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Islamic Architecture (Islamic Studies)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. Islamic archaeology is a specialism within the discipline of archaeology. The term Islamic archaeology may be broadly defined as the examination of the physical remains of human activity and of the wider environment in regions of the world where the ruling elite professed the faith of Islam. Thus, archaeologists concern themselves with the material record of Muslim and non-Muslim communities in any given area or time period. This definition is sometimes extended to include the study of Muslim communities living under the dominion of non-Muslim elites. While the methods and analytical procedures followed in this specialism generally derive from other branches of archaeology, scholars have debated the extent to which Islamic archaeology should be defined specifically as the study of the material record of Muslim faith and practice. Islamic archaeology can be considered an historical discipline in the sense that it is the interpretation of the physical remains from periods for which there exist contemporary textual sources. The chronological boundaries are from 622 CE to the present, although many Islamic archaeologists also study the relationships between the material records of pre-Islamic and Islamic phases. It is often difficult to delimit the boundaries between Islamic archaeology and Islamic art history, and in some phases, particularly the early Islamic period (usually defined as 7th–10th centuries), there is considerable overlap in the objects of study (see also Walter Denny’s separate article, “Islamic Art”). Archaeology encompasses a wide range of activities in the retrieval of data (such as excavation, field survey, environmental sampling, photography, and remote sensing) and at the level of analysis (ranging from conventional concerns with dating, sequencing, typology, and distribution to the numerous forms of scientific testing). Archaeological projects involve specialists from many disciplines, and this multidisciplinary character is often reflected in published reports. Islamic archaeology has yet to develop an agreed corpus of “canonical” publications, and the selection given below is meant to introduce the reader to the main strands of recent research across most parts of the Islamic world.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Introductions to Islamic archaeology (or a combination of Islamic art and archaeology) were written by scholars such as Ugo Monneret de Villard (b. 1881–d. 1954), Oleg Grabar (b. 1929–d. 2011), Richard Ettinghausen (b. 1906–d. 1979), and Michael Rogers. References to these are given in Vernoit 1997 (cited under Historiography). The massive expansion of archaeological research from the 1980s onward has rendered these surveys largely obsolete. At present there are two introductory books, Insoll 1999 and Milwright 2010, which attempt to address all or most of the chronological and geographical range of this area of study.
  8.  
  9. Insoll, Timothy. The Archaeology of Islam. Oxford: Blackwell, 1999.
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  11. An examination of the ways in which the faith and practices of Islam can be manifested in physical evidence from the 7th century to the present day. Offers a global scope, dealing with material from all over the Islamic world and discusses briefly Muslim communities living in western Europe and North America.
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  13.  
  14. Milwright, Marcus. An Introduction to Islamic Archaeology. New Edinburgh Islamic Surveys. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010.
  15. DOI: 10.3366/edinburgh/9780748623105.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  16. A critical survey of the major developments of Islamic archaeology from the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia. Organized thematically with chapters covering aspects of Late Antiquity and early Islam, the countryside, urbanism, religious life, craft activities, trade and travel, and the archaeology of the Islamic world after c. 1500.
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  18.  
  19. Reference Resources
  20.  
  21. Several useful resources are now available online and are superseding print resources such as Creswell 1961. It seems likely that online photographic archives (Archnet), bibliographies, and websites devoted to specific excavations and media will become an increasingly prominent feature of Islamic archaeology in future years. Archnet is an extensive photographic archive of Islamic architecture, and Islamic Ceramics Online provides photographs, analytical chapters, and historical information related to a single medium. The Museum with No Frontiers presents different aspects of Islamic culture around the Mediterranean, and Islamic History is a wide-ranging resource on the material record of the earliest phase of Islam. The Fleet, et al. 2007– is available in print and digital formats and has some useful information for archaeological study.
  22.  
  23. Archnet.
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  25. A site devoted to Islamic architecture and urban planning. The Digital Library section contains a substantial archive of photographs of Islamic buildings organized by country. Free registration.
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  27.  
  28. Creswell, Keppel A. C. A Bibliography of the Arts and Crafts of Islam to 1st Jan. 1960. Cairo: American University of Cairo Press, 1961.
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  30. Mainly devoted to the arts and crafts of Islam but with many references to archaeological publications. A supplement (to 1972) was published by Creswell in 1973 and a second supplement (to 1980) by J. D. Pearson, Michael Meinecke, George Scanlon and others in 1984 (both by American University of Cairo Press).
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  32.  
  33. Fleet, Kate, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson, eds. Encyclopaedia of Islam. 3d ed. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007–.
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  35. This ongoing third edition contains numerous articles on significant sites in the Islamic world, and materials, such as ceramics, that are commonly encountered on excavations. Also available in print. Previous editions are also available online and in print, including the second edition, published between 1955 and 2005.
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  37.  
  38. Islamic History. Islamic-Awareness.org.
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  40. An accessible resource for the earliest epigraphic evidence for Islam, comprising Qur’anic manuscripts, inscriptions on stone and mosaic, papyri, and coins. Contains photographs, drawings, and readings of many key early inscriptions as well as links to significant scholarly articles.
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  42.  
  43. Islamic Ceramics Online.
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  45. A resource for the study of Islamic ceramics, including art historical and archaeological data, as well as sections devoted to the manufacture of pottery.
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  47.  
  48. Museum with No Frontiers.
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  50. An introduction to the art, architecture, and archaeology of the Islamic cultures of the Mediterranean.
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  52.  
  53. Collected Works
  54.  
  55. Islamic archaeology appears in a wide range of specialist journals and as chapters in books. Only Archéologie Islamique deals solely with Islamic archaeology. Muqarnas includes numerous important archaeological contributions and is notable for its wide geographical coverage. Petersen 2005 is particularly recommended as an introduction to current research. Oates 1983 offers similar scope but is somewhat dated. Whitcomb 2004 focuses on the archaeology and the expression of identity. Gayraud 1998 is uneven but contains important architectural studies from Spain, the Middle East, Central Asia and is a seminal contribution to the study of handmade pottery (see Ceramics).
  56.  
  57. Archéologie Islamique. 1990–2001.
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  59. An annual devoted to the archaeology of the Islamic world, with a focus upon the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, the Middle East, and Central Asia. Contributions are mainly in French and English.
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  61.  
  62. Gayraud, Roland-Pierre, ed. Colloque international d’archéologie islamique, IFAO, Le Caire, 3–7 février 1993. Textes arabes et études islamiques 36. Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1998.
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  64. Contains essays by leading scholars dealing with archaeology from the Iberian Peninsula to Central Asia, including studies on urbanism, architecture, and portable artefacts.
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  66.  
  67. Muqarnas. 1983–.
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  69. An annual devoted to the art and architecture of the Islamic world that has featured studies on excavated buildings and artefacts as well as scientific analyses of portable artefacts. Articles are available online through Archnet.
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  71.  
  72. Oates, Joan, ed. Special Issue: Islamic Archaeology. World Archaeology 14.3 (1983).
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  74. A special issue devoted to Islamic archaeology with articles dealing with Oman, Syria, Iraq, Afghanistan, Yemen, the Indian Subcontinent, the Persian Gulf, Central Asia, and the Maghrib.
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  76.  
  77. Petersen, Andrew, ed. “Focus on Islam I.” Antiquity 79.303 (2005): 100–145.
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  79. First of a four-part special section on archaeology of Islamic culture. Parts 2, 3, and 4 continue in Antiquity 79.304 (2005): 327–378; Antiquity 79.305 (2005): 601–635; and Antiquity 79.306 (2005): 829–864, respectively. Regions covered include the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa, the Middle East (Syria, Israel, Jordan, Iraq, Egypt, and the countries of the Persian Gulf), and Southeast Asia. Topics range from urbanism, trade, and industrial practices to aspects of rural life in the Islamic world. Available online by subscription.
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  81.  
  82. Whitcomb, Donald, ed. Changing Social Identity with the Spread of Islam: Archaeological Perspectives. Oriental Institute Seminars 1. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2004.
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  84. Essays by Jody Magness, Tracy Hoffman, Yury Karev, Mark Horton and Timothy Insoll deal with archaeological dimensions of Islamic identity and conversion to Islam on excavated sites in Palestine, Central Asia, West Africa, and East Africa.
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  86.  
  87. Regions
  88.  
  89. Many areas of the Islamic world remain to be addressed in this fashion, and more introductory texts of this nature are needed. The most useful of these are Boone 2009; Insoll 2003; and MacDonald, et al. 2001. Rosen-Ayalon 2006 offers a more art-historical perspective but is still a useful introduction. Dhavalikar 1999 has a greater focus on architecture, and Rousset 1992 is mainly a bibliographic resource.
  90.  
  91. Boone, James L. Lost Civilization: The Contested Past in Spain and Portugal. London: Duckworth, 2009.
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  93. Includes substantial discussions of the archaeology of urban and rural contexts of the Islamic period.
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  95.  
  96. Dhavalikar, Madhukar K. Historical Archaeology of India. New Delhi: Books and Books, 1999.
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  98. Contains descriptions of numerous excavations and surveys of Islamic sites in India.
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  100.  
