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The Umayyads

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The study of Umayyad history (661–750 CE/41–132 AH) is one of the most important subjects of Islamic history and overall human history. The students of this period are often amazed at the awesome military achievements of the empire and the period in which it occurred. The Umayyads reached westward to Spain and eastward to Indonesia in less than forty years after they came to power. What type of political arrangement did the Umayyads have to be able not only to experience this rapid military expansion but also to maintain political control over the newly acquired lands? How was it possible for a family of Arab descent connected to other Arab tribes to gain the legitimacy, secular or religious, necessary for maintaining control over a large non-Arab and even non-Muslim population? Finally, how was the empire able to establish a reliable tax system to finance its military operations as well as architectural building activities? These are the questions that Western scholars often try to answer when dealing with the Umayyads. The problem remains that, as a rule of thumb, a history student would often like to find primary sources written about the subject. Our case here is very difficult. The Arabic sources dealing with the Umayyads are secondary material written by scholars hostile to the dynasty and living under the Abbasid regime, which in itself carried out a revolution and eventually toppled the Umayyads. Given the nature of these historical sources, one must raise the question of whether a reliable understanding of the period will ever be possible. As a result, scholars often pursue this period carefully by trying to answer the above questions.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. This section includes general references about the history of the Umayyad Caliphate. Students lacking previous knowledge of the subject should find these works very valuable. Kennedy 1986 and Wellhausen 1927 are classic in the field; students should refer to these as general sources about early Muslim history. Hawting 1987 and Hawting 2002 are more focused on Umayyad history, and thus students are encouraged to deal with them after reading Kennedy 1986. Donner 1998 is even more focused than the above works and deals with some specific issues, such as the authenticity of the Quʾran and rebuttal of the skeptic hypothesis. Landau-Tesseron 1992 is designed for more advanced students in the field, since it deals with the translation of early sources. Students should not start with this reading. Marín-Guzmán 2004 is very advanced, requires a significant background in the field, and therefore is suitable only for advanced students.
  8.  
  9. Donner, Fred. Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writings. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 14. Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1998.
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  11. This work deals with ways Muslim scholars during the Umayyad regime began writing down Islamic traditions. This work is very valuable for its rebuttal of claims about the nonauthenticity of the Quʾran and other written traditions.
  12. Donner, Fred. Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writings. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 14. Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1998.
  13. Find this resource:
  14. Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate A.D. 661–750. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987.
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  16. This book provides a basic description of Umayyad rule, how it dealt with its military, diwān (treasury department) and taxation, the issue of mawālī (Arab and non-Arab clients), and the overall conception of legitimacy. This book is a blueprint for students of early Islamic history.
  17. Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate A.D. 661–750. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987.
  18. Find this resource:
  19. Hawting, G. R. “Umayyads.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. CD-ROM edition. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
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  21. This important article describes the Umayyad dynasty as reflected in Muslim sources and Western scholarship. It is a necessary reading for the students of early Islamic history.
  22. Hawting, G. R. “Umayyads.” In The Encyclopaedia of Islam. CD-ROM edition. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002.
  23. Find this resource:
  24. Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphate: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth Century to the Eleventh Century. History of the Near East. London and New York: Longman, 1986.
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  26. This general work provides a starting point for students interested in Islamic history who lack previous knowledge of the subject.
  27. Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphate: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth Century to the Eleventh Century. History of the Near East. London and New York: Longman, 1986.
  28. Find this resource:
  29. Landau-Tasseron, Ella. “The Waning of the Umayyads: Notes on Tabari’s History Translated, vol. XXVI.” Islam 69 (1992): 81–109.
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  31. This translation of the history of al-Ṭabari’s section on Umayyad decline is a valuable book for students aiming to account for early narrations compiled by Muslim historians on the subject.
  32. Landau-Tasseron, Ella. “The Waning of the Umayyads: Notes on Tabari’s History Translated, vol. XXVI.” Islam 69 (1992): 81–109.
  33. Find this resource:
  34. Marín-Guzmán, Roberto. “Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the ʿAbbāsid Revolution.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21.4 (2004): 57–96.
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  36. This general work speaks about the Arab tribes’ role in the Umayyad era and their connections to the Abbasid revolutions.
  37. Marín-Guzmán, Roberto. “Arab Tribes, the Umayyad Dynasty, and the ʿAbbāsid Revolution.” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21.4 (2004): 57–96.
  38. Find this resource:
  39. Wellhausen, Julius. The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1927.
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  41. This very important work is more extensive than a simple summary; it provides the basis on which Western scholarship has understood the history of Islam. It is a must-read for all students of Islamic history.
  42. Wellhausen, Julius. The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1927.
  43. Find this resource:
  44. Mawālī
  45.  
  46. Mawālī was a legal system designed to incorporate Muslim converts of non-Arab origin into Muslim society. These non-Arab Muslims became the clients of Arab tribes and had similar rights and duties to those of other members of society. Juda 2005 provides a general view of the economic status of the mawālī; it is a good read for someone wanting to learn more about the subject. Al-Qadi 2006 also provides important background information about the subject. Agha 1999 and Agha 2003, on the other hand, view this system as racist and oppressive, which led to the Abbasid revolution, while Athamina 1998 and Athamina 1992a believe that it was a reflection of the realities of early Arab society that had nothing to do with the toppling of the Umayyads. Cobb 1995 and Athamina 1992b analyze the status of the mawālī, claiming that some of them occupied important political positions while most became significant scholars, to the extent that some Christians sought their help when dealing with state officials, as Papaconstantinou 2008 argues.
  47.  
  48. Agha, Salih Said. “The Arab Population in Khurasan during the Umayyad Period.” Arabica 46 (1999): 211–229.
  49. DOI: 10.1163/157005899774229366Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  50. This article deals with the population of Khurasān; it analyzes sources of numerical data about the ethnic makeup of Ahl Khurasān (the army of the region) and then concludes that the Arab segment of the province was so small that it had neither a role in the Abbasid revolution nor the motivation to revolt against the Umayyads.
  51. Agha, Salih Said. “The Arab Population in Khurasan during the Umayyad Period.” Arabica 46 (1999): 211–229.
  52. Find this resource:
  53. Agha, Salih Said. The Revolution Which Toppled the Umayyads: Neither Arab nor ʿAbbāsid. Islamic History and Civilization 50. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
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  55. Similar to Agha 1999, the author claims in this work that the Umayyads were toppled by the ambitious Persian population of Khurasān.
  56. Agha, Salih Said. The Revolution Which Toppled the Umayyads: Neither Arab nor ʿAbbāsid. Islamic History and Civilization 50. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2003.
  57. Find this resource:
  58. Athamina, Khalil. “Al-Qasas: Its Emergence, Religious Origin, and Its Socio-Political Impact on Early Muslim Society.” Studia Islamica 76 (1992a): 53–74.
  59. DOI: 10.2307/1595660Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  60. This article investigates the political impact on the Umayyad caliphs who saw the rise of the quṣṣāṣ, or what the author calls “admonishers,” who taught the type of understanding of idealized justice that early caliphs were said to have practiced.
