Introduction

Mushroom is a nutritious fleshy vegetarian delicacy and has a variety of more than 2300 species. This includes hundreds of identified species of these fungi which have made a significant global contribution to human food and medicine. Most of them are edible and containing many vitamins & minerals but very low on sugar & fat. Their contribution has increased growing interest in cultivation to Mushrooms can be grown in a temperature between 20 and 30 C and required relative humidity is 55 to 75%. This case makes the North-Eastern hemisphere to have very good prospects of cultivation as well as processing. Fresh mushrooms can be sold in the market. There is also growing market for processed dried & packed mushrooms as their shelf life is longer (approximately 6 months). Cultivated mushrooms have now become popular all over the world.

The global market for gourmet mushrooms has increased over the last 30 years based on annual growth of more than 50% and is now in coherent money terms globally larger than coffee industry. Mushroom cultivation helps reduce the limit to poverty and strengthen livelihoods through the farming not only through this nutritious source of food but also a reliable source of income. They are usually sold dried and come into small packaging which makes them very ideal for export. Small- scale farming does not require significant capital of investment. They can be grown from any clean agricultural wastes such as extracted coffee beans and eventually produced in temporary clean shelters.

The main varieties of edible mushroom are the Button Type mushroom, Oyster mushroom and Shiitake mushroom. The white Button Type is the most common cultivated mushroom in the world with significant consideration of the temperate regions. Oyster mushrooms are the easiest type to grow for the inexperienced beginner cultivators. Shiitake mushrooms are the best choice for low-input market enterprise as they can be grown on a small-scale moderate investment. These varieties are the most popular edible types and have the potential to expand throughout the vast exchange markets within the local consumers of the Republic of Maldives.

LIVELIHOOD SUSTAINABILITY OF MUSHROOMS

Mushroom cultivation can directly improve livelihoods through economic, nutritional and medicinal contributions. However, it is essential to note that some mushrooms are poisonous and may even be lethal, thus the need for extra caution in identifying those species that can be consumed as food.

Medicinal value

Recently, there has been a spectacular growth in, and commercial activity associated with, dietary supplements, functional foods and other products that are ‘more than just food’. Medicinal fungi have routinely been used in traditional Chinese medicine. Today, an estimated 6% of edible mushrooms are known to have medicinal properties and can be found in health tonics, tinctures, teas, soups and herbal formulas. Shiitake and Chinese Mushroom (straw mushroom) are edible fungi with medicinal properties widely diffused and cultivated.

The medicinal properties of mushrooms depend on several bioactive compounds and their bioactivity depends on how mushrooms are prepared and eaten. Shiitake are said to have antitumour and antiviral properties and remove serum cholesterol from the blood stream. Other varieties, Oyster, Enoki and Maitake all have varying degrees of immune system boosting, lipid lowering, anti-tumour, microbial and viral properties, blood pressure regulating, and other therapeutic effects. Mushrooms represent a vast source of yet undiscovered potent pharmaceutical products and their biochemistry would merit further investigation.

Nutritional value

Mushrooms both add flavour to bland staple foods and are a valuable food in their own right: they are often considered to provide a fair substitute for meat, with at least a comparable nutritional value to many vegetables. The consumption of mushrooms can make a valuable addition to the often unbalanced diets of people in developing countries. Fresh mushrooms have a high water content, around 90 percent, so drying them is an effective way to both prolong their shelf-life and preserve their flavour and nutrients.

Mushrooms are a good source of vitamin B, C and D, including niacin, riboflavin, thiamine, and folate, and various minerals including potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron and copper. They provide carbohydrates, but are low in fat and fibre, and contain no starch. Furthermore, edible mushrooms are an excellent source of high quality protein (reportedly between 19 percent and 35 percent), and white button mushrooms contain more protein than kidney beans. In addition to all the essential amino acids, some mushrooms have medicinal benefits of certain polysaccharides, which are known to boost the immune system.