  101. Insoll, Timothy. The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
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  103. An examination of archaeological evidence for Islamic occupation and material culture in sub-Saharan Africa, organized by region.
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  105.  
  106. MacDonald, Burton, Russell Adams, and Piotr Bienkowski, eds. The Archaeology of Jordan. Sheffield, UK: Sheffield University Press, 2001.
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  108. Presents summaries of all archaeological periods for Jordan. On the Islamic centuries and the Crusader interlude, see chapters by Robert Schick, Denys Pringle, Alan Walmsley, and Alison McQuitty.
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111. Rosen-Ayalon, Miriam. Islamic Art and Archaeology in Palestine. Translated by E. Singer. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast, 2006.
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  113. A useful summary of the major artistic achievements and material culture of Palestine arranged according to dynastic phases.
  114. Find this resource:
  115.  
  116. Rousset, Marie-Odile. L’archéologie islamique en Iraq: Bilan et perspectives. Damascus, Syria: Institut Français de Damas, 1992.
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  118. A bibliographic survey of Islamic sites in Iraq providing relevant primary Arabic sources, art historical studies, and archaeological studies.
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  120.  
  121. Historical and Dynastic Periods
  122.  
  123. Some scholars have chosen to synthesize the archaeological data from specific periods of Islamic history. Walmsley 2007 is the most significant of these studies, providing new insights into the transition from Late Antiquity to early Islam. Baram and Carroll 2000, Peacock 2009, and Simpson 2011 are good introductions to the growing field of Ottoman archaeology (also Walker 2009, cited under Ceramics), and Whitcomb 1997 deals with the extensive archaeological record of the Mamluk period (1250–1517).
  124.  
  125. Baram, Uzi, and Lynda Carroll, eds. A Historical Archaeology of the Ottoman Empire: Breaking New Ground. Contributions to Global Historical Archaeology. New York: Kluwer Academic, 2000.
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  127. Essays dealing with different aspects (including dendochronology, maritime archaeology, and ethnoarchaeology) of the archaeological study of the Ottoman period, with a helpful introductory essay by the editors.
  128. Find this resource:
  129.  
  130. Peacock, A. C. S., ed. The Frontiers of the Ottoman World. Proceedings of the British Academy 156. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
  131. DOI: 10.5871/bacad/9780197264423.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  132. Important collection of historical and archaeological studies examining the characteristics of the borderlands of the Ottoman Empire.
  133. Find this resource:
  134.  
  135. Simpson, St John. “Analysing the Recent Past: The Archaeology of Death, Pastoralism, Pots and Pipes in the Ottoman Jezira and Beyond.” Al-Rafidan 32 (2011): 57–104.
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  137. Brings together textual and archaeological evidence on the material culture of this region in the Ottoman phase.
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  139.  
  140. Walmsley, Alan. Early Islamic Syria: An Archaeological Assessment. London: Duckworth, 2007.
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  142. An important survey of the current archaeological evidence concerning the first two centuries of Islamic rule in Greater Syria.
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  144.  
  145. Whitcomb, Donald. “Mamluk Archaeological Studies: A Review.” Mamluk Studies Review 1 (1997): 97–106.
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  147. A critical review of archaeological research into this period in Egypt and Greater Syria suggesting ways in which these data can be correlated with textual history.
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  149.  
  150. Historiography
  151.  
  152. It is important to gain a sense of the early development of this subdiscipline and its changing priorities through the late 19th and 20th centuries. King 1991 and Northedge 2005 are necessary preparations for reading K. A. C. Creswell’s (b. 1879–d. 1974) approach to early Islamic architecture and Ernst Herzfeld’s (b. 1879–d. 1948) studies of Samarra, respectively. Vernoit 1997 provides a wider synthesis, and Canby 2000 deals with the earliest manifestations of Islamic archaeology. Tonghini and Grube 1989 is particularly helpful on the early study of glazed ceramics.
  153.  
  154. Canby, Sheila. “Islamic Archaeology: By Accident or Design?” In Discovering Islamic Art: Scholars, Collectors and Collections, 1850–1950. Edited by Stephen Vernoit, 128–137. London: Tauris, 2000.
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  156. A discussion of some of the earliest published excavations of Islamic material culture. Other chapters in this book are also useful for understanding the evolution of the study of Islamic art and architecture.
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  158.  
  159. King, Geoffrey. “Creswell’s Appreciation of Arabian Architecture.” Muqarnas 8 (1991): 94–102.
  160. DOI: 10.2307/1523157Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  161. Argues that Creswell devalued and misunderstood the significance of the pre-Islamic architecture of Arabia for the evolution of Islamic architecture. These problems particularly compromised his presentation of the first buildings of the Islamic period in the 7th century. Available online through Archnet.
  162. Find this resource:
  163.  
  164. Northedge, Alastair. “Ernst Herzfeld, Samarra, and Islamic Archaeology.” In Ernst Herzfeld and the Development of Near Eastern Studies, 1900–1950. Edited by Ann C. Gunter and Stefan R. Hauser, 385–403. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
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  166. An important analysis of the impact of Herzfeld’s studies of Samarra upon the subsequent development of Islamic archaeology.
  167. Find this resource:
  168.  
  169. Tonghini, Cristina, and Ernst J. Grube. “Towards a History of Syrian Islamic Pottery Before 1500.” Islamic Art 3 (1989): 59–93.
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  171. An annotated bibliography of art historical and archaeological publications from the mid-19th century to the date of publication.
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  173.  
  174. Vernoit, Stephen. “The Rise of Islamic Archaeology.” Muqarnas 14 (1997): 1–10.
  175. DOI: 10.2307/1523232Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  176. A perceptive and concise discussion of the evolution of the discipline and its political context. Available online through Archnet.
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  178.  
  179. Media
  180.  
  181. Archaeological projects are now multidisciplinary in nature, and each stage in the collection and analysis of data has its own specialists. Artefacts recovered from excavations and field surveys may include archaeobotanical materials (such as pollen or carbonized seeds), human and animal bones, soil cores, and a range of manufactured artefacts (pottery is the most commonly occurring artefact type on most sites). Manufactured artefacts can be studied in variety of ways ranging from conventional typological and chronological categorization to scientific testing.
  182.  
  183. Scientific Analyses
  184.  
  185. Reports of this nature can often be found in specialist journals. Henderson 2000 and Bernsted 2003 are good starting points for the analysis of inorganic materials, while Mason 2004 uses a combination of techniques to construct a revised chronology of Islamic glazed wares. Al-Saa’d 2000 draws conclusions about manufacturing processes and provenance from the study of brass and quaternary alloys. Blair, et al. 1992 and Burgio, et al. 2007 give representative examples of scientific studies of other media.
  186.  
  187. Al-Saa’d, Z. “Technology and Provenance of a Collection of Islamic Copper-Based Objects as Found by Chemical and Lead Isotope Analysis.” Archaeometry 42.2 (2000): 385–397.
  188. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2000.tb00889.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  189. A study based on a series of brass and quaternary alloy vessels from a museum collection. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  191.  
  192. Bernsted, Anne-Marie Keblow. Early Islamic Pottery, Materials and Techniques. London: Archetype, 2003.
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  194. A concise presentation of scientific analyses of the materials and techniques of ceramic manufacture.
  195. Find this resource:
  196.  
  197. Blair, Sheila, Jonathan Bloom, and Ann Wardwell. “Reevaluating the Date of ‘Buyid’ Silks by Epigraphic and Radiocarbon Analysis.” Ars Orientalis 22 (1992): 1–41.
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  199. Combining art historical examination of inscriptions and decorative characteristics with carbon-14 analysis to distinguish chronological groupings of textiles, ranging from the 10th–12th centuries to the 20th century.
  200. Find this resource:
  201.  
  202. Burgio, Lucia, Robin J. H. Clark, and Mariam Rosser-Owen. “Raman Analysis of Ninth-Century Stuccoes from Samarra.” Journal of Archaeological Science 34.5 (2007): 756–762.
  203. DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2006.08.002Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  204. A study of the traces of pigment originally used on the carved and molded stucco panels from Samarra. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
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  206.  
  207. Henderson, Julian. The Science and Archaeology of Materials: An Investigation of Inorganic Materials. London: Routledge, 2000.
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  209. Arranged into chapters devoted to ceramics, glass, metalwork, and stone. Examples are often drawn from Islamic contexts and include discussions of early Islamic glass production in Raqqa (Syria) and the bodies and glazes of Islamic ceramics.
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  211.  
  212. Mason, Robert B. Shine Like the Sun: Lustre-Painted and Associated Pottery from the Medieval Middle East. Bibliotheca Iranica: Islamic Art and Architecture Series 12. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda, 2004.
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  214. The author combines archaeological science with art historical and archaeological evidence to present a chronology of high-quality Islamic glazed wares from the 8th to the mid-13th century.
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  216.  
  217. Ceramics
  218.  
  219. Many archaeological studies of Islamic ceramics are concerned with questions of chronology, typology, and distribution, such as Allan and Roberts 1987, Gascoigne and Bridgman 2010, and Walker 2009. Northedge and Kennet 1994 reexamine the evidence for the transformation of ceramic styles before and during the Samarran period, 836–892. Aslanapa, et al. 1989 and Johns 1998 also address production techniques. Wilkinson 1973 addresses the socio-economic value of glazed and unglazed pottery within Islamic societies, while Carvajal López 2009 deals with ceramics as an indicator of religious and ethnic identity.
