intermarriages among Japanese men and Bolivian women. The article provides excellent information on the movement of Japanese colony to the Santa Cruz region, which was sponsored by the US and Bolivian governments during the period of US occupation of Japan.
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Spanish Language Studies

Only a handful of studies in Spanish exist on the Japanese community in Bolivia. Parejas Moreno 1981, Wakatsuki and Kunimoto 1985, and Kunimoto 1990 all provide solid historical examinations of the Japanese in Bolivia and issues regarding assimilation and adaptation. These are important works that should be consulted by anyone doing research on Japanese in Bolivia.

Kunimoto, Iyo. Un pueblo japonés en la Bolivia tropical: Colonia San Juan de Yapacani en el Departamento de Santa Cruz. Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Casa de la Cultura, 1990.
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A study of the Colonia San Juan de Yapacani, Bolivia. (Note: this article was originally published in Japanese. See Kunimoto 1989, cited under Japanese Language Studies.).
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Parejas Moreno, Alcides. Colonia Japonesas en Bolivia. La Paz, Bolivia: Talleres Escuela de Artes Gráficas del Colegio “Don Basco,” 1981.
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A brief examination of the Japanese in Bolivia. The strength of this article is its discussion on the cooperation between Japan, the United States, and Bolivia to relocate surplus Japanese population, especially from Okinawa, to eastern Bolivia.
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Wakatsuki, Yasou, and Iyo Kunimoto, eds. La inmigración Japonesa en Bolivia: Estudios históricos y socio-económico. Japan Chuo University, Tokyo, 1985.
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Consisting of seven chapters by various authors that analyze the movement of Japanese into Bolivia, which began with the opening of diplomatic relations followed by the movement of Japanese colonists to the Santa Cruz region. This study examines the Issei generation as well as the impact of assimilation on Issei and Nisei generations.
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Japanese Language Studies

Japanese scholars or those fluent in Japanese have produced most of the scholarship on Japanese in Bolivia. Listed below are selections considered the best in the Japanese language. However, it should be noted that one encyclopedia listed nearly fifty citations in the Japanese language. For these broader works, consult the Bibliographies section of this article. Some of the early and path-breaking works include Nihonjin Borivia ijushi 1972, Wakatsuki 1973, and Tatsumi 1980. These works provide an excellent historical analysis. Wakatsuki 1987 is also grounded in history and provides an additional bibliography to help scholars find additional material. Wakatsuki 2001 expands the discussion to a variety of regions in South America but also includes material on the Japanese in Bolivia. Kunimoto 1989, Boribia ni ikiru: Nihonjin ijū 100-shūnenshi 2000, and Sanfuan Nihonjin Ijūchi Nyūshoku 50-nenshi 2005 represent the latest scholarship on Japanese Bolivians, but especially those in eastern Bolivia. Boribia ni ikiru: Nihonjin ijū 100-shūnenshi 2000 provides a concise historical overview of the presence of Japanese in Bolivia for nearly one hundred years.

Boribia ni ikiru: Nihonjin ijū 100-shūnenshi (ボリビアに生きる:日本人移住100周年誌). Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Boribia Nikkei Kyōkai Rengōkai, 2000.
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Examines the one-hundred-year history of Japanese in Bolivia. Provides an overview on Japanese emigration to Bolivia.
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Kunimoto Iyo. Boribia no Nihonjin-mura: Santakurusu-shū Sanfan ijūchi no kenkyū (サンタクルス州サンファン移住地の研究/国本伊代). Tokyo: Chuo Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1989.
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A study of Japanese in Bolivia, specifically on the Colonia San Juan de Yacapani.
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Nihonjin Borivia ijushi. Tokyo: Nihonjin Borivia Ijushi Hensan Iinkai. n.p., 1972.
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Provides a general overview of Japanese emigration and immigration to Bolivia.
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Sanfuan Nihonjin Ijūchi Nyūshoku 50-nenshi. Hirakeyuku yūkō no kakehashi: Ase to namida, yorokobi to kibō no kiroku: Sanfuan Nihonjin ijūchi nyūshoku 50-nenshi (La historia de 50 años de la inmigracion de la colonia Japonesa San Juan: 1955–2005). San Juan, Bolivia: Sanfuan Nihon Boribia Kyōkai, 2005.
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This book provides an examination of the Japanese colony in San Juan and its fifty-year history. The book also provides an analysis of Japanese emigration and immigration to Bolivia with a historical overview of the community.
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Tatsumi Kinjō. Boribia, Koronia Okinawa nyūshoku 25-shūnenshi (ボリビアコロニア沖縄入植25周年誌/ボリビア. コロニア沖縄入植25周年祭典委員会). Santa Cruz, Bolivia: Boribia Koronia Okinawa Nyūshoku 25-shūnen Saiten iinkai, 1980.
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A twenty-fifth-anniversary publication of the arrival of Japanese to Bolivia. Examines Japanese colonization in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. The Japanese that colonized were from the Okinawa region or the Ryukyuan Islands and developed agricultural colonies in Bolivia.
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Wakatsuki Yasuo. Genshirin no naka no Nihonjin: Nanbei ijūchi no sonogo (原始林の中の日本人: 南米移住地のその後). Tokyo: Chūō Kōronsha, 1973.
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Examines Japanese immigration to South America, including Bolivia. Discusses reasons that Japanese settled in remote regions of Bolivia and elsewhere in South America.
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Wakatsuki Yasuo. Hatten tojōkoku e no ijū no kenkyū: Boribia ni okeru Nihon imin (発展途上国への移住の研究: ボリビアにおける日本移民/若槻泰雄). Tokyo: Tamagawa Daigaku Shuppanbu, 1987.
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An overview of Japanese emigration to developing countries. A study on the history of Japanese immigration to Bolivia. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. Includes a questionnaire in Spanish.
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Wakatsuki Yasuo. Gaimushō ga keshita Nihonjin: Nanbei imin no hanseiki (外務省が消した日本人: 南米移民の半世紀/若槻泰雄). Tokyo: Mainichi Shinbunsha, 2001.
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This follow-up to Wakatsuki 1973 examines Japanese immigration and emigration to South America over a fifty-year time period.
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Brazil

With nearly 1.5 million Japanese, Brazil has the largest population of Japanese outside of Japan, and the largest in the Western Hemisphere. The Japanese began to arrive in Brazil in large numbers during the first decade of the 20th century. Similar to other locations in Latin America, Brazil offered an alternative to the United States, where anti-Japanese sentiments were rampant during this era. Furthermore, the US Immigration Act of 1924 closed the movement of Japanese to the United States. When Brazil ended slavery in 1888, immigrants were seen as a means to supplement the labor needed, especially on coffee plantations. Under two- or three-year contracts, the initial Japanese immigrants came to work on the coffee plantations in and around the São Paulo region. With the Japanese government subsidizing the emigration of Japanese to Brazil, the population increased dramatically well into the 1930s. Many of the early immigrants shifted occupations after their contracts expired, moving from rural to urban sectors and pursuing non-agricultural employment. However, in 1935 Brazil enacted legislation that limited the movement of foreigners into Brazil, and in 1941 Brazil broke diplomatic ties with Japan and supported the Allied war effort. The Japanese population in Brazil during the war was approximately 250,000 and highly concentrated in São Paulo State. Furthermore, the Issei population had a high rate of endogamy, which produced a more homogenous community. During the war, the Japanese in Brazil suffered high levels of violence, discrimination, and oppression. However, due to the size of the population mass internment or repatriation was seen as impractical. Nevertheless, roughly 4,000 Japanese were interned in remote locations in Brazil. It should also be noted that many Japanese in Brazil remained highly nationalistic with strong support for the Japanese Empire. Indeed, this nationalism created factions within the Japanese community, causing disunity. It was under this nationalistic fervor that many Japanese in Brazil refused to believe that Japan had been defeated by the Allied war effort. By the early 1950s many of the disputes within the Japanese community had been settled and emigration from Japan resumed. Many of the new immigrants chose farming as an occupation, while others moved to the cities to start or work in stores, coffee shops, or laundries. As the 1980s approached, Brazil spiraled down into an economic crisis; simultaneously, the movement of Japanese Brazilians back to Japan developed, creating an outlet for many Japanese seeking new opportunities. In fact, in the early 21st century there are approximately 250,000 Japanese Brazilians residing in Japan, the highest of any Latin American country.

English Language Studies

The following sources are studies that have emerged by leading scholars on Japanese in Brazil. In the last twenty to twenty-five years Jeffrey Lesser has produced excellent studies on minority groups in Brazil in both monograph and article form. Lesser 1999 has been viewed as a path-breaking book based on its analysis of identity and race, which uses the Japanese as a case, among others, to illustrate his ideas. Lesser 2002 is a fascinating article that further examines Japanese experience and how the Japanese navigated various forms of identity to survive in Brazil. Lesser 2007 provides insight into the Japanese experience during the turbulent period of the 1960s in Brazil by examining popular culture. Challenging a number of different assumptions in regards to the Japanese experience in Brazil, Lone 2001 attempts to see the Brazilian experience from its diversity of experiences rather than from a monolithic approach. Masterson and Funada 2003 is a comparative approach that examines Japanese in Peru and Brazil. Reichl 1988 provides useful information on the movement and adaptation of Japanese in Brazil by examining ethnic identity. Tsuchida 1978 provides a historical analysis of Japanese in Brazil as well as strategies for adaptation as newcomers. Yamamoto 2010 examines the Nikkei experience in Brazil and Japan. Yamamoto’s study brings a fresh examination of Japanese Brazilians by using a gendered perspective regarding the role of Nikkei women in Brazilian society.