Livelihood opportunities

Trade in cultivated mushrooms can provide a readily available and important source of cash income - for men and women and the old, infirm and disabled alike. The role played by women in rural mushroom production can be very significant. Certain parts of the mushroom cultivation process, such as filling substrates in containers and harvesting, are ideally suited for women’s participation. Several programmes have enhanced women’s empowerment through mushroom production by giving them the opportunity to gain farming skills, financial independence and self- respect.

Income benefits

Mushroom cultivation activities can play an important role in supporting the local economy by contributing to subsistence food security, nutrition, and medicine; generating additional employment and income through local, regional and national trade; and offering opportunities for processing enterprises.

(ROI AND PROFITS??)

MUSHROOM CULTIVATION ESSENTIALS AND FUNDAMENTALS

Fungi come in many shapes, sizes and colours. Macro fungi are a general category used for species that have a visible structure that produces spores, which are generically referred to as fruiting bodies. Unlike the leaves of green plants, which contain chlorophyll to absorb light energy for photosynthesis, mushrooms rely on other plant material (the substrate) for their food.

Life cycle of a mushroom

1. Vegetative growth of the mycelium in the substrate - As spores, released from the gills, germinate and develop, they form hyphae, which are the main mode of vegetative growth in fungi. Collectively, these are referred to as mycelium, and these feed, grow and ultimately produce mushrooms (in most species). Mycelium appears as microscopic threads similar in appearance to the mould that sometimes grows on bread.

2. Reproductive growth when the fruit bodies are formed - The appearance of fruiting bodies or mushroom varies according to the species, but all have a vertical stalk (stipe) and a head (pileus or cap).

3. Production of spores by the mushroom fruit bodies - The underside of the cap has gills or pores from which mushroom spores are produced. The mushroom produces several million spores in its life, and this life cycle is repeated each time the spores germinate to form the mycelium.

Key steps in mushroom production

The basic concept in cultivation is to start with some mushroom spores, which grow into mycelium and expand into a mass sufficient in volume and stored up energy to support the final phase of the mushroom reproductive cycle, which is the formation of fruiting bodies or mushrooms. The key generic steps in mushroom production – a cycle that takes between one to three months from start to finish depending on species – are:

1. identifying and cleaning a dedicated room or building in which temperature, moisture and sanitary conditions can be controlled to grow mushrooms in;

2. choosing a growing medium and storing the raw ingredients in a clean place under cover and protected from rain;

3. pasteurising or sterilizing the medium and bags in which, or tables on which, mushrooms will be grown (to exclude other fungi that would compete for the same space - once the selected fungi has colonized the substrate it can fight off the competition);

4. seeding the beds with spawn (spores from mature mushrooms grown on sterile media);

5. maintaining optimal temperature, moisture, hygiene and other conditions for mycelium growth and fruiting, which is the most challenging step; adding water to the substrate to raise the moisture content since it helps ensure efficient sterilization;

6. harvesting and eating, or processing, packaging and selling the mushrooms;

7. cleaning the facility and beginning again.

Spawn and inoculation Mushroom spawn is purchased from specialist mushroom spawn producers, and there are several types or strains of spawn for each type of mushroom. It is not generally advisable for mushroom growers to make their own spawn because of the care needed to maintain the quality of spawn in the production process.

Spawn is produced by inoculating a pasteurised medium, usually grain, with the sterile culture (grown from spores) of a particular mushroom species.

The cheapest cultivation system using composted substrate is one where mushrooms are grown in plastic bags (which can be sterilized and re-used with new substrate) containing substrate or compost, in a simple building to provide controlled growing conditions. Bottles can also be used, and in other indoor low cost systems wooden trays of different sizes can be arranged in stacks to provide a useful cultivating space. Spawn is added to the sterilized/ pasteurised substrate under hygienic conditions, in an enclosed space, and mixed thoroughly to ensure that the mushroom mycelium grows evenly throughout the substrate.

Farmers with limited resources can overcome the need to purchase spawn each time a new crop is put down by removing a portion of the substrate colonized by the mushroom spawn from the new crop and using it for spawning the following crop. However, care must be taken to remove only healthy, uninfected substrate colonized fully by the mushroom spawn.