  220.  
  221. Allan, James, and Caroline Roberts, eds. Syria and Iran: Three Studies in Medieval Ceramics. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 4. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
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  223. Archaeological and art-historical studies of glazed and unglazed ceramic wares, their dating, provenance, and distribution. The longest section is devoted to the “Tell Minis” group of lustre-painted ceramics from Syria.
  224. Find this resource:
  225.  
  226. Aslanapa, Oktay, Serare Yetkin, and Altun Ara. The İznik Tile Kiln Excavations: The Second Round, 1981–1988. Istanbul, Turkey: Historical Research Foundation, Istanbul Research Center, 1989.
  227. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  228. An archaeological examination of production techniques in the Ottoman-period kilns of Iznik, with consideration of kiln design, materials, and wasters. Includes an extensive bibliography of earlier studies of Iznik pottery.
  229. Find this resource:
  230.  
  231. Carvajal López, José C. “Pottery Production and Islam in South-East Spain: A Social Model.” Antiquity 83.320 (2009): 388–398.
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  233. Argues that changes in pottery styles and distribution can be used as an indicator of the presence of Muslim communities and their interactions with other groups. Available online by subscription.
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  235.  
  236. Gascoigne, Alison, and Rebecca Bridgman. “Pottery from Jām: A Medieval Ceramic Corpus from Afghanistan.” Iran 48 (2010): 107–151.
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  238. Analysis of an assemblage of glazed and unglazed pottery from this important site, relating the results to other archaeological sites in Afghanistan.
  239. Find this resource:
  240.  
  241. Johns, Jeremy. “The Rise of Middle Islamic Hand-Made Geometrically-Painted Ware in Bilad al-Sham (11th–13th Centuries A.D.).” In Colloque international d’archéologie islamique, IFAO, Le Caire, 3–7 février 1993. Edited by Roland-Pierre Gayraud, 65–93. Textes arabes et études islamiques 36. Cairo: Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 1998.
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  243. An examination of the reappearance of slip-painted handmade pottery in Greater Syria.
  244. Find this resource:
  245.  
  246. Northedge, Alastair, and Derek Kennet. “The Samarra Horizon.” In Cobalt and Lustre. The First Centuries of Islamic Pottery. Edited by Ernst Grube, 21–35. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art 9. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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  248. A critical evaluation of the so-called “Samarra horizon” and its significance for the study of early Islamic pottery.
  249. Find this resource:
  250.  
  251. Walker, Bethany J., ed. Reflections of Empire: Archaeological and Ethnographic Studies of Pottery in the Ottoman Levant. Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research 64. Boston: American Schools of Oriental Research, 2009.
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  253. Essays dealing with aspects of Ottoman-period ceramics with a useful summary of the state of the field by the editor.
  254. Find this resource:
  255.  
  256. Wilkinson, Charles. Nishapur: Pottery of the Early Islamic Period. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1973.
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  258. A selective publication of pottery from this important site with some evidence regarding the manufacture of glazed and unglazed ceramics.
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  260.  
  261. Glass
  262.  
  263. Scientific analysis of glass chemistry has contributed considerably to our understanding of the evolution of this innovation (Henderson 1999). Archaeologists have also addressed the international trade in Islamic glass from the 8th to the 15th centuries, as seen in Bass, et al. 2009 and Meyer 1992. Kröger 1995 contributes to our knowledge of the material culture of a medieval Iranian city. Spaer 1992 concentrates on the use of glass in bodily adornment.
  264.  
  265. Bass, George F., Robert Brill, Berta Lledó, and Sheila Matthews. Serçe Limanı. Vol. 2, The Glass of an Eleventh-Century Shipwreck. College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 2009.
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  267. Final publication of the glass artefacts and glass waste from the maritime excavation of this eleventh-century wreck.
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270. Henderson, Julian. “Archaeological Investigations of an Islamic Industrial Complex at Raqqa, Syria.” Damaszener Mitteilungen 11 (1999): 243–265.
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  272. Presentation of the excavation of an early Islamic glass workshop with scientific analysis of the glass and glass waste.
  273. Find this resource:
  274.  
  275. Kröger, Jens. Nishapur: Glass of the Early Islamic Period. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1995.
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  277. A catalogue of the locally produced and imported glass recovered from excavations of the early Islamic city.
  278. Find this resource:
  279.  
  280. Meyer, Carol. Glass from Quseir al-Qadim and the Indian Ocean Trade. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 53. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1992.
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  282. The publication of the glass finds from the Red Sea port seen in the context of long-distance maritime trade.
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  284.  
  285. Spaer, M. “The Islamic Bracelets of Palestine.” Journal of Glass Studies 34 (1992): 44–62.
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  287. The creation of a typology of bracelet designs based on examples from excavations and in museum collections.
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  289.  
  290. Metalwork and Coins
  291.  
  292. Album and Goodwin 2002 is an essential guide to the first phase of Islamic coinage, and Noonan 1998 is a collection of the author’s influential articles on the silver trade from the eastern Islamic world. Allan 1982 and Lowick 1985 are excellent examples of publications devoted to metalwork and coins. For other archaeological studies relating to metal, see Mining and Smelting and Armor, Weapons, and Battle Sites.
  293.  
  294. Album, Steve, and Tony Goodwin. Sylloge of Islamic Coins in the Ashmolean. Vol. 1, The Pre-Reform Coinage of the Early Islamic Period. London: Ashmolean Museum, 2002.
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  296. The coins do not come from excavations, but the discussion of gold, silver and copper issues is crucial to the study of the first phase of Islamic coinage.
  297. Find this resource:
  298.  
  299. Allan, James. Nishapur: Metalwork of the Early Islamic Period. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1982.
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  301. A catalogue of the weapons, tools, vessels, jewelry, and other metal artefacts from the early Islamic site.
  302. Find this resource:
  303.  
  304. Lowick, Nicholas. The Coins and Monumental Inscriptions (Siraf). London: British Institute of Persian Studies, 1985.
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  306. Contains a catalogue of the Islamic and Chinese coins from the site, with comments about the nature of economic activity at Siraf.
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  308.  
  309. Noonan, Thomas S. The Islamic World, Russia and the Vikings, 750–900: The Numismatic Evidence. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 1998.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A collection of essays, many of which focus upon the distribution of early Islamic coinage in Russia, the Baltic states, and Scandinavia.
  312. Find this resource:
  313.  
  314. Textiles
  315.  
  316. Textiles, leather, basketry, and other organic manufactured items do not survive well in archaeological contexts (with the exception of the dry soils of Egypt and Sudan). Reports on textiles often appear as chapters in final excavation reports, but Vogelsang-Eastwood 1980 is an important monographic study. Barnes 1997 addresses similar material from a museum collection, and Walker 2000 offers a synthetic study.
  317.  
  318. Barnes, Ruth. Indian Block-Printed Textiles in Egypt: The Newberry Collection in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. 2 vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
  319. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  320. A comprehensive examination of a large collection of medieval Indian textiles found in Egypt.
  321. Find this resource:
  322.  
  323. Vogelsang-Eastwood, Gillian. Resist Dyed Textiles from Quseir Qadim, Egypt. Paris: Association pour l’étude et la documentation des textiles d’Asie, 1980.
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325. This study of printed textiles from the Red Sea port contains insights into medieval Indian Ocean trade.
  326. Find this resource:
  327.  
  328. Walker, Bethany. “Rethinking Mamluk Textiles.” Mamluk Studies Review 4 (2000): 167–217.
  329. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  330. A useful review of the art historical, archaeological, and archaeological evidence for textile production and use in the Mamluk period.
  331. Find this resource:
  332.  
  333. Architecture
  334.  
  335. The architectural traditions of the Islamic world have been studied by architectural historians, ethnographers, and archaeologists. The principal contributions of archaeological study have been in the areas of excavating of the ground plans and lower part of ruined structures; establishing the spatial distribution of buildings in urban and rural environments; and recovering phases of construction, destruction, and restoration of standing buildings. The analysis of aerial and satellite photography has become an important tool in the archaeology of Islamic architecture and urban planning. The interpretation of archaeological studies of Islamic architecture is facilitated by a firm understanding of the most important building types and the main lines evolution. Creswell 1989 makes greatest use of archaeological data. Frishman and Khan 1994 and Hillenbrand 1994 are vital to provide a greater chronological and geographical perspective. Meinecke 1992 provides a comprehensive gazetteer of Mamluk architecture in Egypt and Greater Syria.
  336.  
  337. Creswell, Keppel. A Short Account of Early Islamic Architecture. Rev. ed. Edited by James Allan. Aldershot, UK: Scolar Press, 1989.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. An accessible guide, revised and updated by James Allan, to the architecture of the 7th to early 10th century with extensive revisions based on archaeological discoveries.
  340. Find this resource:
  341.  
  342. Frishman, Martin, and Hasan-uddin Khan, eds. The Mosque: History, Architectural Development and Regional Diversity. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1994.