Lesser, Jeffrey. Negotiating National Identity: Immigrants, Minorities, and the Struggle for Ethnicity in Brazil. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.
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This study is considered one of the best to examine identity and race within the complex arena of Brazilian society and its minority and immigrant community. Starting in the mid-19th century through the 1950s Jeffrey Lesser’s book is well researched and is premised on the basic idea that ethnicity and race have played important roles in the development of Brazilian identity.
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Lesser, Jeffrey. “In Search of the Hyphen: Nikkei and the Struggle over Brazilian National Identity.” In New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Edited by Lane Hirabayashi, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James Hirabayashi, 37–58. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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This article, by one of the leading scholars on Japanese and identity in Brazil, explores the various strategies and mechanisms the Japanese population exploited during the 20th century to carve a space within Brazilian society. The article argues that the Japanese used three competing strategies: hyphenation, ultranationalism, and brasilidade (Brazilian identity).
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Lesser, Jeffrey. A Discontented Diaspora: Japanese Brazilians and the Meanings of Ethnic Militancy, 1960–1980. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007.
DOI: 10.1215/9780822390480Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Using a variety of popular culture sources, this book addresses the meaning of ethnicity and national culture in Brazil, especially from the perspective of young Japanese Brazilians from the 1960s and 1970s. The author also addresses how Nikkei both resisted and conformed to others’ perceptions of their identity during the era of military dictatorship in Brazil.
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Lone, Stewart. The Japanese Community in Brazil, 1908–1940: Between Samurai and Carnival. New York: Palgrave, 2001.
DOI: 10.1057/9781403932792Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This study examines the Japanese population in Brazil and the growth of expatriate settlements, small businesses, schools, and civic groups. The book also challenges long-held perceptions by Japanese scholars that the Japanese experience in Brazil was monolithic made up of hard conditions, isolation, and discrimination. Rather, this book discusses a Japanese community developing and engaging Brazilian society and its institutions on its own terms.
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Masterson, Daniel M., and Sayaka Funada. “The Japanese in Peru and Brazil: A Comparative Perspective.” In Mass Migration to Modern Latin America. Edited by Samuel L. Baily and Eduardo Jose Miguez, 113–135. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2003.
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In this essay, the authors compare the trajectories of the Japanese in Peru and Brazil. Among the issues they discuss are the role of the Tokyo government in encouraging emigration to Latin America, the anti-Japanese sentiment in each country and the legislation during the 1930s and especially during World War II.
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Reichl, Christopher A. “Japanese Newcomers in Brazil: A Social Model of Migration.” PhD diss., University of Iowa, 1988.
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Detailed ethnographic description of five Japanese families that migrated to São Paulo in the 1980s. This study includes social and economic adaptation of contemporary Japanese immigrants in Brazil. Overall, this volume provides historical context to major shifts in Japanese Brazilian ethnic identity.
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Tsuchida, Nobuya. “The Japanese in Brazil, 1908–1941.” PhD diss., University of California Los Angeles, 1978.
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This resource shows strategies used by Japanese immigrants in Brazil, including sharecropping, contract farming, and lease farming. Study indicates the typical Issei used these strategies in order to become an independent landowner.
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Yamamoto, Lucia Emiko. “Gender Roles and Ethnic Identities in a Globalizing World: The Case of Japanese Brazilian Migrant Women.” In Japanese and Nikkei at Home and Abroad: Negotiating Identities in a Global World. Edited by Nobuko Adachi. Amherst, NY: Cambria, 2010.
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This article examines how the dekasegi (temporary worker) phenomenon has impacted all aspects of Japanese Brazilian society. The article’s main focus is on female dekasegi migrants and their evolving social roles as family members. The article gives accounts of five Nikkei Brazilian women who were single when they first went to Japan as temporary workers.
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Portuguese Language Studies

There is a large array of books and articles on the Japanese in Brazil in the Portuguese language. Space constraints allow only a handful to be listed here. However, the bibliographies listed in this article should be consulted for the larger collection. For an examination of the Japanese in the São Paulo region consult Vieira 1973 and Ando 1976. For countrywide studies consult Saito 1980, Nogueira 1984, and Caminho dos imigrantes japoneses: Brasil século 20. Recent studies include those that celebrate the arrival of Japanese to Brazil and provide solid overviews of that history. Consult Arai and Hirasaki 2008 and Uma epopéia moderna: 80 anos da imigração japonesa no Brasil.

Ando, Zenpati. Estudos socio-historicos da imigracao japonesa. Translated by Keiko Hirokawa. São Paulo, Brazil: Centro de Estudos Nipo-Brasileiros, 1976.
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A history of Japanese emigration to the São Paulo region of Brazil. Also provides social and economic conditions.
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Arai, Jhony, and Cesar Hirasaki. 100 anos da imigração japonesa no Brasil. São Paulo, Brazil: Bunkyo, 2008.
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The celebration of one hundred years of Japanese immigration to Brazil in 2008.
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Caminho dos imigrantes japoneses: Brasil século 20. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Jornalística União Nikkei, 2000.
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Examines Japanese and Brazilian history and the movement of Japanese to Brazil. This study provides useful information on the conditions that brought Japanese to Brazil.
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Nogueira, Arlinda Rocha. Imigracao japonesa na historia contemporanea do Brasil. São Paulo, Brazil: Centro de Estudos Nipo-Brasileiros: Massao Ohno Editor, 1984.
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Examines the Japanese immigrant experience in Brazil during the second half of the 20th century.
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Saito, Hiroshi and Sumi Butsugan. A presença japonesa no Brasil. São Paulo, Brazil: T. A. Queiroz: Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1980.
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Examines the Japanese in Brazil during the 20th century. Provides a general understanding as to why so many Japanese emigrated to Brazil. Also examines many of the issues and conflicts experienced by the Japanese as well as their adaptation to the host nation.
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Comissão de Elaboração da História dos 80 anos da Imigração Japonesa no Brasil. Uma epopéia moderna: 80 anos da imigração japonesa no Brasil. São Paulo, Brazil: Editora Hucitec e Sociedade Brasileira de Cultura Japonesa, 1992.
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Studies eighty years of Japanese emigration and presence in Brazil.
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Vieira, Francisca Isabel Schurig. O Japones na frente de expansao paulista: O processo de absorcao do Japones em Marilia. São Paulo, Brazil: Livraria Pioneira Editora, Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1973.
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An excellent study on the Japanese in Brazil that covers their emigration, Japanese culture, assimilation, and general history of their settlement. The study is based on the Japanese community in and around São Paulo.
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Japanese Language Studies

Scholarship in Japanese has produced excellent studies and represents some of the most current literature on Japanese in Brazil. Baxter, et al. 2009; Jitsugyōka to burajiru ijū and Mita 2011 (cited under Nikkei in Japan: Japanese Language Studies) are edited collections with a wealth of information on Japanese in Brazil and Japanese Brazilians in Japan. Handa 1970 is an important historical work that details the movement of Japanese to Brazil and their socioeconomic condition. Maruyama 2010 is strong for those with an interest in economic history and conditions. Morimoto and Negawa 2012 examines Japanese Brazilians in Japan, with a close examination of the Nikkei children and their education. Onai 2009 will be of interest to those trying to understand the strategies used by Nikkei in Japan to adapt to the country of their ancestors.

Baxter, James C., Hosokawa Shūhei, and Junko Ota, eds. Cultural Exchange between Brazil and Japan: Immigration, History, and Language/Nihon Burajiru bunka kōryū: Gengo, rekishi, imin. Kyoto: International Research Center for Japanese Studies, 2009.
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This collection of essays is the product of a symposium co-organized by the International Research Center for Japanese Studies and the Center for Japanese Studies, Faculty of Science and Letters, University of São Paolo, held 13–15 October 2008, at the University of São Paolo. Includes bibliographical references. In English and Japanese.
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Handa Tomoo. Imin no seikatsu no rekishi: Burajiru Nikkeijin no ayunda michi (移民の生活の歴史; ブラジル日系人の步んだ道, 半田知雄著). São Paulo, Brazil: San Pauro Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyūjo, 1970.
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Analyzes the Japanese immigrant in Brazil. This important work by one of the leading authorities on Japanese Brazilians examines the life of the Japanese immigrant in Brazil. This book provides rich detail on the movement of Japanese to São Paulo and provides information on employment patterns and the socioeconomic conditions in Japan and Brazil that facilitated Japanese immigration in Brazil.
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Shibusawa Eiichi Kinen Zaidan. Kenkyūbu hen. Jitsugyōka to burajiru ijū (実業家とブラジル移住/公益財団法人渋沢栄一記念財団研究部 編). Tokyo: Fuji Shuppan Kabushiki Kaisha, 2012.
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This collection of essays provides information on Japanese-Brazilian history, Japanese emigration and immigration to Brazil, and the social and economic conditions in Brazil.
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Maruyama Hiroaki. Burajiru Nihon imin: hyakunen no kiseki (ブラジル日本移民: 百年の軌跡/丸山浩明編著). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2010.
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Explores one hundred years of Japanese emigration to Brazil with details on economic and social conditions.
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Morimoto Toyotomi and Negawa Sachio. Toransunashonaru na “nikkeijin” no kyōiku, gengo, bunka: Kako kara mirai ni mukatte (トランスナショナルな「日系人」の教育・言語・文化: 過去から未来に向って). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2012.
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The authors provide an important discussion on the overall experience of Japanese in Brazil, which includes their movement back to Japan. This is a very useful source for those seeking an understanding as to why Japanese Brazilians returned to Japan and their experience as migrants.
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Onai Tōru. Zainichi Burajirujin no rōdō to seikatsu (在日ブラジル人の労働と生活). Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobō, 2009.
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This book studies the movement of Japanese Brazilians back to Japan and their adaptation to a country of their ancestors. Examines the struggles and social and economic conditions of the Japanese Brazilians.
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Central America

Although there are roughly 3,000 Japanese in Central America, very little has been produced in regards to their experience. Gardiner 1972 is one of the few studies on the Japanese taking a broad approach in regards to its focus. Due to US dominance of this region, the Japanese had very little chance of penetrating. Nevertheless, the article is useful as a starting point for the Japanese in this region, but it is clear more scholarship is needed. Panama was the exception where the Japanese were able to make inroads. Yamamoto 1991 is a Japanese language study on the Japanese in Panama and is very useful in understanding the movement of Japanese to this Central American country.

Gardiner, C. Harvey. “The Japanese and Central America.” Journal of Inter-American Studies and World Affairs 14.1 (February 1972): 15–47.
DOI: 10.2307/174980Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article analyzes Japanese foreign and economic relations with Central America and the limited movement of Japanese to that region. The author indicates that although the Japanese population was relatively small for the whole region, when World War II broke out all of the Japanese in the region were rounded up and sent to the United States for internment.
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Yamamoto Atsuko. Panama kara kieta Nihonjin (パナマから消えた日本人). Tokyo: Yamate Shobō Shinsha, 1991.
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This book provides information on Japanese-Panamanian relations, Japanese emigration and immigration, and ethnic relations.
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Cuba

Until the turn of the 21st century very little was known about the Japanese legacy in Cuba. The Japanese population in Cuba is very small in comparison to other Spanish-speaking countries, numbering roughly 1,300 individuals. Similar to Brazil, when Cuba abolished slavery in the late 19th century there was an increased demand for labor, especially in the sugar fields of the early 20th century. A significant number of individuals came from the island of Okinawa, but immigrants also arrived from the prefectures of Hiroshima, Kumamoto, and Niigata. From 1908 to 1919, a total of 446 Japanese entered Cuba, with the majority being male. James Tigner indicates that the majority of Japanese entering Cuba during this period did not come directly from Japan, but came from other Latin American nations. During the 1920s an additional 686 Japanese immigrated to Cuba with the majority employed in agriculture as farmers or day laborers. Here again, the increase in Japanese can be partially explained by the US Immigration Act of 1924. The decade of the 1930s saw only a small number of Japanese enter, and even this trickle began to decline by 1938. The 1930s also saw a rise in anti-Japanese sentiments in Cuba facilitated by the Chinese community, which was larger and more important economically than the Japanese. When war broke out and Cuba joined the Allied effort in December 1941, there were approximately 700 Japanese residing in Cuba. President Fulgencio Batista enacted a variety of measures to restrict the movement of enemy aliens and confiscate property. Cuba, rather than ship any Japanese to the United States, interned 341 Japanese in an old presidio on the island for the duration of the war. The end of the war saw the resumption of Cuban-Japanese relations. When revolution came to Cuba and Fidel Castro took over the island nation, he quickly sought to solidify trade relations with Japan, which did occur. However, what did not occur was a large movement of Japanese to Cuba. In 1960 there were 522 Japanese residing in Cuba, down from the 1940s and 1950s. Because of the small Japanese population on the island it is difficult to assess the level of their participation in the Cuban Revolution, although it is clear they did participate. There appears to be some evidence that the Nisei generation is attempting to resurrect Japanese culture and customs, but much more research is needed in this area.