  61. Athamina, Khalil. “Al-Qasas: Its Emergence, Religious Origin, and Its Socio-Political Impact on Early Muslim Society.” Studia Islamica 76 (1992a): 53–74.
  62. Find this resource:
  63. Athamina, Khalil. “The ‘Ulama’ in the Opposition: The ‘Stick and the Carrot’ Policy in Early Islam.” Islamic Quarterly 36.3 (1992b): 153–178.
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  65. This somewhat long article analyzes the relationship between scholars and caliphs and argues that caliphs often rewarded scholars when they used their work for political purposes.
  66. Athamina, Khalil. “The ‘Ulama’ in the Opposition: The ‘Stick and the Carrot’ Policy in Early Islam.” Islamic Quarterly 36.3 (1992b): 153–178.
  67. Find this resource:
  68. Athamina, Khalil. “Non-Arab Regiments and Private Militias during the Umayyad Period.” Arabica 45.3 (1998): 347–378.
  69. DOI: 10.1163/157005898774230400Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  70. This long article tries to draw a general picture of the formation and enlistment methods of non-Arab ethnic communities and non-Muslim religious communities into the military of a dynasty with a significant appetite for military expansion.
  71. Athamina, Khalil. “Non-Arab Regiments and Private Militias during the Umayyad Period.” Arabica 45.3 (1998): 347–378.
  72. Find this resource:
  73. Cobb, Paul M. “Scholars and Society at Early Islamic Ayla.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 38.4 (1995): 417–428.
  74. DOI: 10.1163/1568520952600317Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  75. This work argues that scholars residing in the city of Ayla, later known as ʿAqaba, were mostly from the mawālī (Arab and non-Arab clients) under the Umayyad regime and had families both in Egypt and Ḥijāz.
  76. Cobb, Paul M. “Scholars and Society at Early Islamic Ayla.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 38.4 (1995): 417–428.
  77. Find this resource:
  78. Juda, Jamal. “The Economic Status of the Mawālī in Early Islam.” In Patronate and Patronage in Early and Classical Islam. Edited by Monique Bernards and John Nawas, 263–277. Islamic History and Civilization 61. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
  79. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  80. This article discusses the status of the mawalī (Arab and non-Arab clients) under the Umayyad regime.
  81. Juda, Jamal. “The Economic Status of the Mawālī in Early Islam.” In Patronate and Patronage in Early and Classical Islam. Edited by Monique Bernards and John Nawas, 263–277. Islamic History and Civilization 61. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005.
  82. Find this resource:
  83. Papaconstantinou, Aritta. “Between Umma and Dhimma: The Christians of the Middle East under the Umayyads.” Annales Islamologiques 42 (2008): 127–156.
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  85. This article discusses the place of non-Muslim religious communities under the Umayyad regime and how they depended on Muslim scholars to voice their needs to the state.
  86. Papaconstantinou, Aritta. “Between Umma and Dhimma: The Christians of the Middle East under the Umayyads.” Annales Islamologiques 42 (2008): 127–156.
  87. Find this resource:
  88. al-Qadi, Wadad, “Population Census and Land Surveys under the Umayyads (41–132/661–750).” Der Islam 83.2 (2006): 341–416.
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  90. This long essay presents a lot of details about the population ruled by the Umayyads.
  91. al-Qadi, Wadad, “Population Census and Land Surveys under the Umayyads (41–132/661–750).” Der Islam 83.2 (2006): 341–416.
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Buildings
  94.  
  95. Scholars have focused much attention on Umayyad building activities. Perhaps the need to understand early Umayyad history from nonwritten sources became significant in light of the problems associated with literary traditions. Creswell 1961 laid the foundation of this study, and Umayyad architecture became a reliable interpreter of various other aspects of Umayyad rule. Bacharach 1996 is very useful as a general introduction to the subject. Students of Umayyad archaeology must read this work. Elad 1992, Grabar 1959, al-Hawary 1932, Kessler 1970, and Nassar 1989 focus on the Dome of the Rock and the reasons behind its building. These works are very specific and require some knowledge of Umayyad buildings—students with a special interest in ʿAbd al-Malik’s reign should rely on these works. Luz 1997 deals with how the Umayyad dynasty constructed cities in Palestine, while Johns 2003 explores ways we may use these Umayyad buildings to provide information about the history of the period. These last two very specific works will be useful to students dealing with the intricacies of Umayyad history.
  96.  
  97. Bacharach, Jere. “Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage.” Muqarnas 13 (1996): 27–44.
  98. DOI: 10.2307/1523250Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  99. This significant work on Umayyad architectural work during the reign of ʿAbd al-Malik argues that most of the desert palaces (a term that the author believes to be a misnomer) reflect the caliph’s growing interest in providing better trade and pilgrimage routes.
  100. Bacharach, Jere. “Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage.” Muqarnas 13 (1996): 27–44.
  101. Find this resource:
  102. Creswell, K. A. C. A Bibliography of the Architecture, Arts, and Crafts of Islam to 1st January 1960. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1961.
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  104. This valuable work provides a map of archaeological sites dating to the Umayyad period.
  105. Creswell, K. A. C. A Bibliography of the Architecture, Arts, and Crafts of Islam to 1st January 1960. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1961.
  106. Find this resource:
  107. Elad, Amikam. “Why Did ʿAbd al-Malik Build the Dome of the Rock? A Re-examination of the Muslim Sources.” In Bayt al-Maqdis: ʿAbd al-Malik’s Jerusalem, Part 1. Edited by J. Raby and J. Johns, 33–58. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 9. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
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  109. By investigating early Muslim sources, this work examines the reasons why ʿAbd al-Malik built the Dome of the Rock.
  110. Elad, Amikam. “Why Did ʿAbd al-Malik Build the Dome of the Rock? A Re-examination of the Muslim Sources.” In Bayt al-Maqdis: ʿAbd al-Malik’s Jerusalem, Part 1. Edited by J. Raby and J. Johns, 33–58. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 9. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
  111. Find this resource:
  112. Grabar, Oleg. “The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.” Ars Orientalis 3 (1959): 33–62.
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  114. The author of this article argues that the Dome of the Rock was built by the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik to bolster the prestige of the Syrian caliphate against its rival Ibn al-Zubayr in Mecca and to prove that Islam is superior to Christianity and Judaism.
  115. Grabar, Oleg. “The Umayyad Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.” Ars Orientalis 3 (1959): 33–62.
  116. Find this resource:
  117. al-Hawary, Hassan Mohammed. “The Second Oldest Islamic Monument Known, Dated A.H. 71 (A.D. 691): From the Time of the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2 (1932): 289–293.
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  119. This article deals with a monument that existed during the reign of the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-Malik. The author claims that this monument is the second oldest Islamic monument known.
  120. al-Hawary, Hassan Mohammed. “The Second Oldest Islamic Monument Known, Dated A.H. 71 (A.D. 691): From the Time of the Umayyad Caliph ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 2 (1932): 289–293.
  121. Find this resource:
  122. Johns, Jeremy. “Archeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years.” Journal of the Economic and the Social History of the Orient 46.4 (2003): 411–436.
  123. DOI: 10.1163/156852003772914848Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  124. This article tries to rely on archaeological sources rather than text to account for the early history of Islam.