  343. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  344. A helpful survey of mosque architecture organized according to regional and chronological divisions.
  345. Find this resource:
  346.  
  347. Hillenbrand, Robert. Islamic Architecture, Form, Function and Meaning. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994.
  348. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  349. A wide-ranging analysis of the architectural traditions of the Islamic world organized according to building type.
  350. Find this resource:
  351.  
  352. Meinecke, Michael. Die mamlukische Architektur in Ägypten und Syrien (648/1250 bis 923/1517). 2 vols. Glückstad, Germany: Augustin, 1992.
  353. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  354. Volume 2 provides a comprehensive list of all Mamluk-period monuments including references to them in primary Arabic sources.
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357. Mosques
  358.  
  359. Many ancient mosques have undergone structural changes, including the expansion of the floor area, over the course of centuries (see Horton 1996; Whitehouse 1980). Gideon 2004 and Johns 1999 present important arguments relating to the earliest evolution of the mosque, and Finster 1994 traces the evolution of the mosque in early Islamic Iran.
  360.  
  361. Avni, Gideon. “Early Mosques in the Negev Highlands: New Archaeological Evidence on Islamic Penetration of Southern Palestine.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 294 (2004): 83–100.
  362. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. An examination of the morphology and dating of the rudimentary mosques of the early Islamic Negev. Available online for purchase or by subscription; online-only access with registration.
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366. Finster, Barbara. Frühe iranische Moscheen: Vom Beginn des Islam bis zur Zeit Salğuqischer Herrschaft. Berlin: Reimer, 1994.
  367. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  368. Comprehensive survey of standing and excavated Persian mosques from the 8th to the 12th century.
  369. Find this resource:
  370.  
  371. Horton, Mark. Shanga: The Archaeology of a Muslim Trading Community on the Coast of East Africa. Memoirs of the British Institute in Eastern Africa 14. London: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1996.
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373. Contains chapters dealing with the phasing of the Congregational Mosque and of the small mosques within “Stone Town.” Horton revisits this evidence in his contribution to Whitcomb 2004 (see “Islam, Archaeology and Swahili Identity,” pp. 67–88; cited under Collected Works).
  374. Find this resource:
  375.  
  376. Johns, Jeremy. “The ‘House of the Prophet’ and the Concept of the Mosque.” In Bayt al-Maqdis: Jerusalem and Early Islam. Edited by Jeremy Johns, 59–112. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 9.2. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
  377. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378. A reevaluation of the textual evidence for the earliest mosques of Islam, making use of archaeological evidence from Late Antiquity and early Islam.
  379. Find this resource:
  380.  
  381. Whitehouse, David. The Congregational Mosque and Other Mosques from the Ninth to the Twelfth Centuries. Excavations at Siraf 3. London: British Institute of Persian Studies, 1980.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Examines the construction and adaptation of the Congregational Mosque between the 9th and the 12th century and also reports on the smaller mosques within the port.
  384. Find this resource:
  385.  
  386. Housing
  387.  
  388. Domestic architecture has been examined archaeologically in many regions of the Islamic world. Fentress 1987, Helms 1990, and Kennet 2001 offer different perspectives on the study of early Islamic housing. Wilkinson 1986 is probably most important for its presentation of architectural decoration, and Kubiak and Scanlon 1989 examines the architecture in relation to the associated artefacts. Donley 1987 demonstrates an ethnographic approach.
  389.  
  390. Donley, Linda. “Life in the Swahili Town House reveals the symbolic Meaning of Spaces and Artefact Assemblages.” African Archaeological Review 5.1 (1987): 181–192.
  391. DOI: 10.1007/BF01117092Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  392. An interpretation of the results of an excavation of an eighteenth-century house in Lamu that makes use of ethnographic data. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  393. Find this resource:
  394.  
  395. Fentress, Elizabeth. “The House of the Prophet: North African Islamic Housing.” Archeologia Medievale 14 (1987): 47–68.
  396. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397. A reconstruction of the design of domestic space in the town of Sétif during the 10th century with comparisons made to early Islamic housing in other regions of the Islamic world.
  398. Find this resource:
  399.  
  400. Helms, Svend. Early Islamic Architecture of the Desert: A Bedouin Station in Eastern Jordan. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990.
  401. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  402. Analyzes a series of early Islamic structures in the arid regions of eastern Jordan with a particular concentration upon the settlement of al-Risha. With contributions by Alison Betts, William and Fidelity Lancaster, and Cherie Lenzen.
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405. Kennet, Derek. “The Form of Military Cantonments at Samarra: The Organisation of the Abbasid Army.” In A Medieval Islamic City Reconsidered: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Samarra. Edited by Chase Robinson, 157–182. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 14. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. A reconstruction of the areas created to house the Turkish troops and their families in the city of Samarra. The author discusses the typology of the housing blocks and assesses their significance in calculating the size of the Abbasid army through the 9th century.
  408. Find this resource:
  409.  
  410. Kubiak, Wladislaw B., and George T. Scanlon. Fustat Expedition Final Report. Vol. 2, Fustat-C. American Research Center in Egypt Reports 11. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1989.
  411. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412. A detailed examination of the structural history and associated material culture of complex of relatively simple houses dating from the mid-9th to the 11th century.
  413. Find this resource:
  414.  
  415. Wilkinson, Charles K. Nishapur: Some Early Islamic Buildings and Their Decoration. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1986.
  416. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  417. Concentrates upon the religious and secular architecture of three regions of the early Islamic city, with discussions of the phasing, construction techniques, and modes of architectural decoration.
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420. Elite Residences
  421.  
  422. Palaces and other types of elite residence have not survived as extensively as Muslim religious architecture. The contributions in Anderson and Rosser-Owen 2007 are the best introduction to the archaeology of al-Andalus in English. Chittick 1974 places the palatial architecture of Kilwa into the context of the wider urban evolution. Daiber and Becker 2004 focuses on the elite architecture of Raqqa-Rafiqa in Syria, while Schlumberger, et al. 1963–1978 is the best published excavation of a palace complex in the Islamic East. Grabar, et al. 1978 examines the evolution of an Umayyad settlement through to the 14th century.
  423.  
  424. Anderson, Glaire, and Mariam Rosser-Owen, eds. Revisiting Al-Andalus: Perspectives on the Material Culture of Islamic Iberia and Beyond. Medieval and Early Modern Iberian World 34. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  425. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004162273.I-304Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  426. Contains chapters dealing with the archaeology of Madinat al-Zahra’ and the Umayyad-period munya (country estates) by Vallejo Triana, Almagro and Anderson.
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429. Chittick, Neville. Kilwa: An Islamic Trading City on the East African Coast. British Institute in Eastern Africa Memoir Series 5. Nairobi, Kenya: British Institute in Eastern Africa, 1974.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Includes substantial discussions of the palatial architecture of the town and the extra-urban foundation, known as Husuni Kubwa, constructed in the 13th century.
  432. Find this resource:
  433.  
  434. Daiber, Verena, and Andrea Becker, eds. Baudenkmäler und Paläste 1. Raqqa 3. Mainz am Rhein, Germany: von Zabern, 2004.
  435. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  436. Final publication of the German-Syrian excavations of the early Islamic palaces of Raqqa with sections devoted to architectural design and decoration, inscriptions, and finds. The earlier volumes in this series deal with the ceramics excavated at Tal Aswad (Die frühislamische Keramik von Tall Aswad, edited by Peter Miglus, 1999) and the architecture, planning and finds from the Islamic city (Die Islamische Stadt, edited by Stefan Heidemann and Andrea Becker, 2003).
  437. Find this resource:
  438.  
  439. Grabar, Oleg, Renata Holod, James Knustad, and James Trousdale. City in the Desert: Qasr al-Hayr East. 2 vols. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs 23/24. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.
  440. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  441. An archaeological study of the qasr (palace), large enclosure, and associated structures of this site. The analysis of the architecture and finds established two main phases of occupation during the 8th century and between the 12th and the 14th centuries.
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444. Schlumberger, Daniel, Janine Sourdel Thomine, and Jean-Claude Garcin. Lashkari Bazar: Une résidence royale ghaznévide et ghoride. 2 vols. Mémoires de la délégation Français en Afghanistan 18. Paris: Klincksieck, 1963–1978.
  445. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  446. Final publication of the archaeological research conducted at this palatial complex on the Helmand River in Afghanistan.
  447. Find this resource:
  448.  
  449. The Urban Environment
  450.  
  451. Archaeology has made significant contributions in the study of Islamic urban planning and of the evolution of urban spaces over centuries and decades. In addition to excavation and field survey, researchers now commonly employ aerial and satellite photographs in their analyses of present and past urban plans. Data can also be correlated with contemporary textual sources.
  452.  
  453. Transition from Late Antiquity to Early Islam
  454.  
  455. On the erosion of the classical city, or polis, and the emergence of a new type of medieval urban space, see Hodges and Whitehouse 1983 and Kennedy 1985 (also Walmsley 2007, cited under Historical and Dynastic Periods). Gelichi and Milanese 2002, Kennet 2005, and Whitcomb 2000 offer important case studies on aspects of this issue. Bartl and Moaz 2008 includes numerous studies of urban and rural settlements in this period of transition.