English Language Studies

So far the English language studies on Japanese in Cuba have appeared in article form, with some from emerging scholars. The prolific C. Harvey Gardiner wrote one of the earliest articles that discusses the Japanese in Cuba; this work, Gardiner 1972, remains very relevant. Yokota 2008a and Yokota 2008b have resurrected an interest with the Japanese Cubans by reexamining their experience, using the author’s own family history as a springboard. Yakota primarily examines the Okinawan experience in Cuba and provides information on the role of Japanese during the post–Cuban Revolution period. Ropp and Chavez de Ropp 2002 sheds additional light on the experience of Japanese after the Cuban Revolution through the use of oral history. Hu-DeHart and López 2008 introduces a special issue of Afro-Hispanic Review that covers a wide range of countries including the Caribbean. This multidisciplinary issue is an excellent source for a variety of Asian experiences in Latin America.

Gardiner, C. Harvey. “The Japanese and Cuba.” Caribbean Studies 12.2 (July 1972): 52–73.
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Examines the small Japanese population in Cuba from its inception during the late 19th century through the second half of the 20th century. The author also provides insight to the diplomatic problems Latin American and Caribbean nations faced with the United States when accepting Japanese immigrants.
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Hu-DeHart, Evelyn, and Kathleen López. “Asian Diasporas in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Historical Overview.” In Special Issue: Afro-Asia. Edited by Evelyn Hu-DeHart and Kathleen López. Afro-Hispanic Review 27.1 (Spring 2008): 9–21.
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This special issue contains seventeen articles and this introduction by the guest editors. The collection studies the movement of three Asian groups—East Indian, Chinese, and Japanese—to Latin America and the Caribbean. This introduction provides an excellent overview and context for the articles within the special issue.
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Ropp, Steven Masami, and Romy Chavez de Ropp. “An Interview with Francisco Miyasaka, President of the Japanese Cuban Association.” Amerasia Journal 28 (2002): 129–146.
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An oral interview with a prominent resident of the Japanese Cuban community. Provides important information on the Japanese in Cuba and their current status in regards to Japanese culture and customs.
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Yokota, Ryan Masaaki. “Japanese and Okinawan Cubans.” In Changing Cuba/Changing World. Edited by Mauricio A. Font, John Arias, and Jackie Slater, 429–446. New York: The Cuban Project Bildner Center for Western Hemisphere Studies, The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, 2008a.
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This article considers the complex history of the Japanese and Okinawan migrants to Cuba, beginning with their secondary migration to Cuba, often as an attempt to circumvent restrictive racially exclusionary immigration laws in the United States.
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Yokota, Ryan Masaaki. “Transculturation and Adaptation: A Brief History of Japanese and Okinawan Cubans.” In Special Issue: Afro-Asia. Edited by Evelyn Hu-DeHart and Kathleen López. Afro-Hispanic Review 27.1 (Spring 2008b): 91–104.
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This article examines the movement of Japanese and Okinawans to Cuba beginning in the early 20th century. The article also studies the adaptation and acculturation of Japanese and Okinawans throughout the 20th century and into the contemporary period. The article examines these groups’ participation in the Cuban Revolution and the postrevolutionary period.
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Spanish Language Studies

Studies in the Spanish language are also very limited in regards to the Japanese experience in Cuba. Nevertheless, Álvarez and Guzmán 2002 and Barceló 2004 provide excellent studies on the Japanese in Cuban, especially their experience during World War II.

Álvarez, Rolando, and María Guzmán. Japoneses en Cuba. Havana, Cuba: Fundación Fernando Ortiz, 2002.
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This book provides an excellent overview of the small Japanese population in Cuba. The book includes important information on the detention of Japanese during World War II.
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Barceló, Nancy Oropesa. La sociedad de la Colonia Japonesa de la Isla de Juventud. Nueva Gerona, Cuba: Ediciones El Abra, 2004.
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This book provides an excellent local history of the Japanese community on Isla de la Juventud. This study examines the initial movement of the Japanese to Cuba and their agricultural activities. There is information on the roundups of Japanese in Cuba and their detention during World War II.
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Japanese Language Studies

Japanese language studies are also very limited. However, Kurabe 1989 and Álvarez, et al. 2005 provide information on the Japanese experience in Cuba.

Álvarez, Rolando Estevez, Marta Guzmán, and Nishizaki Motoko, eds. Gebara no kuni no Nihonjin: Kyūba ni ikita, omomuita Nihonjin 100-nenshi (ゲバラの国の日本人: キューバに生きた、赴いた日本人100年史). Tokyo: Gendai Shokan, 2005.
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Examines Cuban immigration history and the movement of Japanese to the island. (Title translation: Japanese in Guevara’s country: The hundred-year history of Japanese in Cuba)
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Kurabe Kiyotaka. Tōge no bunkashi: Kyūba no Nihonjin (峠の文化史: キューバの日本人). Tokyo: PMC Shuppan, 1989.
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This book examines the arrival of the Japanese to Cuba, their history, and ethnic relations. (Title translation: Cultural history of the past: The Cuban Japanese.)
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Dominican Republic

Migration from Japan to the Dominican Republic, unlike that to the rest of the Americas, did not begin until after World War II. The Dominican Republic signed a treaty with Japan in 1956 to accept migrants for agricultural development, one of the earliest in a series of treaties signed by Japan’s newly established emigration bureau. Rafael Trujillo for his part sought to use European and later Japanese migrants as a demographic buffer against a feared incursion of Haitian blacks into the country, by settling them along the country’s western border with Haiti. Unlike European migrants, who had historically used the Dominican Republic as a stepping-stone towards other countries—and who would take advantage of Trujillo’s policy to continue this pattern—Japanese migrants came to the Dominican Republic with the intention of permanent settlement. They had been promised furnished houses, land ready for planting, and credit until the first harvest. More than 200 families totaling 1,319 people arrived from 1956 to 1959. However, the May 1961 assassination of Trujillo plunged the country into chaos and political violence, leaving many of the governmental promises of assistance broken. The migrants entirely abandoned five of their eight settlements. Beginning in 1961, 70 families moved to other Latin American countries, which had agreed with the Japanese government to resettle them, including Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia, while 111 other families returned to Japan. By 1962, just 276 Japanese remained in the country. Of the forty-seven families which settled in Constanza and the nearby valley, just seven remained. However, they clung tenaciously to their land, improving irrigation facilities and introducing the Japanese bokashi composting technique. By the 1990s, Constanza had become a major area of agricultural production, growing over 90 percent of the country’s vegetables. In the early 21st century, there are approximately 3,000 individuals of Japanese ancestry. Gardiner 1971 remains the standard for a basic understanding of the movement of the Japanese to the Dominican Republic. Very little scholarship exists on the Japanese in this region, primarily due to the small population. However, Augelli 1962 provides insight to the colonization scheme that brought Japanese to the Dominican Republic. One of the latest and informative studies is Horst and Asagirl 2000, which examines the movement of Japanese to the Dominican Republic after World War II. Scholarly research in Spanish has not generated much interest. Despradel 1996 is the only known study in Spanish that examines the Japanese in the Dominican Republic.

Augelli, John P. “Agricultural Colonization in the Dominican Republic.” Economic Geography 38 (1962): 15–27.
DOI: 10.2307/142322Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This early study provides an important introduction to the Japanese movement to the Dominican Republic. La Vija is a Japanese colony of sixty families; the article studies this community to determine adaptation and success of the Japanese community.
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Despradel, Alberto. La migración Japonesa hacia la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic: n.p., 1996.
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This ninety-four-page book provides one of the few studies in Spanish regarding the movement of Japanese to the Dominican Republic. The volume provides a comprehensive examination of Dominican and Japanese relations, the causes of the movement of Japanese to the Dominican Republic, and the socioeconomic characteristics of the Japanese community.
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Gardiner, C. Harvey. “The Japanese and the Dominican Republic.” Inter-American Economic Affairs 25 (Winter 1971): 23–27.
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This study by one of the pioneers of the Japanese diaspora in the Americas provides the rationalization for the movement of Japanese to the Dominican Republic. The author reveals that with the end of the Allied occupation of Japan, the Japanese government entered into an agreement with the Dominican Republic to settle Japanese on the island as a means to improve the lives of Japanese after the war.
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Horst, Oscar H., and Katsuhiro Asagirl. “The Odyssey of the Japanese Colonists in the Dominican Republic.” Geographical Review 90.3 (July 2000): 335–358.
DOI: 10.2307/3250857Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This is an excellent article on the attempts to colonize Japanese during the 1950s. Provides information on the joint venture between the Dominican Republic and Japanese governments to settle Japanese after World War II as a means to improve their lives. Although the Japanese population is relatively small on this island, the article provides insight into governmental efforts to deal with the Japanese situation after World War II.
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Chile

In the early 21st century, there are approximately 3,000 Japanese residing in Chile. The Japanese arrival to Chile dates back to the first decades of the 20th century. In general, the Japanese population in Chile remained small due to their inability to penetrate the highly protected agricultural industry that was controlled by a small rural elite group within Chilean society. The Chilean government also implemented anti-immigration measures that thwarted the movement of Japanese. Nevertheless, a small movement is discernible for the first half of the 20th century. The early pioneers worked in a variety of occupations and were dispersed throughout many regions. The primarily Japanese male population married native Chilean women, instigating the process of assimilation for the Nikkei population. World War II had a limited impact on the Japanese community due to Chile’s late declaration of war in 1945. Still, some Japanese were interned and had their property confiscated, and many were forced to the interior of the country. When war ended, the small Japanese community forged stronger bonds among themselves through associations and organizations to promote and sustain Japanese culture and customs. During the postwar years, many Japanese were able to attain middle class status in Chile. However, those who struggled were able to take advantage of Japan’s new immigration policy of the 1980s and 1990s that favored individuals of Japanese ancestry to return to Japan and work under long-term work visas. Studies in English remain limited on the Japanese in Chile. Akagi 1997, NikkeiChile, and Takeda’s “Chile and Japanese Migration” are accessible only online, but they each provide a gateway to basic understanding of the Japanese in Chile. Akagi’s article is useful for those seeking a basic overview of Japanese in Chile. The website “NikkeiChile” will guide individuals to local and regional Japanese organizations. Takeda’s article provides a historical overview of the Japanese in Chile. As with other small Japanese populations, very little literature exists on this community regardless of language. Barros 1997, Estrada Turra 1997, Sociedad Japonesa de Beneficencia 1997, and Takeda 2006 all provide general overviews of the Japanese, in Spanish. As a whole, these sources should provide a basic understanding of the relatively small but historically important Japanese population in Chile.

