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Legalism (Chinese Studies)

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  1.  
  2. Introduction
  3. Legalism (fajia 法家) is a term that has traditionally been used to refer to the ideas of a group of thinkers from the Warring States period who had a common interest in developing systems by which the ruler could effectively rule and order the people, leading to a strong and prosperous state. The term first arose several hundred years after the thinkers themselves, and at various times and in various texts, different thinkers have been called Legalists. Given that the name arises from the term fa 法, which can mean law, and the fact that the English translation of fajia is usually “Legalism,” it is easy to misunderstand the Legalists as being primarily interested in laws. However, in classical Chinese, the term fa had both broad and narrow meanings. At its broadest, it refers simply to method, though it is also used in the sense of laws. Certainly laws were one of the methods that arguably found favor among all of the Legalists, but they were aware of a range of other political tools useful for ordering the state, and also turned their attention to the ideas of positional power (shi 勢) and political techniques (shu 術) among others. Indeed, given the ways in which they approached questions of politics, it may be more useful to think of the Legalists as “Realists,” “Methodists,” “Administrators,” or perhaps “Philosophers of State.” For the purposes of this bibliography, the main members of the Legalist “school” will be taken to include the following figures and texts: Shen Dao (慎到 Shen Tao, Shenzi, Shen Tzu), c. 395–315 BCE, is associated with the fragmented passages most commonly known as the Shenzi Fragments. Shen Buhai (申不害 Shen Pu-hai, Shenzi, Shen Tzu), d. 337 BCE, is associated with another set of passages even more fragmented than those of Shen Dao. Shang Yang (商鞅, Gongsun Yang 公孫鞅, Lord Shang), 390–338 BCE, gave his name to the text known as the Book of Lord Shang (Shangjunshu 商君書). Finally, the text known as the Han Feizi (韓非子, Han Fei, Han Fei Tzu) is credited to the statesman of that name who died in 233 BCE. It should be noted, however, that it is a matter of controversy who (if anyone) is appropriately categorized as a Legalist. In addition, while this bibliography refers to individuals and the work credited to them interchangeably, it should be noted that there is much controversy over who wrote what. Finally, there are other thinkers and portions of other texts that are often taken to be Legalist but which could not be included here for reasons of space. Those interested in finding out more about such thinkers and chapters are encouraged to examine the entries in the General Overviews section as a starting point.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6. To date, there have been few monographs dedicated to the Legalists and Legalism. The first in a Western language, Vandermeersch 1987 is particularly valuable, because while he classifies several thinkers as Legalist, he is very careful to examine their views individually in order to understand their differences as well as their similarities. Xu 1995 is the second French volume on the Legalists, arguing that they are unified in their advocacy of absolute power for the ruler. Fu 1996 is noteworthy mainly as the sole English-language monograph on Legalism and unfortunately is hindered by the fact that it does not clearly differentiate among the thinkers covered, usually treating them as espousing the same set of ideas. Other useful overviews of Legalism include Schwartz 1985, whose analysis is particularly acute and recognizes the social-scientific and model-building aspects of their thought. Graham 1989 focuses on the fact that good government depends not on the moral qualities of individuals but rather on having appropriate functioning institutions in the state and emphasizes that the Legalists were unique in early China in beginning their analysis not from how society should be but rather from how it actually is. Hsiao 1979 is useful for its demonstration of how various Legalist thinkers drew on the ideas of their predecessors, while also demonstrating their unique contributions. Li 1997 gives a Marxist-inspired account of the development of Chinese scholarship in this area that provides a range of perspectives on Legalism not available in Western languages. Liu 1996 provides an analysis of how Legalist thought developed, focusing on its political significance.
  7.  
  8. Fu, Zhengyuan. China’s Legalists: The Earliest Totalitarians and Their Art of Ruling. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996.
  9.  
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  11.  