  125. Johns, Jeremy. “Archeology and the History of Early Islam: The First Seventy Years.” Journal of the Economic and the Social History of the Orient 46.4 (2003): 411–436.
  126. Find this resource:
  127. Kessler, Christel. “Abd al-Malik’s Inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock: A Reconsideration.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1 (1970): 2–14.
  128. DOI: 10.1017/S0035869X00127947Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  129. This work talks about the importance of the inscription in the Dome of the Rock as one of the oldest Arab inscriptions and also about the implications and the meanings of the verses.
  130. Kessler, Christel. “Abd al-Malik’s Inscriptions in the Dome of the Rock: A Reconsideration.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1 (1970): 2–14.
  131. Find this resource:
  132. Luz, Nimrod. “The Construction of an Islamic City in Palestine: The Case of Umayyad al-Ramla.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7.1 (1997): 27–54.
  133. DOI: 10.1017/S1356186300008300Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  134. The article deals with early efforts to construct cities in what is now called Palestine.
  135. Luz, Nimrod. “The Construction of an Islamic City in Palestine: The Case of Umayyad al-Ramla.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7.1 (1997): 27–54.
  136. Find this resource:
  137. Nassar, Rabbat. “The Meaning of the Ummayad Dome of the Rock.” Muqarnas 6 (1989): 12–21.
  138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  139. This article deals with the role the Dome of the Rock played in bolstering the prestige of the Syrian capital in the Muslim world and reflecting the superiority of Islam over Christianity and Judaism in the eyes of the Muslims.
  140. Nassar, Rabbat. “The Meaning of the Ummayad Dome of the Rock.” Muqarnas 6 (1989): 12–21.
  141. Find this resource:
  142. Palaces
  143.  
  144. The palaces found in the desert in and around greater Syria often stimulated the curiosity of scholars about the actual purpose of such unique buildings. While the first scholars to deal with the subject thought that these palaces were built as reclusive homes to serve caliphs’ deviant pleasures, later scholars, whose work is reflected in Grabar, et al. 1978; Grabar 1963; and King 1987, believed these palaces to be stops on trade routes aiming to accommodate pilgrims, travelers, merchants, and mail personnel. Still other scholars focus on the design of these palaces. Some claim that they resemble those of the Byzantine Empire, while Chehab 1963 and Chehab 1993 argue for an exclusive Umayyad character.
  145.  
  146. Chehab, Hafez K. “On the Identification of ʿAnjar (ʿAyn al-Jarr) as an Umayyad Foundation.” Muqarnas 10 (1993): 42–48.
  147. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  148. This article argues for the Umayyad character of the Anjār palace rather than its previously presumed Byzantine character.
  149. Chehab, Hafez K. “On the Identification of ʿAnjar (ʿAyn al-Jarr) as an Umayyad Foundation.” Muqarnas 10 (1993): 42–48.
  150. Find this resource:
  151. Chehab, Maurice. “The Umayyad Palace at ʿAnjar.” Ars Orientalis 5 (1963): 17–25.
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  153. This article focuses on the palace of Anjār and argues that it should not be associated with Chalcis but may be seen as an established work of the Umayyads and their people. The author bases his finding on some excavations that he undertook in the area.
  154. Chehab, Maurice. “The Umayyad Palace at ʿAnjar.” Ars Orientalis 5 (1963): 17–25.
  155. Find this resource:
  156. Grabar, Oleg. “Umayyad ‘Palace’ and the ʿAbbāsid ‘Revolution.’” Studia Islamica 18 (1963): 5–18.
  157. DOI: 10.2307/1595176Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  158. This article examines the Umayyad palaces build in the desert and asserts that they were built for secular purposes.
  159. Grabar, Oleg. “Umayyad ‘Palace’ and the ʿAbbāsid ‘Revolution.’” Studia Islamica 18 (1963): 5–18.
  160. Find this resource:
  161. Grabar, Oleg, Renata Holod, James Knustad, and William Trousdale. City in the Desert: Qasr al-Hayr East. 2 vols. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs 23–24. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163. This book examines Umayyad palaces and argues that they were built for a secular purpose.
  164. Grabar, Oleg, Renata Holod, James Knustad, and William Trousdale. City in the Desert: Qasr al-Hayr East. 2 vols. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs 23–24. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.
  165. Find this resource:
  166. King, G. R. D. “The Distribution of Sites and Roots in the Jordanian and Syrian Deserts in the Early Islamic Period.” Proceedings of the Seminar of Arabian Studies 17 (1987): 91–105.
  167. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  168. This article summarizes most of the findings about Umayyad palaces and further argues that they were built to serve a secular purpose, namely to accommodate travelers, merchants, and mail personnel.
  169. King, G. R. D. “The Distribution of Sites and Roots in the Jordanian and Syrian Deserts in the Early Islamic Period.” Proceedings of the Seminar of Arabian Studies 17 (1987): 91–105.
  170. Find this resource:
  171. Coins and Seals
  172.  
  173. Scholars have studied the use of coins and seals during the Umayyad period as a means of exercising political power. Various scholars believe that the shape of Umayyad seals and coins owed their existence to Byzantine numismatics. Bates 1994, Bates 1986, Bates 1989, Amitai-Preiss 1997, Walker 1955, and Morton 1986 all try to assess the level of influence of Byzantine coins on those of the Umayyads.
  174.  
  175. Amitai-Preiss, Nitzan, “An Umayyad Lead Seal with the Name of the Caliph Marwan b. Muhammad.” Al-Qantara 18.1 (1997): 233–242.
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  177. This brief work examines a seal made of lead bearing the name of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwān b. Muḥammad. This seal was found in the occupied Palestinian territories. The author analyzes the Arabic inscriptions on the seal and concludes that it might have been used to seal a package of merchandise.
  178. Amitai-Preiss, Nitzan, “An Umayyad Lead Seal with the Name of the Caliph Marwan b. Muhammad.” Al-Qantara 18.1 (1997): 233–242.
  179. Find this resource:
  180. Bates, Michael. “History, Geography, and Numismatics in the First Century of Islamic Coinage.” Revue Suisse de la Numismatique 65 (1986): 231–262.
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  182. Provides an important biography for early Muslim coins, their use, and the extent to which they gained their final shape through Muslim interactions with Byzantines.
  183. Bates, Michael. “History, Geography, and Numismatics in the First Century of Islamic Coinage.” Revue Suisse de la Numismatique 65 (1986): 231–262.
  184. Find this resource:
  185. Bates, Michael. “The Coinage of Syria under the Umayyad, 692–750 AD.” In The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilad al-sham during the Umayyad Period: Proceedings of the Third Symposium. Vol. 2, English Section. Edited by M. A. Bakhit, Robert Schick, and Jāmiʿah al-Urdunīyah. 195–228. Amman: Jordan University, 1989.
  186. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  187. This is an important map for early coins under the Umayyads.
  188. Bates, Michael. “The Coinage of Syria under the Umayyad, 692–750 AD.” In The Fourth International Conference on the History of Bilad al-sham during the Umayyad Period: Proceedings of the Third Symposium. Vol. 2, English Section. Edited by M. A. Bakhit, Robert Schick, and Jāmiʿah al-Urdunīyah. 195–228. Amman: Jordan University, 1989.