Akagi, Taeko. “Japanese Chileans Historical Overview.” International Nikkei Research Project. Los Angeles: Japanese American National Museum, 1997.
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This online article provides an overview of the movement of Japanese to Chile. It is especially strong up until 1945. A brief history, timeline, and summary information on the Japanese settlement in Chile.
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Barros, Mario Van Buren. Chile y Japón: Un siglo de amistad. Comisión Chilena de Celebración del Centenario de las Relaciones Chile-Japón. Santiago, Chile: Comisión Chilena de Celebración del Centenario de las Relaciones Chile-Japón, 1997.
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This publication discusses the history between Chile and Japan and includes such topics as economic and bilateral relations. The volume also includes material on Japanese culture and Chile’s foreign policies.
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Estrada Turra, Baldomero. Presencia Japonesa en la región de Valparaíso: Un proceso de asimilación de asimilación étnica y de desarrollo agrícola. Barudomero Esutorada Valparaíso, Chile: Ediciones Universitarias de Valparaíso de la Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, 1997.
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Provides an overview of the Japanese in the Valparaíso region with attention to identity and assimilation.
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NikkeiChile.
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This site is dedicated to the Japanese community in Chile and offers contacts, blogs, and various community activities regarding the Japanese throughout Chile.
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Sociedad Japonesa de Beneficencia. Censo nacional Nikkei: Conclusiones. Santiago, Chile: 1997.
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Provides a partial analysis of the Japanese community in Chile and contains historical information regarding the movement of Japanese to Chile.
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Takeda, Ariel. Anecdotario histórico: Japoneses Chilenos: Primer mitad de siglo XX. Santiago, Chile: n.p., 2006.
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Examines the history of Chile during the first half of the 20th century with special attention to the Japanese population.
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Takeda, Ariel. “Chile and Japanese Migration: Parts 1 and 2.” Discover Nikkei: Japanese Migrants and Their Descendants (16 January 2008).
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This article provides a general overview of Japanese emigration to Chile from its beginning in the early 20th to the late 20th century.
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Colombia

Japanese emigration to Colombia began shortly after Japan and Colombia signed the Treaty of Amity, Commerce and Navigation in 1908. Through the 1920s a small movement of Japanese appeared, primarily males who came via Cuba, Panama, and Peru to work as laborers on the coffee plantations. From the late 1920s to the mid-1930s approximately 160 Japanese entered the country. Although many worked in agriculture, the Japanese in Colombia also held diverse occupations that were often located in the urban sectors, including barbershops, grocery stores, restaurants, and truck farms. The outbreak of WWII brought Colombia into the Allied camp for the duration of the war. The small Japanese population did not escape the violence, discrimination, and overt acts of oppression. Furthermore, a small number of Japanese from Colombia were rounded up and sent to the United States for either repatriation or internment. Due to their experience during the war, the postwar years brought a sense of solidarity to the Japanese community, and a significant number of associations and organizations were created. Japanese Colombians also took advantage of Japan’s offer to return to Japan to work. By the late 20th century approximately 140 Nikkei were in Japan from a total Colombian population of 1,119.

English Language Studies

Prior to 2005, the only known English language study of the Japanese in Colombia was Eidt 1956, which provides a solid understanding of the movement of Japanese to the country. Sanmiguel 2005 provides the only book-length study and will be of interest to those wanting to know not just the history, but also the contemporary condition of the Japanese.

Eidt, Robert C. “A Note on Japanese Farmers in the Cauca Valley Colombia.” Revista Geographica 18.44 (1956): 41–51.
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Examines the Japanese colony in the Cauca Valley. Author indicates that the movement of the Japanese into Colombia was part of the Japanese government’s plan to provide crucial agricultural products to the country.
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Sanmiguel, Ines. Japan’s Quest for El Dorado: Emigration to Colombia. Tokyo: Kojinshoten, 2005.
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The study has three basic aims: first, to identify the expectations of Colombia regarding foreign immigration and the Japanese government in promoting emigration abroad; second, to explain the process of adaptation by the immigrants to the new social and physical environment; and third, to discuss the significance of the Nikkei labor migration to Japan.
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Spanish Language Studies

The production of scholarship in the Spanish language has increased somewhat. Gardiner 1972, and Núñez 1974 are early works on the Japanese and should be consulted for their excellent analyses of the Japanese in Colombia. Sanmiguel 2006 adds to the literature by inclusion of the status of the Nikkei in Colombia and in Japan.

Gardiner, C. Harvey. “Los Japoneses y Colombia.” Boletín de la Academia de Historia de Valle de Cauca 40 (1972): 158–160.
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Gardiner examines the movement and history of the Japanese in Colombia.
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Los pasos de 50 años: Historia de la inmigración Japonesa a Colombia. Cali, Colombia: Asociación Colombo-Japonesa, 1986.
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A fifty-year celebration of the Japanese presence in Colombia. Provides a strong analysis of the Japanese history in the country.
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Núñez, Ramos G. Reseña histórica de la colonia Japonesa de Corinto-Cauca, Colombia. Palmira, Colombia: Club Colombo-Japonés, 1974.
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A local and regional history of the Japanese in Corinto-Cauca, Colombia.
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Sanmiguel, Inés. “Japoneses en Colombia: Historia de inmigración, sus descendientes en Japón.” Revista de Estudios Sociales 23 (April 2006): 81–96.
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Based on primary sources, this article studies Japanese immigration in Colombia during the 20th century. The article provides the historical background for Japanese immigration to Colombia beginning with World War II through most of the 20th century. It also provides information on remittances to Japan.
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Japanese Language Studies

Scholarship in Japanese has been sporadic, with only a few studies available. However, Irie 1938 deals extensively with the Japanese experience overseas and should be consulted for the early analysis of the Japanese in Latin America. Koronbia Nihonjin ijū 70-nenshi 2001 and Nyûshoku Sanjûnen Kinen provided solid information regarding the history of the Japanese during the thirty- and seventy-year anniversaries of their arrival.

Irie Toraji. Hôjin Kaigai Hatten-shi (Historia de los Japoneses en Ultramar). Tokyo: Imin Mondai Kenkyû-kai, 1938.
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An early study on the Japanese overseas. Includes Latin America.
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Koronbia Nihonjin ijū 70-nenshi: 1929–1999 (70 aniversario de la inmigracion Japonesa a Colombia) (「コロンビア日本人移住七十年史」編集委員会編著). Cali, Colombia: Koronbia Nikkeijin Kyōkai, 2001.
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This study examined the history of the Japanese in Colombia at the seventy-year anniversary; it contains information on Japanese emigration and immigration to the country.
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Nyûshoku Sanjûnen Kinen: Koronbia Nihonjin Imin-shi (Aniversario de 30 Años de Colonización. Historia de la Emigración Japonesa a Colombia). Tokyo: Chiyoda Shuppan Insatsu, 1964.
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This study examined the history of Japanese colonization in Colombia at the thirty-year anniversary.
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Mexico

In 1888, Mexico became the first country in Latin America to sign a treaty recognizing Japan’s sovereignty. In 1897, thirty-four colonists from Japan landed off the coast of Chiapas near Puerto Madero (today Puerto Benito). These original colonists established what is known as the Enomoto Colony in Chiapas, Mexico. By the first decade of the 20th century, thousands of Japanese were entering Mexico through multiple locations and finding work throughout the country, especially its northern regions. Facilitated by emigration companies, Japanese went to work in the sugar fields of the lowlands, in railroad construction along the Pacific coast, and in the mining regions of Coahuila. The general experience of these contract laborers was poor in regards to treatment, work conditions, and violations of their contract. From 1901 to 1907 approximately 10,000 Japanese entered Mexico, with a significant portion entering the United States before the 1907–1908 Gentlemen’s Agreement barred their entry. It is estimated that roughly 4,000 Japanese resided in Mexico at the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910. During the 1920s and 1930s, Japanese emigration resumed, with more professionals rather than laborers emigrating. Simultaneously, the Japanese became prominent farmers in northern Mexico and created communities along the northern border with the United States. In 1940 the only location where Japanese communities remained relatively insular from Mexican society was Baja California, due to the critical mass of Japanese and their ability to maintain much of their Japanese identity. The Japanese in other locations exhibited high rates of assimilation, with Mexican culture supplanting Japanese. The population of Japanese in Mexico around 1940 was approximately 8 to 10 thousand. When Mexico broke diplomatic relations with Japan in December 1941 it also enacted wartime measures that required all the Japanese living along the coast and the border region to relocate to Mexico City and Guadalajara. With Japanese funds frozen, it was difficult to survive, which forced many to seek refuge in several de facto–type internment camps. Individuals from former Japanese associations formed a mutual aid society to help buffer the Japanese from the harsh realities of war. Unlike a dozen other Latin American countries, Mexico refused to send its Japanese population for internment in the United States. After the war, Japanese emigration to Mexico never reached any significance. The Japanese Mexican population in the early 21st century is estimated to be approximately 35,000.

English Language Studies

Much of the history of Japanese in Mexico remains in unpublished theses and dissertations, but those are excellent sources to begin an examination of the movement of Japanese to Mexico. Kunimoto 1975 and Watanabe 1983 are considered the best unpublished histories on the Japanese in Mexico. Guerra 1989 provides a strong analysis of the assimilation and identity of the Japanese in Guadalajara. Furthermore, Guerra provides insight to the Japanese experience during WWII and should be consulted for this discussion. Krych 1996 provides an important look at the Enomoto colonists and should be consulted for this early history. Garcia 2014 examines the Japanese immigration in Mexico, Japanese-Mexican relations, the role of Japanese in the Mexican Revolution, and the Japanese World War II experience. Misawa 2001 provides a discussion on the family dynamics of the Japanese in Mexico, especially the second generation. Akachi, et al. 2002 is included first because it is an excellent overview of the Japanese in Mexico and provides a very useful bibliography at the end, but also because the leading scholar of the Japanese in Mexico, María Elena Ota Mishima, coauthored this article, one of the few in English, before her untimely death. Chew 2012 provides one of the few published accounts in English of the Japanese experience in Mexico.