  456.  
  457. Bartl, Karin, and Abd al-Razzaq Moaz, eds. Residences, Castles, Settlements: Transformation Processes from Late Antiquity to Early Islam in Biladal-Sham: Proceedings of the International Conference Held at Damascus, 5–9 November 2006. Rahden, Germany: Verlag Marie Leidorf, 2008.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. A substantial collection of essays dealing with changes in architecture and modes of settlement in the region of Greater Syria.
  460. Find this resource:
  461.  
  462. Gelichi, Sauro, and Marco Milanese. “The Transformation of the Ancient Towns in Central Tunisia During the Islamic Period: The Example of Uchi Maius.” Al-Masaq 14.1 (2002): 33–45.
  463. DOI: 10.1080/09503110220114434Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  464. Illustrates the changes occurring to a rural town during the Late Antique phase and during the Islamic reoccupation. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  465. Find this resource:
  466.  
  467. Hodges, Richard, and David Whitehouse. Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe: Archaeology and the Pirenne Thesis. London: Duckworth, 1983.
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469. Now somewhat dated but contains important arguments concerning the archaeological evidence for the transition from Late Antiquity to the medieval period in Europe and the Middle East.
  470. Find this resource:
  471.  
  472. Kennedy, Hugh. “From Polis to Madina: Urban Change in Late Antique and Early Islamic Syria.” Past and Present 106 (1985): 3–27.
  473. DOI: 10.1093/past/106.1.3Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  474. Influential argument concerning the disappearance of the orthogonally planned classical city in the Middle East in Late Antiquity. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  475. Find this resource:
  476.  
  477. Kennet, Derek. “On the Eve of Islam: Archaeological Evidence from Eastern Arabia.” Antiquity 79.303 (2005): 107–118.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Summarizes the archaeological evidence for occupation and trade along the southern coast of the Persian Gulf during Late Antiquity and assesses the importance of this for the understanding of early Islam. Available online by subscription.
  480. Find this resource:
  481.  
  482. Whitcomb, Donald. “Archaeological Research at Hadir Qinnasrin.” Archéologie Islamique 10 (2000): 7–28.
  483. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  484. Proposes an identification for the misr (early Islamic garrison town) of Qinnasrin and argues that this developed from an Arab encampment (hadir) of the late Byzantine period.
  485. Find this resource:
  486.  
  487. Islamic Urban Settlements
  488.  
  489. It is seldom feasible to excavate large areas of an urban center (see, however, al-Rashid 1986), and most projects employ targeted digging with forms of surface survey or analysis of aerial and satellite photographs. Northedge 2005 and Whitehouse 2009 both demonstrate the potential of integrated methodologies. Khan 1963 concentrates upon the administrative center of the city, while Navarro and Jiménez 2007 synthesizes the results of several projects providing important insights into processes of Islamic urbanization. Petersen 2005 is a convenient starting point for reviewing the extensive archaeological investigation of urbanism in Islamic Palestine.
  490.  
  491. Al-Rashid, Sa‘ad bin Abd al-Azz. Al-Rabadhah: A Portrait of Early Islamic Civilisation in Saudi Arabia. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1986.
  492. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  493. A final report of excavations within this early Islamic town, looking at the history and architecture as well as evidence for trade and manufacturing.
  494. Find this resource:
  495.  
  496. Khan, F. A. Banbhore: A Preliminary Report on the Recent Archaeological Excavations at Banbhore. Karachi, Pakistan: Department of Archaeology and Museums, 1963.
  497. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  498. A general survey of the architecture (including the Congregational Mosque) and finds from the excavations of this important early Islamic garrison town in Sind. Reprinted in several later editions.
  499. Find this resource:
  500.  
  501. Navarro, Julio, and Pedro Jiménez. “Evolution of Andalusi Urban Landscape: From the Dispersed to the Saturated Medina.” In Revisiting Al-Andalus: Perspectives on the Material Culture of Islamic Iberia and Beyond. Edited by Glaire Anderson and Mariam Rosser-Owen, 115–142. Medieval and Early Modern Iberian World 34. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007.
  502. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004162273.I-304Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. A synthetic study bringing together data from selected urban sites that proposes the existence of consistent features in the evolution of Islamic urban spaces on the Iberian Peninsula.
  504. Find this resource:
  505.  
  506. Northedge, Alastair. The Historical Topography of Samarra. Samarra Studies 1. London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 2005.
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508. This study combines archaeological data, primary written sources, and the analysis of aerial photographs in the reconstruction of the monuments and architectural planning of this 9th-century city.
  509. Find this resource:
  510.  
  511. Petersen, Andrew. The Towns of Palestine Under Muslim Rule, AD 600–1600. British Archaeological Reports International Series 1381. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2005.
  512. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  513. Review of the archaeological evidence relating to the urban settlements of Palestine with additional historical source material.
  514. Find this resource:
  515.  
  516. Whitehouse, David. Siraf: History, Topography and Environment. Oxford: Oxbow, 2009.
  517. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  518. This study of the early Islamic port city concentrates upon the urban topography and the hinterland. Surveys reveal the evidence of irrigated agriculture designed to supply the inhabitants of Siraf. With contributions by Donald Whitcomb and T. J. Wilkinson.
  519. Find this resource:
  520.  
  521. Water Provision and Sanitation
  522.  
  523. Islamic cities and towns were often equipped with complex systems designed to bring fresh water the inhabitants and to carry away spent water and human waste. Arce 2004 and Pentz 1997 demonstrate how excavations can correlate these systems with building phases above ground. Scanlon 1970 is a seminal study and combines archaeological evidence from Fustat with written evidence, including the Geniza archive.
  524.  
  525. Arce, Ignacio. “The Umayyad hydraulic System at Amman Citadel—Collection, Storage, Distribution, Use and Sewage.” In Men of Dikes and Canals: The Archeology of Water in the Middle East. Edited by Hans-Dieter Bienert and Jutta Häser, 243–260. Rahden, Germany: VML, 2004.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Presents evidence for the hydraulic engineering associated with the creation of an 8th-century administrative center in Amman, Jordan.
  528. Find this resource:
  529.  
  530. Pentz, Peter. Hama: Fouilles et recherches de la Fondation Carlsberg (1931–1938). Vol. 4, The Medieval Citadel and Its Architecture. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nationalmuseet, 1997.
  531. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  532. Contains a detailed examination of the hydraulic engineering employed by the inhabitants of the citadel of Hama.
  533. Find this resource:
  534.  
  535. Scanlon, George. “Housing and Sanitation: Some Aspects of Medieval Islamic Public Service.” In The Islamic City: A Colloquium. Edited by Albert Hourani and Samuel Stern, 179–194. Oxford: Cassirer, 1970.
  536. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  537. An examination of the drainage and water provision in the excavated houses of Fustat.
  538. Find this resource:
  539.  
  540. Non-Urban Environments
  541.  
  542. This section covers the archaeology conducted beyond the confines of towns, cities, and ports. Projects have examined a wide range of questions, including the changing patterns of settlement and land use in given areas (often as part of multiperiod surveys that deal also with more ancient period), hydraulic engineering, the emergence and spread of specialized cash crops, and the rural economy (including crafts).
  543.  
  544. Rural Settlement and Land Use
  545.  
  546. Wilkinson 2003 is the best introduction to the study of irrigation systems, land use, and rural settlement patterns in the Middle East. Magness 2003 demonstrates the importance of establishing accurate chronological parameters for the ceramics found during field surveys. The integration of primary texts and archaeology is the subject of Walker 2011 and Zarinebaf, et al. 2005. Redford 1998 is an excellent example of a multidisciplinary examination of a rural settlement, and Bazzana 1999 provides a wide range of studies of medieval rural life in the medieval Mediterranean. Cribb 1991 is an essential introduction to the ethnoarchaeological study of nomadic communities.
  547.  
  548. Bazzana, André, ed. Archéologie et espaces agraires méditerranéens au Moyen Âge. Castrum 5. Collection de l’École de Rome 105. Madrid: Casa de Velásquez, 1999.
  549. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  550. A collection of essays dealing with issues including irrigation systems and water conservation, agriculture, and rural settlement.
  551. Find this resource:
  552.  
  553. Cribb, Roger. Nomads in Archaeology. New Studies in Archaeology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  554. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511552205Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Principally dealing with past and present nomad communities in Turkey but advancing methodologies that are applicable in other contexts. Contains an extensive bibliography of comparable studies in other regions.
  556. Find this resource:
  557.  
  558. Magness, Jodi. The Archaeology of the Early Islamic Settlement in Palestine. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbraun, 2003.
  559. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  560. A reevaluation of evidence for settlement patterns in Late Antiquity and early Islam, particularly focusing upon survey evidence from southern Israel.
  561. Find this resource:
  562.  
  563. Redford, Scott. The Archaeology of the Frontier in the Medieval Near East: Excavations at Gritille, Turkey. Archaeological Institute of America Monographs, New Series 3. Philadelphia: University Museum Publications, 1998.
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565. The final report of the excavations of this rural site including chapters devoted to architecture, portable artefacts, and plant and faunal remains.