Maintaining suitable growing conditions

The inoculated substrate is put into bags, trays, etc. and transferred to an enclosed and darkened room or building to incubate for a period of up to 12 weeks, depending on the variety of mushroom. If space is limited, plastic bags can be suspended in darkened rooms.

Humidity levels are important for the mycelium to colonise over the next two weeks, so water needs to be available, and the temperature controlled accordingly to the variety of mushroom. The crop should be protected from sunlight and strong winds at all times, which can cause the mushrooms to dry out. Humidity can be maintained in the growing room 16 by hanging wet rags at several points around the walls, or watering the floor. Temperature can be regulated by a fire, (electric if available) and cooling could be assisted by using a table fan blowing over a container of water, and air circulating between the sacks should help assist with temperature regulation. It is essential to maintain hygienic conditions over the general cropping area, in order to protect the crop from contamination.

Harvesting cultivated mushrooms

The transition from fully-grown mycelium to produce mushroom fruiting bodies normally requires a change in the environmental conditions, such as temperature decrease and ventilation and humidity increase. Mushrooms fruit in breaks or flushes, and the type and size of mushrooms harvested depend on the type of mushrooms grown and market demand.

Mushrooms should be harvested according to market demand; for example, there may be a price premium for small button mushrooms. Generally mushrooms are harvested by hand using sterilized knives to cut the ones that are ready. Pickers should be trained to recognise the appropriate stage for harvesting and be consistent in when the mushrooms are cropped. Handling such a perishable crop should be kept to a minimum to reduce the risk of damage.

Marketing mushrooms

Harvested mushrooms need to be carefully handled and should be kept in a container that allows for air circulation, such as a basket, and care needs to be taken to prevent bruising. The baskets containing mushrooms should be covered to keep flies out and protected from sunlight, high temperatures and draughts. High quality mushrooms that are healthy and clean fetch the best market price. Harvested mushrooms should be taken to market without delay in order to maintain their freshness and quality, or stored in a refrigerated environment or processed.

Getting fresh specimens to market is considerably difficult, both for wild fungi and cultivated mushrooms. The physical appearance of fruiting bodies is obviously important and customer preferences must be observed. Some species discolour if the gills or cap are damaged and they must be handled with care. Depending on the soil where the fungi grow, some preliminary cleaning of gills and gaps may be needed to remove particles. Picking fruiting bodies at the correct stage of development is important. As they mature, some species become woody and much desirable, while others rot away.

Pest and disease management

The basic principle in protecting the mushroom crop from pests and diseases is prevention, largely achieved through good hygiene. As mushrooms are grown mostly in an enclosed environment, the risk of pests and diseases spreading rapidly within the crop is high, so it is important to monitor the crop on a daily basis for incidence of pests and diseases, to prevent losing at least some of the crop. It is also important to sterilize the growing room and the preparation areas on a regular basis.

If and when pests or diseases are detected, control measures should be applied immediately. This may involve removing infected mushrooms by carefully picking them off without spreading the disease, then applying a pesticide.

(Photos of proposed farm or greenhouse)

ASSET REQUIREMENTS

Mushroom cultivation can play an important role in helping rural and peri-urban people strengthen their livelihoods and become less vulnerable to hunger and poverty. Their cultivation requires a wide range of activities suitable for people with various needs, diverse interests and specific capabilities. Key assets or resources associated with mushroom cultivation are described below:

Human assets

Human assets relate to the skills, knowledge, ability to work and level of health that people need to pursue different livelihood strategies and to achieve their objectives. Mushrooms are not labour intensive and can be undertaken as an additional livelihood activity which fits around other household or productive tasks. People with physical disabilities are fully capable of accomplishing all necessary tasks in mushroom cultivation, even if some modifications in construction, equipment and tasks are required. People with mental disabilities can also grow mushrooms because several of the key tasks are repetitive and can be easily learned. Mushroom cultivation can also be a feasible livelihood activity for chronically ill or weak people, who may benefit from working in a cooler, shaded environment with minimal physical exertion, in contrast to the more arduous work input often associated with other horticultural products.