  12. The only English-language book dedicated to Legalism as a whole, written by a former Chinese political prisoner. Unfortunately does not engage with other literature on Legalism. The most interesting chapters deal with the influence of Legalism on the later imperial state and its relationship to the Marxism-Leninism of the 20th century.
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  15.  
  16. Graham, A. C. Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Argument in Ancient China. Chicago: Open Court, 1989.
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  19.  
  20. Chapter 3 (“Legalism: An Amoral Science of Statecraft”), pp. 267–292, from one of most impressive scholars of Chinese philosophy in the West, provides an introduction that focuses on the amoral aspects of Legalism and the fact that the Legalists think of human nature in sociological terms.
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  23.  
  24. Hsiao, Kung-Chuan (Xiao Gongquan 蕭公權). A History of Chinese Political Thought. Vol. 1, From the Beginnings to the Sixth Century A.D. Translated by Frederick W. Mote. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979.
  25.  
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  27.  
  28. Excellent work of intellectual history including discussions of the various Legalist thinkers throughout. Particularly useful in relating the ideas of these thinkers to those of others in their intellectual milieu. Translation of Zhongguo zhengzhi sixiangshi (中國政治思想史). Taibei: Lianjing chubanshe, 1982 [1945].
  29.  
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  31.  
  32. Li Haisheng 李海生. Fa xiang zunyan: Jin xiandai de xian Qin fajia yanjiu (法相尊严: 近现代的先秦法家研究). Shenyang, China: Liaoning jiaoyu chubanshe, 1997.
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  35.  
  36. Investigates the scope of Legalism and provides an overview of Chinese scholarship on Legalism from Zhang Xuecheng 章學誠 (1738–1831) through the 20th century. Analysis of the development of this scholarship is done from a Marxist perspective.
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  39.  
  40. Liu Zehua 劉澤華, ed. Zhongguo zhengzhi sixiangshi (中國政治思想史). Hangzhou, China: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1996.
  41.  
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  43.  
  44. Chapter 4 (“Fa jia yi fa, shi, shu wei zhong xin zheng zhi xi xiang (法家以法、势、术为中心的政治思想)”), Vol. 1, pp. 260–346, examines the ideas of Shen Dao, Shen Buhai, Shang Yang, and Han Feizi is part of a wide-ranging study of early Chinese political thought.
  45.  
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  47.  
  48. Schwartz, Benjamin I. The World of Thought in Ancient China. Cambridge, MA: Belknap, 1985.
  49.  
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  51.  
  52. Chapter 8 (“Legalism: The Behavioral Science”), pp. 321–349, is an impressive social scientific analysis of the Legalists that notes their similarity to certain 19th- and 20th-century social scientific model builders in the West. Perhaps the most insightful chapter in Schwartz’s important study of early Chinese thought.
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  55.  
  56. Vandermeersch, Léon. La formation du légisme: Recherche sur la constitution d’un philosophie politique caractéristique de la Chine ancienne. Paris: Ecole française d’Extrême-Orient, 1987.
  57.  
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  59.  
  60. Excellent study of the main Legalist thinkers that analyzes the development of ideas and foci, as well as their relationship with Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, and the School of Names. Carefully distinguishes between the ideas of each of the thinkers he addresses.
  61.  
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  63.  
  64. Xu Zhen Zhou. L’Art de la politique chez les légistes chinois. Paris: Economica, 1995.
  65.  
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  67.  
  68. Argues that the Legalists were unified insofar as they all desired absolute power on the part of the ruler and deemed this power essential for the strength and prosperity of the state.
  69.  
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  71.  
  72. Shen Dao
  73. Shen Dao (Shen Tao, Shenzi, Shen Tzu), c. 395–315 BCE, is associated with the fragmented passages most commonly known as the Shenzi Fragments. Traditionally, he is seen as the developer of the concept of “positional power” (shi 勢) as the most important tool for use by the ruler in organizing the state. However, the received fragments demonstrate a deep interest in the role of law (fa 法) in governing.
  74.  