  566. Find this resource:
  567.  
  568. Walker, Bethany J. Jordan in the Late Middle Ages: Transformation of the Mamluk Frontier. Chicago Studies on the Middle East. Chicago: Middle East Documentation Center, 2011.
  569. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  570. Considers the policies of the Mamluk state in Jordan from the perspectives of archival sources, primary texts, and archaeology.
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573. Wilkinson, T. J. Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2003.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. Evaluates the archaeological approaches to the study of the human impact upon the landscape, making use of case studies from different regions and periods.
  576. Find this resource:
  577.  
  578. Zarinebaf, Fariba, John Bennet, and Jack Davis. A Historical and Economic Geography of Ottoman Greece: The Southwestern Morea in the 18th Century. Hesperia Supplement 34. Princeton, NJ: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2005.
  579. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  580. A textual and archaeological examination of settlement in the southwestern Peloponnese, including data on water systems.
  581. Find this resource:
  582.  
  583. Agriculture
  584.  
  585. Methods of cultivation can be approached from different perspectives. Given 2000 argues that sites of agricultural processing (such as mills or olive presses) can indicate communal investment in production. Charles, et al. 2003 illustrates how archaeobotany can reveal changes in changes in crop choice and associated investment in irrigation systems. Watson 1983 is a foundational text on early Islamic agriculture.
  586.  
  587. Charles, Michael, C. Hoppé, G. Jones, A. Bogaard, and J. G Hodgson. “Using Weed Functional Attributes for the Identification of Irrigation Regimes in Jordan.” Journal of Archaeological Science 30.11 (2003): 1429–1441.
  588. DOI: 10.1016/S0305-4403(03)00038-4Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  589. Archaeobotanical study establishes evidence for irrigated agriculture through the identification of weed types. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  590. Find this resource:
  591.  
  592. Given, Michael. “Agriculture, Settlement and Landscape in Ottoman Cyprus.” Levant 38 (2000): 209–230.
  593. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  594. Concentrates upon the types of settlement and agricultural structures that existed during this phase. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597. Watson, Andrew M. Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
  598. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  599. Makes some use of archaeological data, but principally important for arguing in favor of an agricultural revolution during the early Islamic period.
  600. Find this resource:
  601.  
  602. Water Systems
  603.  
  604. The most tangible remnant of ancient agriculture is often the systems of canals, underground channels (qanat), and other features designed to irrigate areas of land. Adams 1965 is a seminal study, although its results have been questioned. Morony 2002 collects many significant earlier studies; see also Wilkinson 1975. Berthier 2001 provides crucial evidence on the expansion of irrigation systems during the early Abbasid phase. For the debate concerning the dates of the irrigation systems of al-Andalus, see Thomas F. Glick’s contribution, “Hydraulic Technology in Al-Andalus” (pp. 327–340) in Morony 2002 and Butzer, et al. 1985.
  605.  
  606. Adams, Robert. Land Behind Baghdad: A History of Settlement on the Diyala Plains. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1965.
  607. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  608. Classic examination of the long-term evolution of rural water systems and associated settlements, with important data from the early Islamic period to the 13th century.
  609. Find this resource:
  610.  
  611. Berthier, Sophie, ed. Peuplement rural et aménagements hydroagricole dans la moyenne vallée de l’ Euphrate, fin VIIIe–XIX siècle: Région de Deir ez Zōr-Abu Kemāl, Syrie: Mission Mésopotamie syrienne, archéologie islamique, 1986–1989. Damascus, Syria: Institut Français d’études arabes de Damas, 2001.
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613. Recovers important evidence for the expansion of irrigation systems, particularly under the Abbasid administration, and the associated changes to settlement patterns and crop cultivation.
  614. Find this resource:
  615.  
  616. Butzer, Karl W., Juan F. Mateu, Elizabeth K. Butzer, and Pavel Kraus. “Irrigation Agrosystems in Eastern Spain: Roman or Islamic Origins.” Annals of the Association of American Geographers 75.4 (1985): 479–509.
  617. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1985.tb00089.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  618. A contribution to the debate concerning the first phase of complex irrigation systems on the Iberian Peninsula. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  619. Find this resource:
  620.  
  621. Morony, Michael, ed. Production and the Exploitation of Resources. Formation of the Islamic World 11. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2002.
  622. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. A collection containing significant contributions to the study of rural water systems by authors such as Paolo Costa, Thomas F. Glick, James Neely, and Paul Ward.
  624. Find this resource:
  625.  
  626. Wilkinson, Tony. “Sohar Ancient Fields Project. Interim Report No. 1.” Journal of Oman Studies 1 (1975): 159–164.
  627. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  628. An examination of a complex network of canals and associated features used to irrigate the region of Sohar in Oman. The same author presents further archaeological evidence in subsequent issues of the same journal.
  629. Find this resource:
  630.  
  631. Processing of Agricultural Products
  632.  
  633. Mills for the processing of wheat and barley have been located during surveys of agricultural water systems (see contributions in Morony 2002, cited under Water Systems). McQuitty 1995 discusses mills that have been constructed as single installations fed by an aqueduct. Sites for the processing of sugar are commonly encountered in the Middle East and North Africa, and Berthier 1966; Boucharlat, et al. 1979; and Photos-Jones, et al. 2002 illustrate the ways in which the architecture and finds have been studied.
  634.  
  635. Berthier, Paul. Un épisode de l’histoire de la canne à sucre: Les anciennes sucreries du Maroc et leurs réseaux hydrauliques: Étude archéologique et d’histoire économique. 2 vols. Rabat, Morocco: Imprimeries Françaises et Marocaines, 1966.
  636. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  637. A scarce publication but providing a detailed analysis of sites of sugar production and the associated hydraulic engineering in Morocco.
  638. Find this resource:
  639.  
  640. Boucharlat, Rémy, Audran Labrousse, and Monique Kervran. “Une sucrerie d’époque islamique sur la rive droite de Chaour à Suse.” Cahiers de la Délégation Archéologiques Français en Iran 10 (1979): 155–237.
  641. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  642. An examination of the architecture and finds from an early Islamic sugar mill constructed near to the ancient palace of Susa in Iran.
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645. McQuitty, Alison. “Watermills in Jordan: Technology, Typology, Dating and Development.” Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan 5 (1995): 745–751.
  646. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  647. A survey of Jordanian watermills, with comments about their technology, functions, and dates.
  648. Find this resource:
  649.  
  650. Photos-Jones E., K. D. Politis, H. James, A. Hall, R. Jones, and J. Hamer. “The Sugar Industry in the Southern Jordan Valley: An Interim Report on the Pilot Season of Excavations, Geophysical and Geological Surveys at Tawahin as-Sukkar and Khirbat Ash-Shaykh Isa, in Ghawr As-Safi.” Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan 46 (2002): 591–614.
  651. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  652. Multidisciplinary study of sites of sugar manufacture in the Dead Sea region.
  653. Find this resource:
  654.  
  655. Mining and Smelting
  656.  
  657. Often conducted at sites where mining had occurred in earlier periods, there are examples of smelting of both newly mined ore and ancient deposits of slag. Hauptmann 2000, Trauth 1996, and Weisgerber 1980 offer perspectives on these studies from different parts of the Islamic world.
  658.  
  659. Hauptmann, Andreas. Zur frühen Metallurgie des Kupfers in Fenan/Jordanien. Der Anschnitt. Zeitschrift für Kunst und Kultur Bergbau 11. Bochum, Germany: Deutsche Bergbau Museum, 2000.
  660. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  661. Includes discussions of the extraction of copper from ore and slag during the Islamic period at a site in the Wadi ‘Arabah, Jordan.
  662. Find this resource:
  663.  
  664. Trauth, Norbert. “Les produits métallurgiques du site médiéval de Saltés (Huelva–Andalousie.” Archéologie Islamique 6 (1996): 77–88.
  665. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  666. Discusses a site in southern Spain devoted to the processing of iron ore. The study isolates the sources for the ores and establishes the presence of precious metals within the ores.
  667. Find this resource:
  668.  
  669. Weisgerber, Gerd. “Patterns of Early Islamic Metallurgy in Oman.” Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 10 (1980): 115–126.
  670. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  671. Presents evidence for the processing of metal ore in Oman.
  672. Find this resource:
  673.  
  674. Trade and Communications
  675.  
  676. Archaeology has made a major impact upon the study of trade and communication networks. The study of shipwrecks, ports, caravanserais, and towns and cities along major trade routes provides insights into the commonly traded goods, the fluctuations in economic activity over time and on the everyday lives of those involved in this traffic. The annual pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca also required the creation of a substantial infrastructure for the annual movement of people and materials.
  677.  
  678. Physical Evidence for International Trade
  679.  
  680. Ceramics, glass, coins, and, to a lesser extent, textiles have all been studied in the context of international trade. Berti and Tongiorgi 1981 is an example of the study of Islamic ceramics set into medieval European buildings. Jiayao 1991 is concerned with Islamic artefacts in Chinese tombs, and others have been recovered through excavations and field surveys (Rawson, et al. 1987–1988; also see Ceramics and Glass). The potential of primary texts is explored in different ways in Guo 2004 and Milwright 2008. Carswell 2000 is an accessible synthetic study of the trade in porcelain.