  189. Find this resource:
  190. Bates, Michael. “Byzantine Coinage and Its Imitations, Arab Coinage and Its Imitations: Arab-Byzantine Coinage.” Aram 6 (1994): 381–403.
  191. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  192. An important biography for early Muslim and Byzantine coins with special focus on how the latter influenced the former.
  193. Bates, Michael. “Byzantine Coinage and Its Imitations, Arab Coinage and Its Imitations: Arab-Byzantine Coinage.” Aram 6 (1994): 381–403.
  194. Find this resource:
  195. Morton, A. H. “A Glass Dinār Weight in the Name of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. Marwān.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49 (1986): 177–182.
  196. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00042592Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  197. This article focuses on a dinar struck in the name of the Umayyad caliph ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. Marwān.
  198. Morton, A. H. “A Glass Dinār Weight in the Name of ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz b. Marwān.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49 (1986): 177–182.
  199. Find this resource:
  200. Walker, John. “Two Arab Byzantine Dinars.” British Museum Quarterly 20.1 (1955): 15–16.
  201. DOI: 10.2307/4422506Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  202. This two-page work briefly presents some coins used during the early Arab-Byzantine relationship.
  203. Walker, John. “Two Arab Byzantine Dinars.” British Museum Quarterly 20.1 (1955): 15–16.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Diwān and Taxes
  206.  
  207. The diwān is the system designed to collect taxes and provide financial support to the state and it army. The newly conquered lands had preexisting institutions for collecting taxes, and the Umayyads inherited these institutions and later Arabized the whole system and incorporated it as their own. Batayneh 2007, Duri 1974, and Dennett 1950 would be useful for students with little knowledge of the Umayyad tax system. For more details about tax reform, Athamina 1988, Gibb 1955, and Grierson 1960 deal with this subject in a more detailed manner. Serjeant 1984 approaches the subject in a general way, aiming to see how ʿUmar II ordered his deputies to perform state tasks. For understanding social issues impacted by taxes, Husayn 1991 and Gil 1998 would be useful.
  208.  
  209. Athamina, Khalil. “Taxation Reforms in Early Islamic Khurasan.” Islam 65 (1988): 272–281.
  210. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  211. This short article examines the taxation system adopted by the Umayyads in Khurasān; it argues that the tax reform implemented by the government aimed to make Arab landowners pay much less tax than other non-Arab non-Muslim residents, with the mawālī (Arab and non-Arab clients) still struggling to be exempt from paying jiziya (poll tax).
  212. Athamina, Khalil. “Taxation Reforms in Early Islamic Khurasan.” Islam 65 (1988): 272–281.
  213. Find this resource:
  214. Batayneh, Muhammad D. “State Finance during the Caliphate of Muʿāwiya.” Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization 12.2 (2007): 127–142.
  215. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  216. This work discusses the operation of diwān (treasury) during the reign of Muʿāwiya.
  217. Batayneh, Muhammad D. “State Finance during the Caliphate of Muʿāwiya.” Journal of the International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization 12.2 (2007): 127–142.
  218. Find this resource:
  219. Dennett, Daniel. Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam. Harvard Historical Monographs 22. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
  220. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  221. Dennett sought to refine what he saw as the overly simple presentation of Julius Wellhausen and argued that there were a variety of systems of taxation that differed from province to province, but that almost everywhere, at the level of the taxpayer, there was a dual system of poll tax and land tax.
  222. Dennett, Daniel. Conversion and the Poll Tax in Early Islam. Harvard Historical Monographs 22. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
  223. Find this resource:
  224. Duri, Abdel Aziz. “Notes on Taxation in Early Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 17.1–3 (1974): 136–144.
  225. DOI: 10.1163/156852074X00093Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  226. This article outlines some notes on the nature of the tax system in the early Umayyad period, arguing that ʿAbd al-Malik charged non-Muslims a double tax of kharāj (land tax) and jizya (poll tax) but that this was overturned by the reforms of ʿUmar II.
  227. Duri, Abdel Aziz. “Notes on Taxation in Early Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 17.1–3 (1974): 136–144.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Fiscal Rescript of ʿUmar.” Arabica 2 (1955): 1–16.
  230. DOI: 10.1163/157005855X00158Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  231. This article analyzes the letter of ʿUmar II regarding his fiscal policy in great detail, translating the original text into English and commenting on every aspect of the reform. The author concludes that this reform was based on three elements: maintaining the unity of the Arabs, resolving the issue of the mawālī (Arab and non-Arab clients), and reconciling political and religious life.
  232. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Fiscal Rescript of ʿUmar.” Arabica 2 (1955): 1–16.
  233. Find this resource:
  234. Gil, Moshe. “The Earliest Waqf Foundations.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57.2 (1998): 125–140.
  235. DOI: 10.1086/468624Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  236. This article investigates the origin of the waqf (land or property appropriated for religious use) as an institution whose legitimacy is found in prophetic sayings. The author relies on early traditions throughout his work and carefully chooses between reliable and unreliable sources, thereby undermining the work of skeptics who tend to dismiss early traditions as later forgeries.
  237. Gil, Moshe. “The Earliest Waqf Foundations.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 57.2 (1998): 125–140.
  238. Find this resource:
  239. Grierson, Philip. “The Monetary Reforms of ʿAbd al-Malik: Their Metrological Basis and Their Financial Repercussions.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 3.3 (1960): 241–264.
  240. DOI: 10.2307/3596051Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  241. This long article examines the monetary reforms undertaken by ʿAbd al-Malik and how they affected religious communities of non-Arabs and non-Muslims.
  242. Grierson, Philip. “The Monetary Reforms of ʿAbd al-Malik: Their Metrological Basis and Their Financial Repercussions.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 3.3 (1960): 241–264.
  243. Find this resource:
  244. Husayn, Falah. “Masʾalat Hurūb al-Fallāḥīn min al-Qura fi Maṣr.” Dirasāt Tārikhiyya (1991): 30–44.
  245. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  246. This article discusses a policy adopted by the Umayyad state to keep farmers on their cultivated lands so that the state would collect its land tax and continue to earn revenue.
  247. Husayn, Falah. “Masʾalat Hurūb al-Fallāḥīn min al-Qura fi Maṣr.” Dirasāt Tārikhiyya (1991): 30–44.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Serjeant, R. B. “The Caliph ʿUmar’s Letters to Abu Musa al-Ashʿari and Muʿawiya.” Journal of Semitic Studies 29.1 (1984): 65–79.
  250. DOI: 10.1093/jss/XXIX.1.65Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  251. The author compares two early letters sent by ʿUmar to Abu Musā and Muʿāwiya about the proper etiquette that Muslims must use when judging between people. The article then concludes that these two letters were sent to governors running the largest areas of the empire to provide general political guidelines.
  252. Serjeant, R. B. “The Caliph ʿUmar’s Letters to Abu Musa al-Ashʿari and Muʿawiya.” Journal of Semitic Studies 29.1 (1984): 65–79.
  253. Find this resource:
  254. Umayyad-Byzantine Relations
  255.  