Many societies have considerable traditional knowledge and skills relating to farming activities and the management of natural resources, but the cultivation of mushrooms is a relatively new activity throughout much of the rural developing world. Qualities identified as being useful for mushroom cultivators include the ability to carry out operations on time, be attentive to detail, be vigilant about pest invasions, and for marketing, excellent skills in public relations.

Physical assets

Mushroom production for local consumption and trade needs a different level of equipment and infrastructure than a small commercial enterprise. Many of the physical assets required to undertake mushroom cultivation are not exclusive items, but rather assets which help meet livelihood needs in general, including the transport and communication infrastructure, clean water, a source of energy, and buildings for shelter and storage. The more developed the infrastructure, the easier it is to establish and undertake mushroom cultivation.

Mushrooms are best cultivated indoors in a dark, cool and sterilized and enclosed building. This enables the growing conditions to be maintained most suitable for mushrooms, in terms of temperature, humidity, uniform ventilation and substrate moisture levels. Unwanted contaminants, moulds and sunlight can also be kept away from the crop. Any small room with ventilation and a cement floor can be used, and it should be possible to close off the room to the outside by shutting ventilation and doors. The interior should be arranged so that it is easy to clean at the end of each cropping cycle. The mushroom house should be well insulated (by using, for example, fibre glass wool or expanded polystyrene) to maintain a steady temperature, and concrete or clay tiles are preferable over corrugated metal for roofing.

Small rooms can be made from wooden poles with stretched sacking covering the frame, and covering the sacking with a wet cement and sand mixture to produce a hard protective skin.

As growing mushrooms can attract flies, there are advantages of locating the cultivation area some distance away from living spaces, either at the other end of the house or in a different building several metres away. Nets placed over doors and ventilation gaps allow air in but keep the flies out. Ideally, double entry doors reduce contamination and escaping spores. Rural small-scale mushroom growing enterprises do not need expensive equipment and some equipment may be shared between growers.

Additional equipment and tools used can include:













a large metal drum or pot for sterilizing the substrate in;

bags for growing;

brushes or soft cloths for cleaning mushrooms;

tables to place growing bags on;

nets to screen rooms and buildings in order to keep flies off the mushrooms;

cartons for harvested mushrooms.

Natural assets

Land and climate play a minimal role in mushroom cultivation and this feature makes the enterprise particularly suitable for farmers with limited land, as well as the landless. Unlike wild harvested fungi, grown mushrooms are not subject to any ecological uncertainties including habitat health, nor years of unpredictable production as a result of late or reduced rains.

Access to sufficient, suitable and locally-sourced substrate and spores are key determinants as to whether mushroom cultivation is likely to be successful and sustainable or not. Both rural farmers and peri-urban cultivators should be able to obtain agricultural by-products easily and cheaply to use as substrate; or, for certain mushroom species, logs or sawdust to inoculate with spores. Mushroom spores can be collected from mature fruiting bodies, but are commonly purchased from local production facilities or laboratories.

Mushroom cultivation is compatible with other farming and horticultural activities. It can be regarded as a very efficient system in recycling with no waste from production to consumption.

A sterilized composted substrate once inoculated with spawn, can be used for three harvests and then recycled by incorporating it as an organic mulch or fertilizer in other horticultural or agricultural systems, which can improve soil structure, or it can be used as a nutritious fodder for poultry.

l assets

People draw upon formal and informal resources to help meet their livelihood objectives, including networks and support from families, friends, organizations and membership of groups, such as mushroom growers associations. These contacts collectively strengthen the individual by helping them and their communities’ access information and resources including technical information, basic training, sources of mushroom spores, and marketing outlets to sell their crop.

Cultural, social and organizational issues are important for determining the direct and indirect benefits of mushroom trade for different social groups. As a result of the high perishability of mushrooms, it can be of great benefit, for small-scale cultivators selling their crop, to be organized with other growers and to share transport costs, market contacts, etc. In addition, working in collaboration with other growers may enable cultivators to establish local production, processing, or packaging facilities to increase harvest output or product shelf life i.e. a drying facility.