  681.  
  682. Berti, Graziella, and Liana Tongiorgi. I bacini ceramici medievali delle chiese di Pisa. Rome: “L’Erma” di Bretschneider, 1981.
  683. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  684. The presence of ceramics on dated buildings provides a valuable account of the distribution of Spanish, North African, and Middle Eastern pottery in the Mediterranean.
  685. Find this resource:
  686.  
  687. Carswell, John. Blue and White: Chinese Porcelain Around the World. London: British Museum, 2000.
  688. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  689. A study of the international trade in Chinese ceramics during the medieval period, with much evidence about trade with the Islamic world.
  690. Find this resource:
  691.  
  692. Guo, Li. Commerce, Culture, and Community in a Red Sea Port in the Thirteenth Century: The Arabic Documents from Quseir. Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts 52. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004.
  693. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  694. Translation and analysis of the documents recovered from a 13th-century house in the Red Sea port of Quseir.
  695. Find this resource:
  696.  
  697. Jiayao, An. “Dated Islamic Glass in China.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute New Series 5 (1991): 123–137.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. An important resource for the chronology of Islamic glass and for the international trade in glass during the medieval period.
  700. Find this resource:
  701.  
  702. Milwright, Marcus. “Imported Pottery in Ottoman Bilad al-Sham.” Turcica 40 (2008): 121–152.
  703. DOI: 10.2143/TURC.40.0.2037137Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  704. Reviews the archaeological and primary textual evidence for the importation of ceramics to Greater Syria between the 15th and the early 20th centuries.
  705. Find this resource:
  706.  
  707. Rawson, Jessica, Michael Tite, and M. Hughes. “The Export of Tang Sancai Wares: Some Recent Research.” Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society 52 (1987–1988): 39–61.
  708. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  709. An examination of the distribution of Sancai wares in the Middle East and their impact upon early Islamic ceramic production.
  710. Find this resource:
  711.  
  712. Land Trade and Pilgrimage Routes
  713.  
  714. Land routes often passed through inhospitable terrain, and a feature of the Islamic period is the construction of semi-fortified enclosures or forts and associated water storage features to aid travelers and pilgrims (al-Rashid 1980; Petersen 2012). Kervran 1999 offers an important archaeological study of the early development of the caravanserai. Nixon, et al. 2011 is a useful introduction to the archaeological study of the processing and transport of West African gold.
  715.  
  716. Al-Rashid, Sa‘d. Darb Zubaydah: The Pilgrim Road from Kufa to Mecca. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Riyad University Libraries, 1980.
  717. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  718. Establishes the chronology and reviews the architecture and archaeology of this hajj route through southwestern Iraq and northern Arabia.
  719. Find this resource:
  720.  
  721. Kervran, Monique. “Caravansérails du delta de l’Indus. Réflexions sur l’origine du caravansérail islamique.” Archéologie Islamique 8–9 (1999): 143–176.
  722. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  723. Reviews the archaeology of eight early Islamic caravanserais in the coastal region south of Karachi and relates them to buildings in the Middle East and Central Asia.
  724. Find this resource:
  725.  
  726. Nixon, Sam, Thilo Rehren, and Maria Filomena Guerra. “New Light on the West African Gold Trade: Coin Moulds from Tadmekka, Mali.” Antiquity 85.330 (2011): 1353–1368.
  727. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  728. An analysis of the archaeological evidence for minting of currency in Mali reviewed in the context of international trade. Available online by subscription.
  729. Find this resource:
  730.  
  731. Petersen, Andrew. Medieval and Ottoman Hajj Route in Jordan: An Archaeological and Historical Study. Levant Supplementary Series 12. Oxford: Oxbow, 2012.
  732. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  733. A detailed study of the architectural features of the pilgrimage route from Damascus to the Hijaz with reports on an excavation and surface surveys of selected Ottoman-period sites.
  734. Find this resource:
  735.  
  736. Ports and Maritime Trade
  737.  
  738. Archaeology and written sources point to an expansion in maritime trade in the early Islamic period, with commercial contacts being established between the Middle East and China. Other important networks operated in the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean. Excavations have revealed these international and more localized networks shipping manufactured goods, raw materials, and slaves.
  739.  
  740. Bass, George, Sheila Matthews, J. Richard Steffy, and Frederick van Doorninck Jr. Serçe Limanı: An Eleventh-Century Shipwreck. Vol. 1, The Ship and Its Anchorage, Crew and Passengers. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2004.
  741. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  742. Final publication of the wreck of an eleventh-century trading ship plying the route between the Syrian coast and the Aegean.
  743. Find this resource:
  744.  
  745. Carswell, John. “The Third George de Menasce Memorial Lecture: China and Islam: A Survey of the Coast of India and Ceylon.” Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society 42 (1977–1978): 25–68.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. This report discusses significant finds of Chinese pottery in Indian, Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and elsewhere in the context of the maritime trade between China and the Islamic world.
  748. Find this resource:
  749.  
  750. Peacock, David, and Lucy Blue, eds. Myos Hormos–Quseir Qadim: Roman and Islamic Ports on the Red Sea. Vol. 1, Survey and Excavations, 1999–2003. Oxford: Oxbow, 2006.
  751. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  752. Contains chapters dealing with the architecture of the Islamic harbor and town. The finds from the site are dealt with in the second volume (Finds from the Excavations 1999–2003) by the same editors, published by Oxbow in 2011.
  753. Find this resource:
  754.  
  755. Whitehouse, David. “East Africa and the Maritime Trade of the Indian Ocean, A.D. 800–1500.” In Islam in East Africa: New Sources. Edited by Biancamaria Amoretti, 411–424. Rome: Herder, 2001.
  756. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  757. Reviews the archaeological and historical evidence for the role of East African ports in long-distance maritime trade, making connections with ports in the Persian Gulf.
  758. Find this resource:
  759.  
  760. Military Activity
  761.  
  762. Archaeologically, the military aspect of Islamic culture has been most extensively studied from the perspective of military architecture and the associated material culture. Multidisciplinary studies of castles and citadels are now illuminating the many social and economic roles performed by these sites.
  763.  
  764. Citadels and Their Material Culture
  765.  
  766. There are several ongoing projects addressing the archaeology of citadels and fortified settlements during the Islamic period and in earlier phases. Good examples of these interdisciplinary projects are Berthier and al-Ajji 2002 and Herrmann 1999. Prag 2008 is an exemplary publication of an older excavation project. Although the final publications have not appeared, Redman 1986 remains an influential study of the transformation of a militarized site as it passed from Muslim to Christian authority.
  767.  
  768. Berthier, Sophie, and E. al-Ajji, eds. Special Issue: Études and travaux à la citadelle de Damas 2000–2001: Un premier bilan. Bulletin d‘Études Orientales 53–54 (2002).
  769. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  770. Supplement of the journal devoted to the archaeology of the Damascus citadel with articles devoted to the history, architecture, architectural decoration, and finds from the site.
  771. Find this resource:
  772.  
  773. Herrmann, Georgina. Monuments of Merv: Traditional Buildings of the Karakum. London: Society of Antiquaries, 1999.
  774. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  775. A general introduction to the architecture of Merv, with chapters devoted to the history of the site and the structural techniques employed in building.
  776. Find this resource:
  777.  
  778. Prag, Kay. Excavations by K. M. Kenyon in Jerusalem, 1961–1967. Vol. 5, Discoveries in Hellenistic and Ottoman Jerusalem. Oxford: Oxbow, 2008.
  779. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  780. A detailed examination of the Ottoman-period walls and trenching of Jerusalem, including discussions of the associated material culture. Also contains the final report of excavations in part of the early 8th-century palatial complex south and east of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem.
  781. Find this resource:
  782.  
  783. Redman, Charles. Qsar es-Saghir: An Archaeological View of Medieval Life. Orlando, FL: Academic Press, 1986.
  784. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  785. This preliminary study traces the evolution of the fortified town through phases of Islamic and Portuguese occupation and looks at changes in urban planning and material culture.
  786. Find this resource:
  787.  
  788. Forts and Castles
  789.  
  790. The study of Islamic fortifications remains at a relatively early stage (particularly when compared to the volume of published studies on Crusader and European medieval castles). Kennedy 2006 is the best introduction to recent scholarship (the preliminary report on Shayzar is now superseded in Tonghini 2011). Kervran, et al. 2005 offers an important demonstration of the adaptation of fortifications over the long term. For a concise introduction to al-Andalus, see Zozoya 1996.
  791.  
  792. Kennedy, Hugh, ed. Muslim Military Architecture in Greater Syria: From the Coming of Islam to the Ottoman Period. History of Warfare 35. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
  793. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  794. Contains chapters dealing with aspects of fortifications dating from Late Antiquity to the Ottoman period. Of particular note are the contributions by Ignacio Arce, John France, Denis Genequand, Benjamin Michaudel, and Donald Whitcomb.
  795. Find this resource:
  796.  