  256. The relationship of the Umayyads and the Byzantines has been a major focus for scholarly work. While some scholars focused on the military conflicts on the Umayyad-Byzantine border, others focused on the cultural influence each side had on each other. Kaegi 2006, Kaegi 2004, and Kaegi 1969 are very useful for understanding the Umayyad-Byzantine border situation and are must-reads for any student interested in this very complex subject. Grabar 1987 and Bonner 1994, which emphasize the military nature of this relationship, should be studied next, but one must be careful of the authors’ sweeping generalizations. For a perspective other than the military, Gibb 1958 assesses trade and other activities during this period. Brown 1971 should be understood as a revisionist work trying to make sense of the period through theories rather than factual evidence.
  257.  
  258. Bonner, Michael. “The Naming of the Frontier: Awasim, Thughur, and the Arab Geographers.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 57.1 (1994): 17–24.
  259. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X0002807XSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  260. Sees the word thughūr as referring to the loose areas lying mainly on the borders between the Umayyads and the Byzantines. Argues that the work of medieval geographers does not reflect the reality of these divisions, which were controlled by warlords during the Umayyad dynasty and finally gained their official designation as the borders of the caliphate during the Abbasid period.
  261. Bonner, Michael. “The Naming of the Frontier: Awasim, Thughur, and the Arab Geographers.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 57.1 (1994): 17–24.
  262. Find this resource:
  263. Brown, Peter. “The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity.” Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971): 80–101.
  264. DOI: 10.2307/300008Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265. This significant work traces what came to be known as antiquity, a period involving the Middle East before the rise of Islam and lasting until the Umayyad Caliphate. This work shows that the rise of holy men, namely, characters associated neither with statehood nor religious orthodoxy, had a significant impact on the sociopolitical arena.
  266. Brown, Peter. “The Rise and Function of the Holy Man in Late Antiquity.” Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971): 80–101.
  267. Find this resource:
  268. Gibb, H. A. R. “Arab Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 12 (1958): 221–233.
  269. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  270. This article argues that much of the history about Arab-Byzantine relations during the Umayyad dynasty was characterized by war, which was the dominant activity for both sides. However, the author claims that war was just a secondary preoccupation, since it was often interrupted by truces, eventually leading to significant cultural interactions and trade. Evidence is apparent in the Arab adoption of many Byzantine political and economic practices.
  271. Gibb, H. A. R. “Arab Byzantine Relations under the Umayyad Caliphate.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 12 (1958): 221–233.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Grabar, Oleg. “The Date and Meaning of Mshatta.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 41 (1987): 243–247.
  274. DOI: 10.2307/1291562Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. This article explains how Muslim military expeditions became so widespread that they had to be conducted seasonally.
  276. Grabar, Oleg. “The Date and Meaning of Mshatta.” Dumbarton Oaks Papers 41 (1987): 243–247.
  277. Find this resource:
  278. Kaegi, Walter. “Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest.” Church History 38 (1969): 139–149.
  279. DOI: 10.2307/3162702Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  280. Reactions to the Arab invasion are apparent from the literary sources written by the Byzantines themselves. The author argues that these sources did not attribute Arab military success to the superiority of Islam but saw it as a divine punishment for Christian sins.
  281. Kaegi, Walter. “Initial Byzantine Reactions to the Arab Conquest.” Church History 38 (1969): 139–149.
  282. Find this resource:
  283. Kaegi, Walter. “The Interrelationship of Seventh-Century Muslim Raids into Anatolia with the Struggle for North Africa.” Byzantinische Forschungen 28 (2004): 21–43.
  284. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  285. This article analyzes the impact of Muslim military expansion on the Byzantine Empire.
  286. Kaegi, Walter. “The Interrelationship of Seventh-Century Muslim Raids into Anatolia with the Struggle for North Africa.” Byzantinische Forschungen 28 (2004): 21–43.
  287. Find this resource:
  288. Kaegi, Walter. “The Early Muslim Raids into Anatolia and Byzantine Reactions under Emperor Constans II.” In The Encounter of Eastern Christianity with Early Islam. Edited by Emmanouela Grypeou, Mark Swanson, and David Thomas, 73–93. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
  289. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  290. This article shows that the Byzantine reaction to the Muslim invasion was understood in theological rather than military terms.
  291. Kaegi, Walter. “The Early Muslim Raids into Anatolia and Byzantine Reactions under Emperor Constans II.” In The Encounter of Eastern Christianity with Early Islam. Edited by Emmanouela Grypeou, Mark Swanson, and David Thomas, 73–93. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2006.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Military Expansion
  294.  
  295. Military expansion was such a priority for the Umayyads that some scholars consider their realm to be a jihad state. The question scholars usually try to answer is how the Umayyads were able to undertake such an awesome task and how they financed it. Blankinship 1994 should be the starting point for students aiming to understand the military aspect of Umayyad state policy and its impact on regime survival. Donner 1996, Donner 1986, Donner 1993, Bonner 1991, Bonner 1992, Gibb 1955, and Gibb 1922 should be consulted for information on the apparatus used for centralized and decentralized military operations. Noth 1989 is much more complicated, focusing on the Arabic sources on the military history of the period.
  296.  
  297. Blankinship, Khalid. The End of the Jihād State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Series in Medieval Middle East History. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
  298. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  299. This significant book focuses on the end of the Umayyad regime and argues that the main reason for its collapse was the inability to continue the operation of jihad that was so effective at the birth of the regime.
  300. Blankinship, Khalid. The End of the Jihād State: The Reign of Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Series in Medieval Middle East History. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994.
  301. Find this resource:
  302. Bonner, Michael. “Jaʿāʾil and Holy War in Early Islam.” Islam 68 (1991): 45–64.
  303. DOI: 10.1515/islm.1991.68.1.45Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  304. This work traces the use of the term jaʿāʾil from pre-Islamic Arabia up to Umayyad times and later; it concludes that the term referred to a type of payment to military personnel and that the development of its usage helps account for ways the work of scholars impacts military institutions and society in general.
  305. Bonner, Michael. “Jaʿāʾil and Holy War in Early Islam.” Islam 68 (1991): 45–64.
  306. Find this resource:
  307. Bonner, Michael. “Some Observations Concerning the Early Developments of Jihad on the Arab-Byzantine Frontier.” Studia Islamica 75 (1992): 5–31.
  308. DOI: 10.2307/1595619Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  309. This work traces the meaning of the term “jihad” in early texts, such as siyar used by Abū Isḥāq al-Fazāri and jihād used by ʿAbdullah b. al-Mubārak, and claims that the early Arab-Byzantine frontier was controlled by individuals, scholars, and ascetics who waged jihad against non-Muslims independent of caliphs’ control in the center of the empire.
  310. Bonner, Michael. “Some Observations Concerning the Early Developments of Jihad on the Arab-Byzantine Frontier.” Studia Islamica 75 (1992): 5–31.
  311. Find this resource:
  312. Donner, Fred M. “The Formation of the Islamic State.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.2 (1986): 283–296.