Akachi, Jesus K., Carlos T. Kasuga, Manuel S. Murakami, María Elena Ota Mishima, Enrique Shibayama, and Rene Tanaka. “Japanese Mexican Historical Overview.” In Encyclopedia of Japanese Descendants in the Americas: An Illustrated History of the Nikkei. Edited by Akemi Kikumura-Yano, 204–228. New York: AltaMira, 2002.
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This article is an excellent overview of the Japanese in Mexico with a limited bibliography. The authors are scholars, community members, and descendants of Issei in Mexico.
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Chew, Selfa. Silent Herons. Moonpark, CA: Floricanto Press, 2012.
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This book gives a partial account of the history and treatment of the Japanese-Mexican community during World War II in Mexico. The book incorporates interviews, legal documents, police reports, memoirs, poems, and short stories.
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Garcia, Jerry. Looking Like The Enemy: Japanese Mexicans, the Mexican State, and U.S. Hegemony, 1897–1945. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2014.
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This study delves deeply into the experiences of the Japanese on both sides of the border during World War II. Looking Like the Enemy is an ambitious study of a tumultuous half-century in Mexico. It is a significant contribution to our understanding of the immigrant experience in the Western Hemisphere and to the burgeoning field of borderlands studies.
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Guerra, Ramon. “Continuity and Change: Japanese Ethnicity in Guadalajara, Mexico.” PhD diss., Southern Methodist University, 1989.
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An excellent study on the Japanese community in Guadalajara. This dissertation primarily examines the Japanese community from a sociological perspective and provides detailed information on occupational patterns, intermarriages, and the treatment of the Japanese during World War II.
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Krych, Nobuko. “The History of the Early Japanese Emigration and Colonization in Mexico.” MA thesis, California State University Long Beach, 1996.
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This thesis focuses on the Japanese colony in Mexico. The author examines the various colonies and colonists in Mexico. The author indicates that the study is methodological rather than theoretical.
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Kunimoto, Iyo Iimura. “Japan and Mexico, 1888–1917.” PhD diss., The University of Texas at Austin, 1975.
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A strong study for those seeking information on the status and participation of Japanese and Japanese Mexicans during the Porfiriato and the Mexican Revolution.
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Misawa, Takehiro. “Social and Cultural Reproduction of Japanese Immigrant Families in Mexico: The Impact on the Formation of Expectations, Intergenerational Relations of Nisei.” Scripta Nova: Electronic Journal of Geography and Social Sciences 52.94 (August 2001).
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The aim of this study is to identify factors that affect the Nisei expectations (the second generation) regarding their relationship with their children.
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Watanabe, Chizuko. “The Japanese Immigrant Community in Mexico: Its History and Present.” MA thesis, California State University, Los Angeles, 1983.
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This study is one of the best unpublished studies on the Japanese in Mexico through the early 1980s. The author’s fluency in Japanese allowed the use of numerous Japanese language studies that provide excellent insight to the history of Japanese in Mexico. This thesis ends with a discussion on the Nikkei community in Mexico.
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Spanish Language Studies

Mexican and Japanese scholars have been prolific in documenting the Japanese experience in Mexico. Indeed, much of the credit for the development of this field in Mexico goes to the late professor from Colegio de Mexico, María Elena Ota Mishima. Siete Migraciones Japoneses en México, 1890–1978 (Ota Mishima 1982) is considered the standard regardless of language on the Japanese experience in Mexico. Ota Mishima 1997a and Ota Mishima 1997b provide additional details on the Asian experience in Mexico and the best economic analysis of the Japanese community in Mexico. Ota Mishima’s works are required texts for any scholar on the Japanese in Mexico. Cortés 1980 is excellent book for those seeking an understanding of the foreign relations between Japan and Mexico in the early 20th century. Those needing details on the Japanese experience during the late 19th century should consult Saito 1982. This thesis provides a thorough examination of the Enomoto colony, which arrived in 1897. Recently, new scholars, especially Nikkei in Mexico, have developed studies based on their family experiences. Sánchez 2005 is an excellent example of using family history as an analysis of the Japanese experience. New scholarship on the Japanese experience in Mexico during WWII can be gleaned from Feria 2008. This article specifically examines the Japanese experience in Mexico during World War II and sheds new light because of new primary sources used that had been previously closed to the public. Those seeking an excellent analysis of Japanese labor in Mexico should consult Yanaguida and Akagui 1995.

Cortés, Enrique. Relaciones entre México y Japón durante el Porfiriato. Mexico City: Archivo Histórico Diplomática Mexicano: Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, 1980.
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This publication provides crucial information on Mexican and Japanese diplomatic relations during the three decades of Porfirio Diaz’s presidency. The author provides information, in seven chapters, on the development of diplomatic relations between the two countries and the movement of Japanese to Mexico. Of great importance are the chapters that deal with Japanese colonists and contract laborers from Japan (pp. 1–125).
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Feria, Alicia Celis. “Amistad en tiempos difíciles entre Mexico y Japón,” Archivo General de la Nación, Boletín 6.21 (October-December 2008): 85–101.
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This article provides a general history of the relations between Mexico and Japan leading up to the World War II period. This article offers insight to the friendly relations between the two countries and the treatment of Japanese in Mexico during World War II.
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Ota Mishima, María Elena. Siete migraciones Japoneses en México, 1890–1978. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1982.
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This volume is considered the best published account of the movement of Japanese to Mexico. Ota Mishima examines seven different migrations of Japanese to Mexico spanning the 19th and 20th centuries.
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Ota Mishima, María Elena. “Características sociales y económicas de los migrantes Japoneses en México.” In Destino México: Un estudio de las migraciones Asiáticas a México, siglos XIX y XX. Edited by María Elena Ota Mishima, 55–121. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1997a.
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An excellent analysis of the social and economic position of Japanese in Mexico. This chapter has numerous graphs and charts breaking down the occupations, ages, places of origin in Japan, and destinations in Mexico for Japanese who arrived in the first half of the 20th century.
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Ota Mishima, María Elena, ed. Destino México: Un estudio de las migraciones Asiáticas a México, siglos XIX y XX. Mexico City: El Colegio de México, 1997b.
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A collection of nine essays that examine immigration to Mexico by Japanese, Chinese, Palestinians, Koreans, Arabs, Filipinos, and Indians. Of special note is the chapter by María Elena Ota Mishima on the Japanese in Mexico. Ota Mishima’s work on the Japanese is highly regarded.
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Saito, Katsuhito Misawa. “La Colonia Enomoto de Chiapas: Estrategia expansionista y proyectos migratorios Japoneses a fines del siglo XIX: El caso de Mexico.” Masters thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico Facultad de Filosofía y Letras División de Estudios Superiores, 1982.
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This thesis provides an excellent overview of the Enomoto Colony during the late 19th century. This colony is considered the first official attempt by Japanese to settle in Mexico.
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Sánchez, Emma Chrishuru Nakatani. “Memorias de un inmigrante japonés.” Istor 6.21 (Summer 2005): 142–148.
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This article describes the experience of a Japanese individual who arrived in Mexico in 1930s. This article will be of interest to those looking for first-hand accounts of their experience in Mexico. This article uses interviews by the author, who is related to the subject of the article.
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Yanaguida, Toshio, and Taeko Akagui. “Mexico y los emigrantes Japoneses.” Estudios Migratorios Latinoamericanos. 10.30 (1995): 373–402.
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The authors provide information on the initial movement into Mexico’s coffee country in the south and why it failed. Japanese contract labor is also discussed and how the Japanese used this method as a backdoor entry into the United States. Finally, the article examines the Japanese experience in Mexico during World War II.
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Japanese Language Studies

Japanese scholars have conducted the most comprehensive and detailed examination of the Japanese in Mexico. Indeed, they began to produce book-length studies on the Japanese at least a decade before anyone else. This is represented in Nihon Mekishiko Imin, which provides one of the most detailed studies on Japanese in Mexico. For an excellent social history of Japanese in Mexico consult Izawa 1971. Kunimoto 1976 and Kunimoto 1977 provide a detailed understanding of the Japanese situation in Mexico during the first decades of the 20th century. Those seeking information on Japanese-Mexican relations, WWI geopolitics, and the role of Japan and Japanese during the Mexican Revolution must consult Kunimoto’s work. The catalyst for the movement of Japanese to Mexico occurred because of Enomoto Buyo Takeaki, a former samurai and Japanese foreign minister. For an excellent examination of this individual and his designs for Japanese in Mexico, consult Tsunoyama 1986. Two books that provide further analysis of the Enomoto colonists and the motivations for Japanese emigration to Mexico are Yamamoto 1988 and Ueno 1994. For a general understanding of Japanese-Mexican foreign relations and a basic understanding of conditions that fostered emigration to Mexico, see Nichi-Boku Kōryūshi.

Izawa Minoru. Nihonjin Mekishiko Ijushi. Tokyo: n.p., 1971.
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Considered one of the best accounts of the Japanese experience in Mexico. Contains detailed interviews with many Japanese Mexicans. The book has an excellent account of the Japanese in Mexico during World War II. (Title translation: History of Japanese emigration to Mexico.)
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Kunimoto Iyo Iimura. “Mekishiko Kakumei to Nohon, 1913–1917.” Rekishigaku Kenkyu 434 (July 1976): 1–14.
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This article examines the role of the Japanese in Mexico during the Mexican Revolution. It also explores Japan’s attempt at acquiring a naval base on the Pacific coast. (Title translation: The Mexican Revolution and Japan, 1913–1914.)
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Kunimoto Iyo Iimura. “Magudarena-wan jiken: Monro dokutorin to Nihon.” Amerika Kenkyu 11 (March 1977): 140–168.
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This article analyzes concerns of the United States that Japan and Japanese colonists were attempting to purchase land near Magadalena Bay in order to establish a naval station. Studies early relations between Mexico and Japan with US concerns regarding friendly Mexican-Japanese relations. (Title translation: The Magadalena Bay episode, 1911–1912: The Monroe Doctrine and Japan.)
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Nichi-Boku Kyōkai, Nichi-Boku Kōryūshi Henshū Iinkai hen (日墨交流史/日墨協会, 日墨交流史編集委員会編). Tokyo: PMC Shuppan, 1990.
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This book provides a general history of the interaction between Mexico and Japan. The book also analyzes emigration and immigration from Japan.
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Nihon Mekishiko Imin. Tokyo: Japanese Compilation Committee on Immigration History, 1971.
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This is a study on Japanese immigration in Mexico. This book examines the conditions for emigration; the Enomoto Colony; the Japanese and the Mexican Revolution; Japanese in northern Mexico; treaty signed between Mexico and Japan; the Japanese and World War II; the development of Japanese enterprises; and Japanese pioneers in Mexico and their achievements. (Title translation: Japanese emigration to Mexico.)
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Tsunoyama Yukihiro. Enomoto Buyo to Mekishiko Shokumin Iju (榎本武揚とメキシコ殖民移住/角山幸洋著). Tokyo: Dobunkan, 1986.
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This is an excellent study on Buyo Enomoto (Enomoto Takeaki), the Japanese foreign minister who organized the first official Japanese colonization attempt in Mexico, and his attempts at sending Japanese to Mexico. This study provides excellent material on Enomoto’s motivation and plans for establishing a Japanese colony with details on settlement sites, the departure of the first immigrants, their treatment, and the eventual demise of the colony. (Title translation: Buyo Enomoto and migration to Mexican settlements.)
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Ueno Hisashi. Mekishiko Enomoto Shokuminn. Tokyo: Chuo Koron-Sha, 1994.
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Provides detailed account of the Enomoto Colony. Also goes into detail regarding the remnants of the colony after its demise in the early 20th century. Overall this study is an excellent analysis of the Enomoto settlement and its aftermath. (Title translation: Enomoto Settlement in Mexico.)
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Yamamoto Atsuko. Mekishiko in Ikiru Nikkei-Immintachi. Tokyo: Kawaide Shobo Shinsha, 1988.
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A six-chapter study on Japanese immigrants in Mexico. The book covers the movement of Japanese not just to Mexico, but also to various locations in South America. The study also examines the descendants of the Enomoto Colony, the banning of contract immigration to Mexico, the Mexican Revolution, and the status of Japanese in Mexico during World War II. (Title translation: Japanese immigrants living in Mexico.)
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Paraguay

Paraguayan-Japanese relations began in with a trade treaty signed in 1919. However, Japanese immigration to Paraguay did not begin until the 1930s, because of internal conflicts that discouraged Japanese from entering the country. The movement of Japanese into Paraguay was also the result of restrictive measures imposed by Brazil on immigrants; thus, Paraguay became an alternative location. In 1936 the Japanese government agreed to the emigration of one hundred Japanese families to establish La Colmena Colony. Within five years, nearly 850 Japanese arrived into La Colmena. Although this colony struggled in the early years, by 1941 it had established an educational system to disseminate Japanese language and culture to the colonists’ children and produced enough agricultural crops for self-sufficiency. Most of the Japanese from this colony also maintained a strong affiliation with Japanese identity, at least until the outbreak of World War II. When war broke out, the Japanese population was small; nevertheless, the Paraguayan government took control of La Colmena Colony for the duration of the conflict and prohibited any meetings or gatherings by the Japanese. The location of La Colmena was so remote that government officials had very few concerns regarding its Japanese population. The 1950s represent the second stage of Japanese emigration when the Paraguayan and Japanese governments agreed to settle additional Japanese in Paraguay’s eastern region in and around La Paz, Chaves, Fram, and Encarnacion. In addition to providing each colonist with a hundred-acre grant, the Japanese extended credit to each family for the purchase of heavy equipment, subsidies not afforded to the original colonists of La Colmena in the 1930s. The 1960s and 1970s witnessed the movement of the Nisei and Sansei generations into the urban sectors such as Asuncion and Encarnacion. According to many scholars, one the great distinctions of the contemporary Japanese Paraguayans is that most maintain a strong affiliation with their Japanese heritage with 95 percent speaking fluent Japanese. Today there are approximately 10,350 individuals of Japanese ancestry in Paraguay.