Mushroom cultivation represents a very suitable and empowering income generating option for women in particular, because it can be combined with traditional domestic duties and can be undertaken at home. Several programmes related to rural mushroom production have given women the opportunity to gain financial independence, farming skills and higher self-esteem.

Financial assets

Mushroom cultivation is attractive for the resource-poor for two reasons. Firstly, because mushroom cultivation can be done on any scale, the initial financial outlay to establish a basic cultivation system need not be very great, and substrate materials are often free. An example from Thailand illustrates the point: a mushroom house large enough to hold 1 000 mushroom bags can be built for less than US$15, utilising the materials available locally. Secondly, compared to many agricultural and horticultural crops, mushroom production systems have a short turn around; a harvestable crop can be produced and sold within two to four months, which is very helpful for small-scale producers.

BUSINESS STRATEGIES

Mushroom cultivation is a reliable and effective way for resource poor cultivators to grow nutritious food in a short space of time. It also provides an opportunity to generate a highly tradable commodity, thereby contributing to income generation. This section gives some suggestions as to how small-scale producers might successfully identify buyers and then supply them with consistent and quality produce.

Marketing strategies

A successful marketing programme means that growers increase their income status, which in turn creates confidence in their ability to grow mushrooms profitably. Steps to successful marketing include:















Being aware of market demand by talking to buyers about volume and prices.

Exploring various marketing options for fresh mushrooms – depending on transport infrastructure - selling directly to local customers, local traders, markets, intermediaries, regional wholesalers, local restaurants, shops or farmer cooperatives.

Adding value and increasing the shelf-life of the mushrooms by creating processed products, including dried or pickled mushrooms, sauces, teas, extracts, etc.

Becoming organized and teaming-up with other producers, to bulk up on volume and the variety of mushrooms, and attract traders regularly to enable reliable sales of the perishable produce.

Sharing knowledge and experiences with other producers and, if a problem or constraint is consistent and widespread, collectively source external advice.

Reducing initial capital investment by recycling pieces of equipment and sourcing locally, and sharing costs through informal or formal groupings.

Identifying existing markets and trading routes, and identifying any niches to be filled (for example, organic mushrooms, fair trade or cooperative produce).

Successful marketing strategies differ according to region, transport infrastructure, market accessibility and consumer preferences. They are different for fresh and dried mushrooms, and are influenced by the species. For example, locally-grown oyster mushrooms have an advantage over imported ones because of their very limited shelf-life and their fragility, making it difficult to ship them easily. Similarly, mushrooms for fresh use tend to be grown near urban consumers, while farmers situated some distance away from their consumer base, market their product after processing.

Establishing a good relationship with a buyer by delivering a reliable quality and quantity of product is fundamental. It is important to start modestly and secure a buyer or small network of buyers to whom one can deliver a reliable supply.

The method of storage and presentation of mushrooms at the point of sale should be carefully managed and labelling produce – ‘fresh’ and ‘grown under controlled conditions’ – is a helpful marketing strategy. Unreliable claims printed on the cartons relating to the medicinal value of the mushrooms on sale should be avoided; such claims should be restricted to those species of mushrooms where substantial clinical data are available on their bioactive compounds.

Marketing channels

There are typically three principal marketing routes for mushroom growers:

• The grower can sell directly to the consumers either at the farm gate or at local markets; however, the ability to reach distant markets is limited.

• The grower can sell to an agent who then sells the mushrooms either to local or distant markets, including exports.

• The grower can belong to a cooperative or another farm organization, which offers easy market linkages to both local and distant markets, including export markets.

In some countries certain varieties of mushrooms are sold through traders specializing in such varieties. In Japan, for example, specialist traders buy shiitake mushroom at special bidding markets and then distribute the products to retailers for domestic consumption or to trading firms for export. In the Netherlands, the white button mushroom is sold through auction at the market place. The successful bidders are wholesale agents or retailers. In India, government bodies’ purchase mushrooms from growers.