  313. DOI: 10.2307/601592Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  314. This short work defines what the author means by a state and then argues that primary sources, as problematic as they may be, show that the basic elements of statehood certainly existed during the time of ʿAbd al-Malik and might have existed during Muʿāwiya’s reign.
  315. Donner, Fred M. “The Formation of the Islamic State.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 106.2 (1986): 283–296.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Donner, Fred M. “The Growth of Military Institutions in the Early Caliphate and Their Relation to Civilian Authority.” Al-Qantara 12.2 (1993): 311–326.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. The author argues that the early military institution developed much faster than civilian institutions, including diwāns (treasury) and the judiciary. This development was so significant that the military appropriated most of the duties of civilian institutions; however, the military was run by civilians rather than generals.
  320. Donner, Fred M. “The Growth of Military Institutions in the Early Caliphate and Their Relation to Civilian Authority.” Al-Qantara 12.2 (1993): 311–326.
  321. Find this resource:
  322. Donner, Fred M. “Centralized Authority and Military Autonomy in the Early Islamic Conquests.” In The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East: Papers of the Third Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam. Vol. 3, States, Resources, and Armies. Edited by Averil Cameron, 337–360. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 1.3. Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1996.
  323. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  324. This article deals with the nature of the military institution in early Islam and asserts that it was run by civilians rather than generals, who had for the most part enjoyed very little autonomy and often delegated the prerogative to hire and fire to civilian commands.
  325. Donner, Fred M. “Centralized Authority and Military Autonomy in the Early Islamic Conquests.” In The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East: Papers of the Third Workshop on Late Antiquity and Early Islam. Vol. 3, States, Resources, and Armies. Edited by Averil Cameron, 337–360. Studies in Late Antiquity and Early Islam 1.3. Princeton, NJ: Darwin, 1996.
  326. Find this resource:
  327. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Arab Invasion of Kashgar in A.D. 715.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 2.3 (1922): 467–474.
  328. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00102320Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  329. This short article deals with the invasion of Kashgar by the Muslim general Qutayba, relying on the history compiled by al-Taabarī. The author argues that the narration about the invasion became a legend of such significance that it spurred Qutayba to reach China, where all of his opposition embraced Islam.
  330. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Arab Invasion of Kashgar in A.D. 715.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 2.3 (1922): 467–474.
  331. Find this resource:
  332. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Evolution of Government in Early Islam.” Studia Islamica 4 (1955): 5–17.
  333. DOI: 10.2307/1595048Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334. This article deals with how the operation of government in early Islam evolved specially during the time of the Umayyads, taking into account the extent to which it was influenced by its Byzantine neighbor.
  335. Gibb, H. A. R. “The Evolution of Government in Early Islam.” Studia Islamica 4 (1955): 5–17.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Noth, Albrecht. “Futuh-History and Futuh-Historiography: The Muslim Conquest of Damascus.” Al-Qantara 10.2 (1989): 453–462.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. This article assesses the character of early Islamic sources dealing with Arab conquest; the author argues for the literary rather than historical character of these sources.
  340. Noth, Albrecht. “Futuh-History and Futuh-Historiography: The Muslim Conquest of Damascus.” Al-Qantara 10.2 (1989): 453–462.
  341. Find this resource:
  342. Legitimacy
  343.  
  344. The issue of Umayyad legitimacy has occupied the works of many scholars. The main question is: what did the Umayyad family do to obtain legitimacy? Some scholars believe that they relied on their Arab ethnicity and their clever political tactics to gain the support of other Arab tribes, while other scholars believe religion to be important. On this question, it is difficult to find a general source that discusses the concept of legitimacy—as difficult as the subject itself. However, al-Qadi 1994 provides students with a sense of the importance of religion in the life of the Umayyads. This very reliable work draws on early Arabic sources for its assessments and conclusions. Crone 1994, Crone and Hinds 1994, and Crone and Hinds 1986 represent a revisionist view of radical nature in opposition to al-Qadi 1994. Students should consult Patricia Crone’s work only to imagine history completely differently from its portrayal in the Arabic sources. Madelung 1984, Hamarneh 1988, Yazigi 2005, and Hamilton 1988 are more focused, each considering the character of a given caliph as it pertains to legitimacy. Conrad 1996 is even more specific, focusing exclusively on apocalyptic prophecies allegedly circulating in the area during this period and how they played a role in Umayyad legitimacy.
  345.  
  346. Conrad, Lawrence I. “The Arabs and the Colossus.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6 (1996): 165–178.
  347. DOI: 10.1017/S1356186300007173Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348. This work focuses on what happened to the Colossus of Rhodes, a large bronze statue of Helios. Early accounts attribute its destruction to Arab invaders, but the author rejects these accounts, claiming that they reflect apocalyptic attitudes prevalent in the Byzantine environment of the period, which saw the coming of the Arabs as a turning point in its history.
  349. Conrad, Lawrence I. “The Arabs and the Colossus.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 6 (1996): 165–178.
  350. Find this resource:
  351. Crone, Patricia. “Even an Ethiopian Slave: The Transformation of a Sunni Tradition.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 57.1 (1994): 59–67.
  352. DOI: 10.1017/S0041977X00028111Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  353. This work traces the prophetic tradition asserting that Muslims should obey their leader even if he was an Ethiopian slave. The author believed that this Sunni tradition emphasizes obedience to rulers, that a caliph’s legitimacy rests on merits rather than ethnicity, which happens to be an early Kharijite doctrine. This goes against the thinking of some medieval and modern scholars, who misinterpreted the concept.
  354. Crone, Patricia. “Even an Ethiopian Slave: The Transformation of a Sunni Tradition.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 57.1 (1994): 59–67.
  355. Find this resource:
  356. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Century of Islam. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 37. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  357. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  358. This work focuses on political and religious authority during Umayyad regimes, arguing that the Umayyad caliphs adopted the term “God’s caliph” to assert not only political but religious authority in an effort to undermine their opposition, which was notorious for its emphasis on religion.
  359. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. God’s Caliph: Religious Authority in the First Century of Islam. University of Cambridge Oriental Publications 37. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. “Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?” Der Islam 71.1 (1994): 1–57.
  362. DOI: 10.1515/islm.1994.71.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  363. This very long article refutes the widely held understanding that the Qays and Yemen were political parties in that each one stood for a certain state policy in opposition to the other, yet the author does not clearly define these two entities.
  364. Crone, Patricia, and Martin Hinds. “Were the Qays and Yemen of the Umayyad Period Political Parties?” Der Islam 71.1 (1994): 1–57.
  365. Find this resource:
  366. Hamarneh, Saleh K. “Marwan b. al-Hakam and the Caliphate.” Islam 65 (1988): 200–225.
  367. DOI: 10.1515/islm.1988.65.2.200Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  368. This article deals with the reign of Marwān b. al-Hakam and how it paved the way for the creation of a stable and strong empire.
  369. Hamarneh, Saleh K. “Marwan b. al-Hakam and the Caliphate.” Islam 65 (1988): 200–225.
  370. Find this resource:
  371. Hamilton, Robert. Walid and His Friends: An Umayyad Tragedy. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 6. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  372. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  373. This work discusses the life of Walid II, his caliphate, and his role in the fall of the Umayyads.