English Language Studies

The early studies on the Japanese in Paraguay were conducted in Stewart 1961 and Stewart 1967, with each of these articles providing a basic understanding of the movement and the colonization of various regions by Japanese. More recent work has examined the Nikkei in Paraguay represented in Kasamatsu 2002, which examines education, language, and assimilation.

Kasamatsu, Emi. “The Nikkei’s Education in the Japanese Language in Paraguay: The Japanese Educational System and Its Influence on the Colonies.” In New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Edited by Lane Hirabayashi, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James Hirabayashi, 126–140. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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This chapter discusses the history of Japanese in Paraguay and argues that this history is much shorter and relatively more recent than that of other Japanese diasporas in Latin America. The author argues that due to the more recent arrival of Japanese to Paraguay they exhibit stronger ties to their country of origin, especially the language. The article also explores the impact of assimilation on Japanese culture.
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Stewart, Norman R. “Recent Trends in Paraguayan Immigration: A Pioneer Settlement.” Geographical Review 51 (1961): 431–433.
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In 1960, the Japanese Overseas Emigration Promotion Company purchased nearly 240,000 acres of land in the central Paraguayan portion of the Parana Plateau and the company began to recruit Japanese to settle in this region. The article also examines the Japanese government’s involvement and attempts at settling Japanese in Paraguay.
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Stewart, Norman R. Japanese Colonization in Eastern Paraguay. Washington, DC: National Academy Of Sciences, National Research Council, 1967.
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Based on the author’s dissertation, this book is case study on Japanese colonization in eastern Paraguay with an emphasis on the community of La Colmena.
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Spanish and Portuguese Language Studies

Nichikawa 1964 provides one of the few studies on the Japanese in Paraguay during World War II. Kasamatsu 1997 provides a detailed analysis of the history, integration, and contributions of the Japanese in Paraguay. Included is the website for La Federación de Asociaciones Japonesa en el Paraguay, which provides additional information on the Japanese and will lead individuals to other links for useful information.

La Federación de Asociaciones Japonesa en el Paraguay.
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This site contains excellent information on the Japanese community. In addition to the general history of the Japanese in the country, the site also has a wealth of information on the current status of the Japanese in Paraguay. The site also contains a link for the various Japanese colonies located throughout the country. This is one of the better online resources for Japanese in Paraguay.
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Kasamatsu, Emi. La presencia Japonesa en el Paraguay. Asuncion, Paraguay: Biblioteca de Estudios Paraguayos, Universidad Católica, Biblioteca de Estudios Paraguayos, 1997.
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Provides a history of Japanese emigration and immigration to Paraguay.
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Nichikawa, Daijiro. “A expansao dos nucleos coloniais Japonesas no Paraguai apos a Segund Guerra Mundial.” Sociologia 26 (1964): 33–81.
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Examines the presence of the Japanese and their colonies during World War II. One of the few sources that discusses the Japanese in Paraguay during World War II.
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Japanese Language Studies

Unfortunately, Japanese language studies are in short supply. The following sources provide important information on the movement of Japanese to Paraguay and their development as a community. Nihon to Paraguai: Paraguai Kyōwakoku daitōryō hō-Nichi kinen shuppan (1973), Nihon to Paraguai (1978), and Usui 1958 each provide an understanding of Japanese emigration and the development of colonies in the country.

Nihon to Paraguai: Paraguai Kyōwakoku daitōryō hō-Nichi kinen shuppan (Paraguay y Japon) (日本とパラグァイ: パラグァイ共和国大統領訪日記念出版). Tokyo: Paraguai to Nihon Kankōkai, Rajio Nikkeisha, Paraguai Shinpōsha, 1973.
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Examines Japanese-Paraguayan foreign relations and Japanese emigration and immigration. This source also discusses a diplomatic trip to Japan by the President of Paraguay.
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Nihon to Paraguai (パラグアイ日本)/ Gaimusho Joho Bunkakyoku henshu. Tokyo: Sekai no Ugokisha, 1978.
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A comprehensive examination of Japanese emigration to Paraguay.
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Usui, Shigeru. (ラColmenaの二十年の歴史：パラグアイで初日本植民地). Tokyo: n.p., 1958.
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Twenty-Year History of La Colmena, the First Japanese Colony in Paraguay. Provides a comprehensive examination of a Japanese colony in Paraguay. Important source on the first Japanese colony in the country.
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Peru

The first group of Japanese entered Peru in 1899, becoming the second Japanese group to begin the colonization process in Latin America after that in Mexico. The Japanese population in Peru is made up of those Japanese that came from the mainland and those that came from Okinawa. In fact, the Japanese from Okinawa constituted the largest group to immigrate to Peru. Initially many of the early arrivals worked on the sugar and cotton plantations as contract laborers. By the 1920s, many Japanese began to gravitate towards urban centers to work independently or in small businesses like coffee shops, grocery stores, or restaurants. This movement to the urban centers was also the result of the abolishment of contract labor in Peru in 1923. Nevertheless, Japanese immigration in Peru continued at a high rate with nearly 8,000 entering from 1924 to 1936. With a significant population in Peru before 1940, the Japanese community was able to create organizations that helped solidify the community and eased the transition as Japanese entered the country. As with most Latin American countries, Peru had hoped to attract European immigrants, but the majority that came were of Asian origin and this caused considerable debate in the country. The best illustration before WWII of the anti-Japanese sentiment is the May 1940 anti-Japanese riots that devastated the Japanese community in Lima. In 1941 the Japanese population in Peru was over 33,000. But with the outbreak of war, the Peruvian government imposed restrictions that led to the confiscation of Japanese property and Japanese schools were also shut down. Eventually 1,800 Japanese were deported to the United States for internment or held hostage to be used for exchange with Japan for US citizens. At the end of the war, fewer than one hundred Japanese were returned to Peru; the majority were repatriated to Japan with a small contingent allowed to remain in the United States. Over 20,000 Japanese remained in Peru during the war and found refuge in remote locations or fled Peru to other Latin American countries such as Argentina or Brazil. By the 1950s and 1960s many Japanese began the process of assimilation and limited upward mobility could be seen. By the end of the 1980s there were approximately 46,000 individuals of Japanese origin, with that number rising to 90,000 in the early 21st century.

English Language Studies

The most useful early works on Japanese include Irie 1951a and Irie 1951b. These articles are actually based on the author’s Japanese language text. These successive articles provide an excellent understanding of the Japanese movement into Peru and are highly recommended. One of the first studies to examine primary documents of the US government to reveal the process of internment is Barnhart 1962. The first book-length studies that are standard works on the Japanese are Gardiner 1975 and Gardiner 1981. Gardiner pioneered much of the scholarship on the Japanese in Peru and elsewhere in Latin America. For a first-hand account of deportation and internment, readers should consult Higashide 2000. Miasato 2002 studies the Japanese experience through the lens of gender. Very few studies have used this approach, and thus this work will be useful for the study of Japanese women and Latin America. The most current studies on the Japanese take an interdisciplinary approach. For a collection of essays using this type of analysis, see Lopez-Calvo 2013.

Barnhart, Edard N. “Japanese Internees from Peru.” Pacific Historical Review 31.2 (May 1962): 169–178.
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Barnhart examines the Japanese experience during World War II and their removal from Peru. Uses primarily US documents to trace their deportation and internment.
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Gardiner, C. Harvey. The Japanese and Peru, 1873–1973. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1975.
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One of the first book-length studies in English of the Japanese in Peru or Latin America. Provides a one-hundred-year history of the Japanese, their treatment, and adaptation to Peru. Excellent discussion on the diplomatic relations between Peru, Japan, and the United States. Gardiner also provides a thorough analysis of anti-Japanese sentiments.
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Gardiner, C. Harvey. Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1981.
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Examines the deportation and internment of Japanese Peruvians with a significant discussion on the circumstances that created the atmosphere of hate towards the Japanese. This book has an informative and sobering analysis of the Peruvian-US collaboration to remove the Japanese from Peru.
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Higashide, Seiichi. Adios to Tears: The Memoirs of a Japanese-Peruvian Internee in U.S. Concentration Camps. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000.
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Provides an excellent analysis of the deportation and internment of Japanese through a biographical study. As this is the author’s personal story, the reader will receive a first-hand account of the precarious position of Japanese in Latin America.
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Irie, Toraji. “History of Japanese Migration to Peru, Part I.” Translated by William Himel. Hispanic American Historical Review 31.4 (August 1951a): 437–452.
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This is Part 1 of a three-part series regarding the history of Japanese migration throughout the world since the Meiji restoration of 1868. These articles have been translated from their original Japanese, which appeared in Toraji Irie’s original two-volume book Hojin Kaigai Hattenshi (see citation under Peru: Japanese Language Studies). This first article examines the period 1893–1900 and provides many insights from the Japanese immigrants.
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Irie, Toraji. “History of Japanese Migration to Peru, Part II.” Translated by William Himel. Hispanic American Historical Review 31.3 (November 1951b): 648–664.
DOI: 10.2307/2509359Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
The author provides important information on the early struggles of the Japanese in Peru. An excellent discussion on the Japanese immigration companies, their role in contracting Japanese immigrants for work in Peru, and complaints filed by the immigrants. It also provides information on the transition from farmer to shopkeeper.
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Lopez-Calvo, Ignacio. The Affinity of the Eye: Writing Nikkei in Peru. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2013.
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This book provides an interdisciplinary look at the Peruvians of Japanese ancestry. Chapters include discussions on Japanese in Peru during World War II, the distinct Okinawan community, Nippo-Peruvian identity, and short stories on the Japanese experience along with Japanese Peruvian poetry.
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Miasato, Doris Moromiasato. “I Woman, I Man, I Nikkei: Symbolic Construction of Femininity and Masculinity in the Japanese Community of Peru.” In New Worlds, New Lives: Globalization and People of Japanese Descent in the Americas and from Latin America in Japan. Edited by Lane Hirabayashi, Akemi Kikumura-Yano, and James Hirabayashi, 187–204. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2002.
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This chapter explores the notion of identity, power, and community from the perspective of gender. More important, the author questions the void of Japanese women in the history and discourse of the Japanese population in the Americas.
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Spanish Language Studies

Most of the scholarly interest on Japanese in Peru has examined this group primarily through its history. Araki 1980 is an excellent example of this history and provides a good overview. Morimoto 1979 and Morimoto 1999 are by one of the leading scholars on the Japanese in Peru, and her work should be consulted. A well-written local study is Lausent-Herrera 1988, which looks at Japanese in the Amazon for most of the 20th century. Watanabe, et al. 1999 provides a nice hundred-year history that is useful for a basic understanding of the Japanese in Peru. Broader and more diverse examinations of the Japanese are Yamawaki 2002 and Fukumoto Sato 1997: these two books analyze the acculturation and assimilation of Japanese in Peru.