Processing

Mushrooms are usually enjoyed fresh, but this can be problematic as most species should be consumed within three to four days of harvesting in order to avoid spoilage. Where infrastructure permits, harvesting and immediately selling to an end consumer, local market or regional wholesaler on the same day ensures a better price. In larger enterprises, cold rooms can be used to store the mushrooms before they are sent to market. Optimum storage temperature varies between 5 and 8 °C.

Processing can assist marketing, by extending shelf-life for smallscale producers until they need to sell their product, and in some cases adding value. Some infrastructural investment may be needed to undertake processing effectively and, once processed, mushrooms need to be packaged and stored carefully.

Mushrooms may be frozen and placed in airtight containers; however, unprocessed mushrooms take up a lot of room and this can be a costly way of preserving them. Mushrooms are also suitable for drying, enabling them to be stored for long periods without deteriorating; this can be done using solar drying. They can also be pickled in brine.

Organization

Good organization helps mushroom cultivators in several ways:











improving product quality (including grading), quantity (including consistent quantities), and diversification;

providing more cost-effective transportation and overcoming large distances to the point of sale;

accessing market information and acting upon market intelligence, thereby increasing the ability to negotiate with other actors in the market chain;

promoting the product, e.g. attendance at fairs;

enabling cultivators to collectively offer sufficient produce to interest new buyers or to negotiate an improved relationship with existing buyers.

The ability of individuals or a community to organize itself for trade is influenced by a number of factors including social cohesion (affected by the ethnic and religious composition of the community), the existence of other community organizations, and the presence of charismatic individuals able to motivate people to action. Initial sources of external support can help establish or strengthen organization within communities, and social networks and organizations can help manage risks.

Diversification options

In the case of mushroom cultivation, growers could diversify from growing edible mushrooms to producing mushrooms with medicinal values. This is a logical step to take since the basic skills required in growing medicinal mushrooms are the same as those for growing edible mushrooms, although the specific cultivation requirements may differ. Another diversification option would be to use the spent mushroom substrate as organic mulch in growing other horticultural crops, e.g. vegetables. This would result in not only diversification for securing additional income but also in recycling the organic waste created from mushroom cultivation. The recycling process is also an environmentally friendly way of farming.

Sustainable mushroom trade

A great benefit of mushroom cultivation is that it is a combinable and complementary activity, which is only part-time and will form one component of a livelihood strategy. As such, it helps reduce risk, and creates opportunities for increased food security and a level of income generation, as determined by the producer.

The following list summarizes some main factors which contribute to the sustainability of mushroom trade, and strengthens its contribution to livelihood security:

- A good understanding of the mushroom cultivation, whether based on local knowledge or acquired through external support, allows cultivators to provide consistent and predictable quantities and qualities of mushrooms, thereby attracting buyers more easily.

- Effective communication and good relationships between suppliers, growers and buyers are important to ensure effective information flows about sources or spores, substrate, other equipment, yields, crop quality etc.

- Identification of a reliable level of market demand. Most agricultural, horticultural, and non- wood forest product market chains are demand driven, and establishing new chains can be a challenge. The general level of market development in areas where mushrooms are promoted is an important factor determining their market potential.

- Ability to innovate, by introducing Make money by growing mushrooms 37 new techniques and/or varieties is important to the sustainability of trade. External actors, whether NGOs or entrepreneurs, are particularly important in supporting innovations which can be vital to maintain trade.

- Length of marketing chain can influence resilience, which may be greatest for shorter chains.

- High levels of transparency, both in setting prices and in defining the rules of trade, is often linked to the concentration of market power and good producer organizations may help overcome this. The price received by growers should reflect production costs, including their labour, but these are often difficult to define because local wage rates can vary by season.

- Organization can help producers and processors to be more resilient to external shocks, and markets may also be made accessible by community organization. A cooperative may be formed for marketing mushrooms produced by small villagers as well as relatively large growers. Through collective pooling of their resources and crop, cultivators are better able to create a sustainable flow of mushrooms to supply the market. Members can split the transport costs, and the cost burden to the individual farmer is decreased. The cooperative can also be used to train members and can assist in empowering poorer growers in the community, including women.