  374. Hamilton, Robert. Walid and His Friends: An Umayyad Tragedy. Oxford Studies in Islamic Art 6. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988.
  375. Find this resource:
  376. Madelung, Wilferd. “The Sufyani between Tradition and History.” Studia Islamica 63 (1984): 5–48.
  377. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  378. The author deals with the Sufyani branch of the Umayyad dynasty and how its portrayal in history differs from that in traditions.
  379. Madelung, Wilferd. “The Sufyani between Tradition and History.” Studia Islamica 63 (1984): 5–48.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. al-Qadi, Wadad. “The Religious Foundation of Late Umayyad Ideology and Practice.” In Saber religioso y poder político en el Islam. Actas del Simposio Internacional (Granada 15–18 Octubre 1991). Edited by the Spanish International Cooperation Agency, 231–273. Ediciones Mundo Árabe e Islam: Historia, Economía, y Derecho. Madrid: Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 1994.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. This article deals with the policies that the Umayyads enacted to gain legitimacy. This author claims that the Umayyads used religious ideology rather than secular tactics, as was widely believed, to maintain control over the opposition.
  384. al-Qadi, Wadad. “The Religious Foundation of Late Umayyad Ideology and Practice.” In Saber religioso y poder político en el Islam. Actas del Simposio Internacional (Granada 15–18 Octubre 1991). Edited by the Spanish International Cooperation Agency, 231–273. Ediciones Mundo Árabe e Islam: Historia, Economía, y Derecho. Madrid: Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional, 1994.
  385. Find this resource:
  386. Yazigi, Maya. “Some Accounts of Women Delegates to Caliph Muʿāwiya: Political Significance.” Arabica 52.3 (2005): 437–449.
  387. DOI: 10.1163/1570058054191824Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388. This article examines the portrayal of Muʿāwiya through Muslim sources in the context of opposition groups. In this case, individual women delegates belligerently presented demands that the very pious and calm caliph would eventually fulfill.
  389. Yazigi, Maya. “Some Accounts of Women Delegates to Caliph Muʿāwiya: Political Significance.” Arabica 52.3 (2005): 437–449.
  390. Find this resource:
  391. Opposition
  392.  
  393. The internal opposition of the Umayyads had always been depicted as religious, because Umayyad history was written during the Abbasid period and those who wrote it were extremely hostile to the Umayyads. Noth 1971 is the best introduction to the subject. Al-Hibri 2002 and Keshk 2008 are more focused on historiography and how one should assess the prejudices that permeate the writing of Umayyad history. Bligh-Abramski 1992, Judd 1999, Judd 2008, and Madelung 1981 should be consulted by those researching the opposition of the religious scholars toward the regime. Robinson 2005 is focused on the realities of those paying taxes and the extent to which Umayyad policy constricted their free movements in and out of agricultural fields. Mason 1967 deals with tribal opposition to Umayyad rule.
  394.  
  395. Bligh-Abramski, Irit. “The Judiciary ‘Qāḍīs’ as a Governmental-Administrative Tool in Early Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 35.1 (1992): 40–71.
  396. DOI: 10.1163/156852092X00020Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  397. This work discusses the qādīs of early Islam and their work as administrative and judicial personnel; it argues that these scholars did not form a distinct elite and should be considered as members of society with learning skills about religious tradition that sometimes undermined the legitimacy of Umayyad as well as Abbasid caliphs.
  398. Bligh-Abramski, Irit. “The Judiciary ‘Qāḍīs’ as a Governmental-Administrative Tool in Early Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 35.1 (1992): 40–71.
  399. Find this resource:
  400. al-Hibri, Tayeb. “The Redemption of the Umayyad Memory by the ʿAbbāsids.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 61.4 (2002): 241–265.
  401. DOI: 10.1086/469040Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  402. This work accounts for early traditions about the Umayyads circulating during the Abbasid period. The author claims that not all these traditions are negative, as previously understood by scholars in the field, but rather that some contain very favorable accounts of the Umayyads.
  403. al-Hibri, Tayeb. “The Redemption of the Umayyad Memory by the ʿAbbāsids.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 61.4 (2002): 241–265.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Judd, Steven. “Ghaylan al-Dimashqi: The Isolation of a Heretic in Islamic Historiography.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 31.2 (1999): 161–184.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. This work deals with the Qadarites and their fight with the state about God’s ordinance versus free will.
  408. Judd, Steven. “Ghaylan al-Dimashqi: The Isolation of a Heretic in Islamic Historiography.” International Journal of Middle East Studies 31.2 (1999): 161–184.
  409. Find this resource:
  410. Judd, Steven. “Reinterpreting al-Walid b. Yazid.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 128.3 (2008): 439–458.
  411. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  412. This work seeks to show how the Umayyad caliph sought legitimacy; it argues that he adopted certain titles such as God’s caliph, hasher (one who summons people for judgment on the Day of Judgment), and so forth to gain obedience in society.
  413. Judd, Steven. “Reinterpreting al-Walid b. Yazid.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 128.3 (2008): 439–458.
  414. Find this resource:
  415. Keshk, Khalid. “The Historiography of an Execution: The Killing of Ḥujr b. ʿAdī.” Journal of Islamic Studies 19.1 (2008): 1–35.
  416. DOI: 10.1093/jis/etm056Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  417. This significant work accounts for the traditions dealing with the killing of Ḥujr b. ʿAdī. Through intricate treatment of each tradition and its chain of narrators, the author successfully outlines the origin of the story and its significance in Muslim historiography.
  418. Keshk, Khalid. “The Historiography of an Execution: The Killing of Ḥujr b. ʿAdī.” Journal of Islamic Studies 19.1 (2008): 1–35.
  419. Find this resource:
  420. Madelung, Wilferd. “Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr and the Mahdi.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40.4 (1981): 291–305.
  421. DOI: 10.1086/372899Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  422. This article focuses on ʿAbd Allah b. al-Zubayr and his religious legitimacy as an opponent of the Umayyads.
  423. Madelung, Wilferd. “Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr and the Mahdi.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 40.4 (1981): 291–305.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Mason, Herbert. “The Role of the Azdite Muhallabid Family in Marw’s Anti-Umayyad Power Struggle: An Historical Reevaluation.” Arabica 14.2 (1967): 191–207.
  426. DOI: 10.1163/157005867X00047Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. This article deals with the opposition to the Umayyads in the east and the extent to which it was decisive in their downfall.
  428. Mason, Herbert. “The Role of the Azdite Muhallabid Family in Marw’s Anti-Umayyad Power Struggle: An Historical Reevaluation.” Arabica 14.2 (1967): 191–207.
  429. Find this resource:
  430. Noth, Albrecht. “Der Charakter der ersten grossen Sammlungen von Nachrichten zur frühen Kalifenzeit.” Islam 47.1 (1971): 168–200.
  431. DOI: 10.1515/islm.1971.47.1.168, //1971Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  432. This article in German deals with the early character of the caliphate and its impact on early Islamic history.
  433. Noth, Albrecht. “Der Charakter der ersten grossen Sammlungen von Nachrichten zur frühen Kalifenzeit.” Islam 47.1 (1971): 168–200.
