2019-09-10 TOEFL: word roots, reading purpose

Greg Malivuk
gmalivuk@staffordhouse.com
http://www.pastebin.com/u/gmalivuk - notes from all classes
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Homework: practice B
1 g
2 f (“which” refers to the entire previous sentence)
3 j (“who we interact with” / “that we interact with” / “we interact with”)
4 a (that we live in / we live in; not “where” because culture is not a place we live)
5 d
6 h
7 e
8 b
9 i
10 c
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Restrictive vs. Non-restrictive

Men whose personal space is generally larger have a more similar size of space for friends and enemies.
	restrictive: The sentence is only about those men with larger personal space.
Men, whose personal space is generally larger, have a more similar size of space for friends and enemies.
	non-restrictive: The sentence is about men in general, and tells you two facts about them.

Restrictive (or defining or identifying) clauses give necessary information to know which one(s) the sentence is about. (The meaning of the whole sentence isn’t the same if you remove the restrictive clause.)
Non-restrictive (or non-defining or non-identifying) clauses give “extra” information, which doesn’t change the meaning of that noun in the sentence if it’s removed.

This is not only true of relative clauses:
	men with larger personal space = restricting just to those men
	men, with larger personal space, = men in general (who by the way have larger personal space)

“George Washington, (who was) the first president of the United States, is on the one-dollar bill.”
	Readers may not know the importance of Washington, which is why the information about being president is included, but the name by itself identifies who the sentence is about.

“I met Tom the chef, not Tom the gardener.”
	There are no commas because in this case, “Tom” alone doesn’t identify which specific person I met. There are two Toms who work in this place.
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Another common mistake is using both the relative pronoun and a personal pronoun:
correct: Personal space depends on the people who we interact with.
incorrect: Personal space depends on the people who we interact with them.
	(It’s especially common when the relative pronoun is the object.)
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WRONG: I have a friend named Valentina, we have known each other since we were little girls, and she is the one I can trust with my eyes closed to tell her about my personal stuff.
RIGHT: I have a friend named Valentina. We have known each other since we were little girls, and she is the one (who) I can trust with my eyes closed to tell about my personal stuff.
ALSO RIGHT: I have a friend named Valentina, whom I have known since we were little girls, and she is the one (who) I can trust with my eyes closed to tell about my personal stuff.
ALSO RIGHT: My friend Valentina, whom I have known since we were little girls, is the one (who) I can trust with my eyes closed to tell about my personal stuff.
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Simple vs. continuous with adverbs of frequency

Every time I see her, she always smiles.
	= Smiling is an action she does (once) each time I see her.
Every time I see her, she’s always smiling.
	= Smiling is an action she’s doing constantly, and I notice every time I see her. (She was already smiling before I saw her.)
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It was raining, but we still went outside. = It was raining. We still went outside, though.
- This is more common in speaking (and informal writing), because in formal writing we can go back and add a contrast signal to the middle or the beginning, but in speaking we can’t go back and change anything.
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English is difficult. It can be understood through tough thorough thought, though.
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BREAK
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Word roots (list 5)
morph (amorphous, metamorphosis, morphology) = form/shape
multi (multicolored, multilayers) = many (Latin root)
nat (native, innate, natal) = birth
neo (neoclassical, neocolonialism, Neolithic) = new
nom/nym (nominate, misnomer, pseudonym) = name
nov (innovate, novelty, nova) = new
nov (November) = nine (The year used to start in March.)
ob/op (obstruct, object, opposite) = in front of
omni (omnipotent, omnidirectional, omnivore) = all (Latin root)
optim (optimal, optimize) = best
opt (optician, optometry) = sight/eye
paleo (paleontology, Paleolithic, paleozoic) = old (opposite of “neo”)
pan (panacea, panorama, pandemic) = all (Greek root)
path (pathology, antipathy, empathy) = suffer (Many words that begin with this root relate to sickness.)
ped (pedestrian, pedicure) = foot
ped/paed (pediatrician, pedagogy) = child
peri (perimeter, peripheral) = around
phil (philanthropy, philosophy, bibliophile) = love/attraction
phob (arachnophobia, claustrophobia) = fear/aversion
phon (phonograph, microphone, homophone) = sound
photo (photograph, photosynthesis, photogenic) = light
pod (podium, podiatry, tripod) = foot
poly (polygon, polyglot) = many (Greek root)
port (transport, portable) = move (especially move through)
post (posthumous, postpone) = after
proto (prototype, proton, protocol) = first (related to pre/prim/fore/first/front)
	(“Protocol” comes from this root but has lost any connection to the idea of “first”.)
pseudo (pseudonym, pseudopod) = false
psych (psychopath, psychotherapy, psychology) = mind
pute (computer, dispute) = think/judge
pyro (pyromaniac, pyrotechnics) = fire
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Grimm’s Law describes a series of sound changes that happened in Germanic languages (including English), but didn’t happen in Greek or Latin:
pyro -> fire
pod -> foot
pater -> father
quod -> what
Voiced stops lose voicing:
	b -> p
	d -> t
	g -> k
Stops become fricatives:
	p -> f (This is the most common or noticeable example, especially at beginnings of words.)
	t -> th
	k -> /x/ or h
quod -> hwæt -> what
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Reading purpose/method questions - why or how does the author organize informatiion?
- why a particular word or phrase?
- purpose of one paragraph
- relationship between two paragraphs
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Cengage exercise 4.1 - Decide if the statements about purpoase are true or false
1 T
2 F
3 F (or at least we can’t infer this from the information in the text)
4 F
5 T
6 T
7 F (The author just describes China, without comparing it to another civilization.)
8 T
9 F (Toynbee had an influence on the author of the book.)
10 T
11 F
12 F
13 T
14 F
15 T
16 F (the New Madrid earthquake was first)
17 F
18 F
19 T
20 T
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Exercise 4.2 passage 1
1 B
2 A
3 A (beginning of paragraph 2)
4 B
5 C
6 A (Cell phones are an example of devices not designed for game playing, so we can’t infer that there are many similarities in design between them and game platforms, which are designed for game playing.)
7 D
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Homework: finish exercise 4.2 (optionally you could also finish 4.1)