Araki, Raúl and Luis Diez Canseco Núñez. Migración japonesa al Perú: 80 anos, un largo camino. Lima, Peru: Asociación Universitaria Nisei del Perú, 1980.
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An overview of eighty years of Japanese immigration to Peru and their integration into Peruvian society.
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Fukumoto Sato, Mary Nancy. Hacia un nuevo sol: Japoneses y sus descendientes en el Perú: Historia, cultura e identidad. Lima, Peru: Asociación Peruano Japonesa de Perú, 1997.
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This book examines Japanese immigration to Peru and explores the notions of identity, acculturation, and assimilation.
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Lausent-Herrera, Isabelle. “La presencia japonesa en el eje Huánuco-Pucallpa entre 1918 y 1982.” Revista Geográfica 107 (January-June 1988): 93–117.
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This article examines the arrival of Japanese into the Amazonian region of Peru. The article also examines the emigration companies that promoted this movement out of Japan. Overall a very good study using primary sources to document the presence of Japanese.
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Morimoto, Amelia. Los inmigrantes Japoneses en el Perú. Lima, Perú: Universidad Nacional Agraria, 1979.
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This volume provides an excellent study on the Japanese in Peru: from the late 19th century, including diplomatic history, to the initial movement of Japanese to Peru in the early 20th century. The book also examines the Japanese experience during the interwar years, World War II, and the postwar period.
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Morimoto, Amelia. Los Japoneses y sus descendientes en el Perú. Lima, Peru: Congreso de la Republica del Perú, 1999.
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This book studies the one-hundred-year history of the Japanese community in Peru. Explores their activities, treatment, and adaptation to the host country.
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Watanabe, Jose, Amelia Morimoto, and Oscar Chambi. La memoria de ojo: Cien anos de presencia japonesa en el Perú. Lima, Peru: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú, 1999.
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Provides an excellent hundred-year overview of the Japanese in Peru.
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Yamawaki, Chikako. Estrategias de vida de los inmigrantes asiáticos en el Perú. Lima, Peru: IEP, Instituto de Estudios Peruanos; JCAS, the Japan Center for Area Studies, 2002.
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This book examines the economic activities and cultural associations that were developed by Asian immigrants, both Chinese and Japanese, in Peru.
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Japanese Language Studies

Irie 1942 is one of the early standard works on the Japanese in Peru. A significant portion of this book has been translated into English. See Irie 1951a and Irie 1951b, cited under Peru: English Language Studies, for details. For more recent works in Japanese, consult Yanagida 1997 and Nakatake 1998.

Irie Toraji. Hojin Kaigai Hattenshi. 2 vols. Tokyo: Iida Shoten, 1942.
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This two-volume set examines Japanese migration throughout the world since the Meiji restoration of 1868. Much of the book deals with the Western Hemisphere, especially Peru and other regions of Latin America.
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Nakatake Mikio. Oku Amazon no Nikkeijin: Perū kudari to akuma no tetsudō (奥アマゾンの日系人:ペルー下りと悪魔の鉄道). Kōmyakusha, Japan: Miyakazi-shi, 1998.
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Examines Japanese emigration and immigration to Peru, especially those Japanese who migrated deep into the Amazon. Author conducts extensive interviews with descendants.
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Yanagida Toshio. Rima no Nikkeijin: Perū ni okeru Nikkei shakai no takakuteki bunseki (リマの日系人:ペル－における日系社会の多角的分析). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 1997.
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This study is based on fieldwork conducted in 1995 by a research team in Lima, Peru. The study conducted random interviews with Japanese Peruvians of ages forty to fifty-nine. A collection of essays that examines the history, culture, and health of the Japanese community in Peru.
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Japanese, Latin America, and World War II

Regardless of their location in the Americas, the Japanese shared a common World War II experience that continues to reverberate into the 21st century. Indeed, this wartime experience changed and shaped the Japanese in Latin America in regards to their identity, position in society, and future stake in their respective countries. Until the turn of the 21st century, relatively little was known about the Japanese in Latin America. Much of the literature after World War II focused on the Japanese American experience, with the handful of articles and books on Japanese in Latin America relegated to the margins of this experience. Furthermore, a significant amount of the literature on the Japanese in Latin America was produced in the Japanese language, limiting access to these excellent studies. The 2000s have seen an increasing number of studies in English, Spanish, and Japanese that have focused on the World War II experience throughout the Americas, especially in Latin America.

English Language Studies

The recent surge in studies that examine the Japanese WWII experience has primarily been in the English language. One of the earliest studies, Barnhart 1962, is a broad examination of wartime measures and will be of interest to historians, sociologists, and legal scholars. The propaganda magazine Inter-American Monthly (1942–1946) should be consulted to examine the anti-Japanese sentiments promoted by the US government. For an article-length study that examines Japanese and Okinawan internees, consult Hagihara and Shimizu 2002. For book-length studies and broad examinations of the Japanese during WWII, see Connell 2002, Masterson and Classen 2003, and Robinson 2009. Each of these studies is well done and provides excellent insight to the overall situation of Japanese in Latin America during war. Leonard and Bratzel 2007 does not examine the Japanese specifically; rather, the book will be of interest for those wanting information on the Axis infiltration into Latin America, including the Japanese.

Barnhart, Edward N. “Citizenship and Political Tests in Latin American Republics in World War II.” Hispanic American Historical Review 42.3 (August 1962): 297–332.
DOI: 10.2307/2510467Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article examines various Latin American countries during World War II and their programs regarding nationality and citizenship. The author argues that members of many groups, especially those who had been naturalized as citizens, were vulnerable to wartime hysteria and discrimination. Many individuals whose origins were from the Axis countries were denaturalized.
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Connell, Thomas. America’s Japanese Hostages: The World War II Plan for a Japanese Free Latin America. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.
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This book analyzes the roundup of Japanese in Latin America during World War II and their internment in the United States. The book probes some of the rationalizations as to why the United States took such a course of action. This book will be of strong interest to those studying the internment of Japanese beyond the Japanese American experience.
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Hagihara, Ayako, and Grace Shimizu. “The Japanese Latin American Wartime and Redress Experience.” Amerasia Journal 28.2 (2002): 203–217.
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This is an account of the 2,264 Japanese Latin American internees, what they suffered at the hands of the US government during World War II, and their continuing struggle for redress for the civil and human rights violations perpetrated against them.
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Inter-American Monthly. 1942–1946.
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Publication of this monthly magazine began in May 1942 and ran through November 1946. This publication was a propaganda outlet for the US government. Contains numerous articles on the Japanese throughout the Americas. This is an excellent source to understand how US propaganda was used and the views of the Japanese throughout the Americas.
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Leonard, Thomas M., and John F. Bratzel. Latin America during World War II. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2007.
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This unique volume offers an in-depth analysis of the region during WWII. According to the authors, each country responded to World War II according to its own national interests, which often conflicted with those of the Allies. Drawing on US and Latin American primary sources, the book offers a comparison of the wartime experiences of various Latin American countries.
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Masterson, Daniel M., and Sayaka Funada Classen. The Japanese in Latin America. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2003.
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This study is a broad examination of the general Japanese experience in Latin America. Throughout this volume the authors provide information on individual Latin American countries’ Japanese populations and their experience during World War II. This book is useful for those needing a basic understanding of the Japanese experience in Latin America during World War II.
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Robinson, Greg. A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confinement in North America. New York: Columbia University Press, 2009.
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The book provides a comparative and transnational perspective on the internment of Japanese throughout North America. Although primarily examining the Japanese in the United States, Robinson explores US policy regarding the treatment of Japanese in Mexico and other places in Latin America. This new scholarship also examines and compares the treatment of Japanese during World War II and the 21st-century War on Terror.
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Spanish Language Studies

En Guardia: Para Defensa de las Americas (1941–1945) was the counterpart to the Inter-American Monthly, but printed in both Spanish and Portuguese. This will be useful to glean an understanding of the propaganda wars in Latin America, particularly how propaganda pertained to the Japanese. Peddie 2006 is another article-length study that specifically addresses the Japanese Mexican situation during WWII.

En Guardia: Para Defensa de las Americas. 1941–1945.
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A monthly news magazine published in Spanish and Portuguese and primarily aimed as propaganda for a Latin American audience during the era of World War II. This was the Spanish/Portguese counterpart to The Inter-American Monthly established by the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA), headed by Nelson A. Rockefeller.
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Peddie, Francis. “Una presencia incomoda: La colonia Japonés de Mexico durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial.” Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de Mexico 32 (July-December 2006): 73–101.
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This article examines the Japanese situation in Mexico during World War II. Specifically it studies the restrictive measures imposed on the Japanese community as a result of the attack on Pearl Harbor. The study uses Japanese Mexican interviews, secondary sources, and a limited amount of primary sources from the Mexican national archives.
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Japanese Language Studies

Scholarship in Japanese that specifically examines the Japanese, WWII, and Latin America is limited. Imin Kenkyūkai 1997, however, sheds light on the Japanese experience and provides insight from the Nikkei perspective.

Imin Kenkyūkai, ed. Sensō to Nihonjin imin (戦争と日本人移民). Tokyo: Tōyō Shorin, 1997.
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Examines different aspects of World War II and how it affected Japanese immigration throughout the world in terms of the immigrants’ lives, social and cultural activities, and language. Also examines the impact of the war on Japanese immigrants/Nikkei population, by observing how they dealt with the war. (Title translation: War and Japanese immigration.)
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Nikkei in Japan

Scholars, students, and the general public conducting research on the Japanese experience in Latin America will inevitability encounter the phenomenon of return migration to Japan by the Nikkei of Latin America. In the 1980s, Japan’s growing economy faced a labor shortage in the most dangerous, difficult, and dirty jobs, primarily due to the stigma of unskilled labor. As a result, Japan’s Ministry of Labor began to grant visas to ethnic Japanese from Latin America. The visas were codified in 1990, with changes to Japan’s Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act that allowed long-term visas to Nikkei from Latin America. Simultaneously, many countries in Latin America, such as Brazil and Argentina, experienced economic crises. This movement back to Japan has often been termed dekasegi migration, or working away from home on a temporary basis. Some scholars prefer to translate dekasegi as labor migrant. By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, nearly 300,000 Nikkei from Latin America resided in Japan, with the largest contingents from Brazil, Peru, Argentina, Bolivia, and Paraguay. However, due to the world financial crisis that began in 2007–2008, many of the Nikkei have suffered job loss, with the Japanese government offering to pay for their repatriation back to their Latin American countries. This twenty-five- to thirty-year-long phenomenon has generated considerable scholarship to understand the reverse migration and its implications.