  434. Find this resource:
  435. Robinson, Chase. “Neck-Sealing in Early Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 48.3 (2005): 401–441.
  436. DOI: 10.1163/156852005774342885Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  437. This article discusses the situation of plantation workers in Egypt and how they were forced to wear seals around their necks to stay on the land and produce revenue for the state in the form of land tax.
  438. Robinson, Chase. “Neck-Sealing in Early Islam.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 48.3 (2005): 401–441.
  439. Find this resource:
  440. Sectarian Movements
  441.  
  442. Various theological movements existed in the Umayyad era. The most notable ones were the Khawārij, Shiʿa, Qadarites, and Murjiaites, among others. These sects began as political opposition to Umayyad rule and then developed theological views about God, authority, and predestination. This topic is very difficult, and students must have a significant background in Umayyad history before dealing with the thought developed during that time. Wellhausen 1975 is the best introductory work in this regard and should be the starting point. Watt 1960 and Watt 1961 should be second, though they are equally important. For more specific work on the Kharajites, Sears 2002 is useful. Athamina 1955 provides an overview on the Murjiʾa, while Hodgson 1990 deals with the early Shiʿa when this branch of Islam was still a political movement. For more advanced work on the subject, Madelung 1986 should be consulted for its careful examination of apocalyptic prophecies emerging at the time. Tucker 1970 and Tucker 1980 should be consulted on the very small opposition group called the Janahiyya.
  443.  
  444. Athamina, Khalil. “The Early Murjiʿa: Some Notes.” Journal of Semitic Studies 35.1 (1990): 109–130.
  445. DOI: 10.1093/jss/XXXV.1.1Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  446. This article analyzes the early Murjiʿa and claims that they consisted of two streams: a quietest stream that became supportive of the Umayyad regime and antagonistic to Shiʿa factions and a radical stream that legitimized the use of force against what they saw as Umayyad injustices but did not themselves aspire to overthrow the regime or provide support to their rivals.
  447. Athamina, Khalil. “The Early Murjiʿa: Some Notes.” Journal of Semitic Studies 35.1 (1990): 109–130.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Hodgson, Marshall G. S. “How Did the Early Shiʿa Become Sectarian?” Journal of the American Oriental Society 75.1 (1955): 1–13.
  450. DOI: 10.2307/595031Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. The author of this article asks how Shiʿism as an early political protest movement against ʿAli, then the Umayyad leader, came to develop its characteristic theological belief in twelve imams as well as other elements unique to what is known as Shiʿism.
  452. Hodgson, Marshall G. S. “How Did the Early Shiʿa Become Sectarian?” Journal of the American Oriental Society 75.1 (1955): 1–13.
  453. Find this resource:
  454. Madelung, Wilferd. “Apocalyptic Prophecies in Hims in the Umayyad Age.” Journal of Semitic Studies 31.2 (1986): 141–185.
  455. DOI: 10.1093/jss/XXXI.2.141Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  456. This article argues that knowledge of the ideas of the apocalypse and the Mahdi are the most important prerequisites for understanding the politics and religion of the Umayyad era.
  457. Madelung, Wilferd. “Apocalyptic Prophecies in Hims in the Umayyad Age.” Journal of Semitic Studies 31.2 (1986): 141–185.
  458. Find this resource:
  459. Sears, Stuart. “Umayyad Partisan or Kharijite Rebel? The Issue of ʿAbd al-Azīz b. MDWAL(?).” Studia Iranica 31 (2002): 71–78.
  460. DOI: 10.2143/SI.31.1.278Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  461. This article deals with a coin struck in Istakhr bearing the name of ʿAbd al-Azīz b. Mdwal, a character unknown for politics or loyalties. The author concludes that this was a legendary character that found its way onto a coin to signify opposition to the Umayyads in Istakhr.
  462. Sears, Stuart. “Umayyad Partisan or Kharijite Rebel? The Issue of ʿAbd al-Azīz b. MDWAL(?).” Studia Iranica 31 (2002): 71–78.
  463. Find this resource:
  464. Tucker, William. “Les Qadarites et la Gaylaniya de Yazid III.” Studia Iranica 41 (1970): 269–286.
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466. This work narrates how the Umayyad caliph Yazid III began to deviate from the religion of his predecessors by adopting Qadarī beliefs and associating himself with Ghaylān, a renowned scholar of this particular theological school.
  467. Tucker, William. “Les Qadarites et la Gaylaniya de Yazid III.” Studia Iranica 41 (1970): 269–286.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Tucker, William. “Abdullah b. Muʿāwiya and the Janāḥiyya: Rebels and Ideologues of the Late Umayyad Period.” Studia Islamica 51 (1980): 39–57.
  470. DOI: 10.2307/1595371Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. This article examines the activities and ideas of Ibn Muʿāwiya and his followers to trace the formation of the ideas of extreme Shiʿism under the Umayyad regime, to assess the ways this process helped topple the Umayyad regime, and to specify the qualifications that distinguished Abū Muslim as more qualified than Ibn Muʿāwiyya to lead the Abbasid revolution.
  472. Tucker, William. “Abdullah b. Muʿāwiya and the Janāḥiyya: Rebels and Ideologues of the Late Umayyad Period.” Studia Islamica 51 (1980): 39–57.
  473. Find this resource:
  474. Watt, Montgomery. “Shiʿism under the Umayyads.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 3.4 (1960): 158–172.
  475. DOI: 10.1017/S0035869X00163142Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  476. Argues that Shiʿi and Khariji ideas reflected the grievances of people facing the same problem: the murder of Alī’s sons and the violent opposition to the state. Both groups were looking for charismatic leaders to further their cause, though one based its choice on merit or piety, the other on progeny. Thus the Shiʿi developed the idea of an imam, which became significant when the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads.
  477. Watt, Montgomery. “Shiʿism under the Umayyads.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 3.4 (1960): 158–172.
  478. Find this resource:
  479. Watt, Montgomery. “Kharijite Thought in the Umayyad Period.” Islam 36.3 (1961): 215–231.
  480. DOI: 10.1515/islm.1961.36.3.215, //1961Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  481. Examines Kharijite thought during the Umayyad period. Argues that there were six main groups, each the size of a small tribe or a clan, that believed themselves to be a community following divine law. Argues that their thought was in itself not important but that the way some of their ideas merged with the theological beliefs of other groups, such as the Muʿtazila, helps us understand the nature of the theology of the period.
  482. Watt, Montgomery. “Kharijite Thought in the Umayyad Period.” Islam 36.3 (1961): 215–231.
  483. Find this resource:
  484. Wellhausen, Julius. The Religio-Political Factions of Early Islam. Edited by R. C. Ostle. Translated by R. C. Ostle and S. M. Walzer. North-Holland Medieval Translations 3. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1975.
  485. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  486. This important work examines the role of early Muslim politics in shaping the theological beliefs among early factions in the Muslim world. It is a must-read for students of early Muslim theology.
  487. Wellhausen, Julius. The Religio-Political Factions of Early Islam. Edited by R. C. Ostle. Translated by R. C. Ostle and S. M. Walzer. North-Holland Medieval Translations 3. Amsterdam: North Holland, 1975.
  488. Find this resource:
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