  797. Kervran, Monique, Fredrik Hiebert, and Axelle Rouguelle. Qal‘at Bahrain, a Trading and Military Outpost: 3rd Millennium B.C.–17th Century A.D. Indicopleustoi Archaeologies of the Indian Ocean 4. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2005.
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799. Examines the evolution of this port and military site with reports on the architectural phasing and finds.
  800. Find this resource:
  801.  
  802. Tonghini, Cristina. Shayzar I. The Fortification of the Citadel. History of Warfare 71. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  803. DOI: 10.1163/9789004217676Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  804. A multidisciplinary examination of the construction phases of this fortified site between the 10th and the 13th centuries.
  805. Find this resource:
  806.  
  807. Zozoya, Juan. “Fortification Building in al-Andalus.” Madrider Beiträge 24 (1996): 55–74.
  808. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  809. A helpful synthesis of recent archaeological scholarship addressing issues including the distribution, design and functions of military sites.
  810. Find this resource:
  811.  
  812. Armor, Weapons, and Battle Sites
  813.  
  814. Armor and weapons are only rarely recovered from excavations of Islamic sites, and the most detailed account is found in Nicolle 2011 (see also Allan 1982, cited under Metalwork and Coins). Nicolle 1995–1996 is an essential resource for the study of the archaeology of medieval warfare. Saunders and Faulkner 2010 is one of the few published studies of battle sites.
  815.  
  816. Nicolle, David. Medieval Warfare Sourcebook. 2 vols. London: Arms and Armour, 1995–1996.
  817. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  818. Contains important data concerning fortifications across the Islamic world and excavated Islamic arms and armour.
  819. Find this resource:
  820.  
  821. Nicolle, David. Late Mamluk Military Equipment. Travaux et études de la Mission Archéologique Syro-Français, Citadelle de Damas 3. Damascus, Syria: Presses de l’Ifpo, 2011.
  822. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  823. Full publication of the armour, military clothing and weapons found during the excavations of the Damascus citadel.
  824. Find this resource:
  825.  
  826. Saunders, Nicholas, and Neil Faulkner. “Fire in the Desert: Conflict Archaeology and the Great Arab Revolt in Jordan, 1916–18.” Antiquity 84.324 (2010): 514–527.
  827. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  828. An examination of sites of military encampments and battles dating to the time of the Arab Revolt in the south of Jordan. Available online by subscription.
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831. Identity in the Archaeological Record
  832.  
  833. Muslim religious and cultural identity may be reflected in many aspects of the archaeological record (cf. Insoll 1999, cited under General Overviews). Archaeologists have also addressed the experience of non-Muslim communities living under Islamic rule, and the spread of Islam into new regions through the medieval period (see also Whitcomb 2004, cited under Collected Works).
  834.  
  835. Early Islam
  836.  
  837. An area of considerable debate has been the extent to which archaeology can contribute to the understanding of the evolution of a distinctive Muslim identity (Morony and Whitcomb 1995; Hoyland 2006; Johns 2003). For more recent epigraphic discoveries, see al-Ghabban 2010. Genequand 2004 shows how texts and archaeology can be combined in the identification of an early Islamic site.
  838.  
  839. Al-Ghabban, ‘Ali Ibrahim. “The Evolution of the Arabic Script in the Period of the Prophet Muhammad and the Orthodox Caliphs in the Light of New Inscriptions Discovered in the Kingdom of Arabia.” In The Development of Arabic as a Written Language. Edited by Michael A. C. MacDonald, 89–102. Supplement of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 40. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2010.
  840. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  841. A helpful survey of the earliest epigraphic evidence of the Islamic period.
  842. Find this resource:
  843.  
  844. Genequand, Denis. “Al-Bakhra’ (Avatha), from Tetrarchic Fort to Umayyad Castle.” Levant 36 (2004): 225–242.
  845. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  846. Identification and analysis of one of the earliest known secular structures of the Islamic period. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  847. Find this resource:
  848.  
  849. Hoyland, Robert. “New Documentary Texts and the Early Islamic State.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 69.3 (2006): 395–416.
  850. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X06000188Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  851. A response to Johns 2003 making more extensive use of monumental inscriptions and papyri. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  852. Find this resource:
  853.  
  854. Johns, Jeremy. “Archaeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46.4 (2003): 411–436.
  855. DOI: 10.1163/156852003772914848Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  856. A stimulating discussion of the role of archaeological evidence in the study of the earliest phase of Islamic history. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  857. Find this resource:
  858.  
  859. Morony, Michael G., and Donald Whitcomb. Identity and Material Culture in the Early Islamic World. Edited by Irene Bierman. UCLA Near East Center Colloquium Series. Los Angeles: Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California at Los Angeles, 1995.
  860. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  861. An historian’s perspective on the archaeological evidence for early Islam by Michael Morony with a response by Donald Whitcomb.
  862. Find this resource:
  863.  
  864. Interactions between Muslims and Non-Muslims
  865.  
  866. Michel 2001 and Schick 1995 are the two best introductions to the archaeology of the Christian communities of Greater Syria before and after the Islamic conquest. Elders 2001 provides a starting point for the examination of Christian communities in the Gulf (cf. Kennet 2005, cited under Transition from Late Antiquity to Early Islam). Ball 1976 is the best archaeological study of Buddhism in Islamic Iran, and Lambourn 2008 is a good source for recent archaeological work in Southeast Asia (also see Peter Lape, “Archaeological Approaches to the Study of Islam in Island Southeast Asia,” Antiquity 79.306 (2005): 829–836, available online by subscription, as part of Antiquity’s Focus on Islam special section; see Petersen 2005, cited under Collected Works).
  867.  
  868. Ball, Warwick. “Two Aspects of Iranian Buddhism.” Bulletin of the Asia Institute of Pahlavi University 1–4 (1976): 103–163.
  869. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  870. Reports on the existence of Buddhist religious monuments patronized by the Ilkhanids prior to their conversion to Islam in 1295.
  871. Find this resource:
  872.  
  873. Elders, Joseph. “The Lost Churches of the Arabian Gulf: Recent Discoveries on the Islands of Sir bani Yas and Marawah, Abu Dhabi Emirate, United Arab Emirates.” Proceedings of the Society for Arabian Studies 31 (2001): 47–57.
  874. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  875. Reports on the churches and monastic complexes of eastern Arabia that continued until the early Abbasid period.
  876. Find this resource:
  877.  
  878. Lambourn, Elizabeth. “Tombstones, Texts and Typologies: Seeing Sources for the Early History of Islam in Southeast Asia.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 51.2 (2008): 252–286.
  879. DOI: 10.1163/156852008X307447Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  880. Carved tombstones from Gujarat are employed by the author in her discussion of the growth of Islam in medieval Southeast Asia. Available online for purchase or by subscription.
  881. Find this resource:
  882.  
  883. Michel, Anne. Les églises d’époque byzantine et umayyade de la Jordanie, Ve-VIIIe siècle. Typologie architecturale et amenagements liturgiques. Bibliothèque de l’Antiquité Tardive 2. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2001.
  884. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  885. Contains detailed reports on excavated churches (and their mosaics) of the 7th and 8th centuries in Jordan.
  886. Find this resource:
  887.  
  888. Schick, Robert. The Christian Communities of Palestine from Byzantine to Islamic Rule: A Historical and Archaeological Study. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 2. Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1995.
  889. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  890. Synthesizes the available textual and archaeological evidence and contains an important discussion of the phenomenon of iconoclasm in church mosaics of the early Islamic period.
  891. Find this resource:
  892.  
  893. Death and Burial
  894.  
  895. Islamic law emphasizes simplicity in burial but indigenous cultural norms often adapted or ignored orthodox Muslim practices. Simpson 1995 gives an introduction to this topic, and Toombs 1985 is an excellent example of the archaeological examination of an Islamic cemetery. For an example of a modern palaeopathological study, see Smith and Horwitz 2009.
  896.  
  897. Simpson, St John. “Death and Burial in the Late Islamic Near East: Some Insights from Archaeology and Ethnography.” In The Archaeology of Death in the Ancient near East. Oxbow Monographs 51. Edited by Stuart Campbell and Anthony Green, 240–251. Oxford: Oxbow, 1995.
  898. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  899. Reviews the existence of characteristic and “unorthodox” modes of Muslim burial recovered from excavations of cemeteries in the Middle East. The author combines this discussion with ethnographic data.
  900. Find this resource:
  901.  
  902. Smith, Patricia, and Liora Horwitz. “A Synthetic Approach to the Study of Diet, Health and Disease in an Ottoman Period Population from Palestine.” al-Rafidan 30 (2009): 78–106.
  903. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  904. Detailed study of skeletal remains from a cemetery; evidence concerning diet and disease are correlated with primary written sources.
  905. Find this resource:
  906.  
  907. Toombs, Lawrence. The Joint Archaeological Expedition to Tell el-Hesi. Vol. 2, Tell el Hesi: Modern Military Trenching and Muslim Cemetery in Field I, Strata I–II. Edited by Kevin O’Connell. American Schools of Oriental Research Excavation Reports. Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1985.
  908. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  909. Final report of the excavation of a Bedouin cemetery (14th–18th centuries) near to the ancient tell containing evidence about palaeopathology, modes of interment, and the presence of grave goods.
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