English Language Studies

The majority of the studies on the movement back to Japan have appeared primarily in article form, with some exceptions. Also, the majority of the studies have been on Japanese Brazilians, since they represent the majority of Latin Americans in Japan. Individuals should consult Green 2010, Tsuda 2003, and Yamamoto 2010 for specific examples on Japanese Brazilians in Japan. Book-length studies on Japanese Brazilians include De Carvalho 2002. For scholarship that examines Japanese Bolivians, see Suzuki 2010. Takenaka 1999 examines Japanese Peruvians in Japan and the United States, and the Nikkei in Peru. For broad examinations of Japanese Latin Americans in Japan, consult Reyes-Ruiz 2005 and Takenaka 2009.

De Carvalho, Daniela. Migrants and Identity in Japan and Brazil: The Nikkeijin. New York: Routledge, 2002.
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This interdisciplinary book addresses issues such as migration, ethnic identity, and ethnic community from the perspectives of both Japan and Brazil, and utilizes a wide range of Japanese, Portuguese, and English sources. It will be of interest to sociologists, social psychologists, anthropologists, and East Asian specialists.
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Green, Paul. “Generation, Family, and Migration: Young Brazilian Factory Workers in Japan.” Ethnography 11.4 (2010): 515–532.
DOI: 10.1177/1466138110362007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article focuses on the significance of generational differences and kinship ties in the lives of young Brazilian migrants living and working in Japan. The author challenges the ongoing tendency in transnational migration studies to highlight the importance of economic motivation, a myth of return, and the primary significance of communal ties in the shaping of everyday migrant experiences.
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Reyes-Ruiz, Rafaeil. “Creating Latino Communities in the Tokyo-Yokohama Metropolitan Area.” Journal of Ethnic & Migration Studies 31.1 (January 2005): 151–169.
DOI: 10.1080/1369183042000305726Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
Examines Latin Americans of Japanese ancestry who have migrated and settled in urban areas throughout Japan. Paper discusses the formal and informal networks that immigrants develop to overcome obstacles to accommodate to their host society. Article argues that the social and cultural negotiations that facilitate these networks contribute to the creation of a pan-national Latin American culture in Japan.
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Suzuki, Taku. Embodying Belonging: Racializing Okinawan Diaspora in Bolivia and Japan. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2010.
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This study examines the movement of thousands of Bolivians of Japanese ancestry back to Japan as migrant laborers. The volume provides detailed information on the treatment of Japanese Bolivians in Japan and in Bolivia. The book also provides information on employment, social mobility, and networks from sending to host country.
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Takenaka, Ayumi. “Transnational Community and Its Ethnic Consequences: The Return Migration and the Transformation of Ethnicity of Japanese Peruvians.” American Behavioral Scientist 42 (1999): 1459–1474.
DOI: 10.1177/00027649921954994Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article examines the consequences of transnational community formation for immigrant communities and ethnic identity. Focusing on a culturally, nationally, and racially mixed group of Japanese Peruvians who are dispersed across Peru, Japan, and the United States, the article examines how the communities are transformed as a consequence of migration and transnational ties.
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Takenaka, Ayumi. “How Diasporic Ties Emerge: Pan-American Nikkei Communities and the Japanese State.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 32.8 (October 2009): 1325–1345.
DOI: 10.1080/01419870701719055Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This paper examines the development of global ethnic ties, focusing on pan-American Nikkei activities among later-generation descendants of Japanese immigrants. This article addresses how diasporic ties emerge across countries, and how ties are mobilized.
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Tsuda, Takeyuki. Strangers in the Ethnic Homeland: Japanese Brazilian Return Migration in Transnational Perspective. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
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This volume, with an introduction, six chapters, and a conclusion, examines Japanese Brazilians in Japan. This book is a comprehensive ethnography that examines the ethnic experiences and reactions of both Japanese Brazilian immigrants and their native Japanese hosts.
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Yamamoto, Lucia Emiko. “Gender Roles and Ethnic Identities in a Globalizing World: The Case of Japanese Brazilian Migrant Women.” In Japanese and Nikkei at Home and Abroad: Negotiating Identities in a Global World. Edited by Nobuko Adachi, 187–210. New York: Cambria Press, 2010.
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This article examines how the dekasegi (temporary worker) phenomenon has impacted all aspects of Japanese Brazilian society. The article’s main focus is on female dekasegi migrants in their evolving social roles as family members. The article gives accounts of five Nikkei Brazilian women who were single when they first went to Japan as temporary workers.
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Spanish Language Studies

Rodríguez 2010 is one of the few studies in Spanish to address the movement of Japanese Latin Americans to Japan, in this particular case Japanese Peruvians.

Rodríguez, Carlos Aquino. “Migración de peruanos a Japón.” Pensamiento crítico 13 (June 2010): 7–21.
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The article describes the situation of Peruvian migrants in Japan. The reasons behind the departure of Peruvians to Japan are addressed, along with why some of them came back to Peru; and the amount of remittance from that country is analyzed.
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Japanese Language Studies

In the last several years, Japanese scholars have produced many studies and provide excellent sources for the examination of the Nikkei in Japan. However, much of the attention remains with the Japanese Brazilians: see Mita 2011, Onai 2009a, Onai 2009b, and Sekiguchi 2003. Mita’s collection of multidisciplinary essays is useful for its broad approach of examining Japanese Brazilian return to Japan. Onai’s first study details the experience of Japanese Brazilians in Japan through a variety of lenses that include economic and cultural adaptation. Onai’s other study is very specific regarding its subject—children of immigrants and their experience as children in Japan. For a broad examination of the Nikkei in Japan, consult Morimoto and Negawa 2012. Overall, these Japanese sources provide important information regarding the movement of Japanese Brazilians back to Japan. The collection of books and articles under this section will guide most readers to a better understanding of what has become known as dekasegi migration.

Mita Chiyoko, ed. Gurōbaruka no naka de ikiru towa: Nikkei Burajirujin no toransunashonaru na kurashi (グローバル化の中で生きるとは: 日系ブラジル人のトランスナショナルな暮らし/三田千代子編著 =). Tokyo: Sophia University Press, 2011.
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This collection of essays provides an overview of Japanese Brazilians who have returned to Japan. Explores social and economic conditions and what it means to be a foreign worker in Japan. Some chapters provide information on the children of immigrants, their education, and assimilation into Japanese society. (Title translation: What it means to live in an age of globalization: The transnational lives of Japanese Brazillians in Japan.)
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Morimoto Toyotomi and Negawa Sachio. Toransunashonaru na “nikkeijin” no kyōiku, gengo, bunka: Kako kara mirai ni mukatte (トランスナショナルな「日系人」の教育・言語・文化: 過去から未来に向って). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2012.
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This book examines the transnational Nikkei in Japan and provides insight to their education, language, and culture. This volume will be useful to those searching for an understanding of the movement of Japanese Latin Americans back to Japan. This study provides important information on the level of adaptation to the host country, Japan.
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Onai Tōru. Zainichi Burajirujin no rōdō to seikatsu (在日ブラジル人の労働と生活). Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobō, 2009a.
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This book primarily examines foreign workers in Japan and uses Japanese Brazilians as a case study. The author studies the social and economic conditions of Nikkei in Japan and their adaptation to their ancestors’ place of origin.
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Onai Tōru. Zainichi Burajirujin no kyōiku to hoiku no hen’yō (在日ブラジル人の教育と保育の変容). Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobō, 2009b.
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This study examines the educational challenges faced by the children of Japanese Brazilians who have returned to Japan as immigrants.
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Sekiguchi Tomoko. Zainichi Nikkei Burajirujin no kodomotachi: Ibunkakan ni sodatsu kodomo no aidentiti keisei (在日日系ブラジル人の子どもたち: 異文化間に育つ子どものアイデンティティ形成). Tokyo: Akashi Shoten, 2003.
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This book studies the identity formation of Japanese Brazilian children growing up in Japan. Additionally, the study provides information on the movement of Japanese Brazilians to Japan.
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Colonization Programs

Beginning with the birth of independence throughout Latin America, many of the fledgling countries developed colonization programs not only to settle their new citizens onto productive lands, but also to entice immigrants to settle in their countries. The development of these colonization schemes pushed several arguments: First, in order to develop and reach a level of modernity, agriculture must be developed to optimum efficiency, which meant that lands must be extricated from old institutions such as the Catholic Church and placed in the hands of the new emerging elite. Second, the indigenous population must be removed from fertile lands since it was believed that they were unable to efficiently manage its productivity. Third, the importation of European immigrants be a priority over all other groups. The preference for Europeans was partially based on the ideas of racial superiority. Finally, most of these studies include a discussion in regards to the pros and cons of the importation of Asian groups such as the Chinese and Japanese. The colonization programs often provide excellent insight to the ideology present in individual Latin American countries, especially their views on immigration and immigrants.

English Language Studies

Augelli 1962 is an excellent example on the role of colonization programs and the recruitment of Japanese immigrants to the Dominican Republic.

Augelli, John P. “Agricultural Colonization in the Dominican Republic.” Economic Geography 38 (1962): 15–27.
DOI: 10.2307/142322Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
This article provides an excellent analysis of the development of colonization programs to improve agricultural development and entice various immigrant groups to migrate to the island. One of the case studies discussed is La Vija, a Japanese colony of sixty families. The author provides some information on acculturation and economic activities.
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Spanish Language Studies

Colonization programs were important schemes to get individuals and groups to settle lands in remote regions of various countries. Mexico provides excellent examples of this development. Romero 1911, Landa 1930, and Navarro 1960 should be consulted to gain an understanding of getting domestic migrants and immigrants onto Mexican lands. These studies are also very useful regarding debates about immigration and immigration groups.

Landa, Andres Pina. El servicio de migración en Mexico. Mexico City: Talleres Gráficos de La Nación Mexico, 1930.
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This government study examines emigration and immigration during the early decades of the 20th century. It also provides information on Mexican immigration legislation and uses statistical data to analyze the movement of foreigners into Mexico.
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Navarro, Moisés González. La colonización en Mexico, 1877–1910. Mexico City: Talleres de Impresión de Estampillas y Valores, 1960.
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This book is a three-chapter study on the role of colonization in the development of Mexico during the late 19th century and the first half of the 20th. The study provides insight as to why Mexico wanted immigrants, but also the problems encountered with immigrant groups. There is a discussion on Chinese and Japanese immigration in chapter 2 (pp. 37–94).
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Romero, José María. Comisión de Inmigración: Encargado de estudiar la influencia social y económica de la inmigración asiática en Mexico. Mexico City: Imprenta de A. Carranza E Hijos, 1911.
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This is an early-20th-century survey of the impact of Asian immigration to Mexico. The study provides information on the movement of Chinese and Japanese to Mexico, locations, colonization attempts, and occupational data.
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