  75. Studies and Translations
  76. Xu 1976 provides an analysis of Shen Dao’s thought arising out of Xu’s annotations to the text, while Chen 2001 provides the most detailed and expansive examination of his thought. Thompson 1979 provides not only a critical edition of the text but also a detailed textual analysis that includes discussion of all extant versions of the text. Thompson 1970 translates all of the passages that the author’s textual analysis demonstrates can reliably be attributed to Shen Dao. Extensively annotated, this is the best translation in any language. Lévi 1985 is a partial French translation with little scholarly apparatus, while Gao 1996 is a complete modern Chinese translation of the Zhuzi jicheng 諸子集成 version of the text, which differs in places from Thompson’s reconstruction.
  77.  
  78. Chen Fu 陳復. Shenzi de sixiang (慎子的思想). Taipei: Tangshang chubanshe, 2001.
  79.  
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  81.  
  82. The most expansive study of Shen Dao’s thought available treating Shen Dao’s major advancement the advocacy of an “objective viewpoint.” In addition to chapters dealing with particular terms of art that appear in Shen Dao’s writings, also examines his relationship with Huang-Lao and Legalism.
  83.  
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  85.  
  86. Gao Liushui 高流水. “Shenzi quan yi (慎子全译).” In Shenzi, Yin Wenzi, Gongsun Longzi quan yi (慎子, 尹文子, 公孙龙子全译). Edited by Gao Liushui 高流水 and Lin Hengsen 林恒森, 1–82. Guiyang, China: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1996.
  87.  
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  89.  
  90. One of several modern Chinese translations of the Shenzi Fragments, similar to others in providing a fair translation of much of the text, while unfortunately glossing over several of the more difficult passages. Based upon the version found in the Zhuzi jicheng 諸子集成.
  91.  
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  93.  
  94. Lévi, Jean. “Chen Tseu.” In Dangers du discours: Stratégies du pouvoir IVe et IIIe siécle avant J.-C, 135–149. By Jean Lévi. Aix-en-Provence, France: Alinéa, 1985.
  95.  
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  97.  
  98. A French translation of the major chapters attributed to Shen Dao, but without the shorter fragments. Its usefulness is somewhat diminished by its lack of notes and references to the original text.
  99.  
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  101.  
  102. Thompson, Paul Mulligan. The Shen-Tzu Fragments. PhD diss., University of Washington, 1970.
  103.  
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  105.  
  106. Although revised and published as Thompson 1979, the appendix to this dissertation, which includes a translation of the fragments, is not included in the later book. Extensively annotated, it is the most useful and accurate translation available in any language.
  107.  
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  109.  
  110. Thompson, P. M. The Shen Tzu Fragments. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
  111.  
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  113.  
  114. The only English-language monograph available on Shen Dao. In developing a critical edition of the fragments, examines all available editions of the text, providing information on the transmission of this text. A development of Thompson 1970, unfortunately not including the translation of the text found therein.
  115.  
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  117.  
  118. Xu Hanchang 徐漢昌. Shenzi jiao zhu ji qi xueshuo yanjiu (慎子校注及其學說研究). Taipei: Jiaxin Shuini Gongsi Wenhua Jijinhui, 1976.
  119.  
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  121.  
  122. In addition to providing a compilation and annotation of the text, examines Shen Dao’s thought as reflected in the existing fragments as well as from the perspective of the “Tianxia” (天下) chapter in the Zhuangzi. Also analyzes the background of Shen Dao’s thought and his influence.
  123.  
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  125.  
  126. Editions of the Text
  127. The book attributed to Shen Dao was lost sometime between 755 and 960, and only fragments attributed to this text survive. The definitive critical edition is found in Thompson 1979, which also provides a detailed textual history and discussion of other editions. Qian 1985 is notable for its inclusion of the earliest available commentary on the text, while Shen 1975 includes a 16th-century commentary. Lau, et al. 2000 provides a concordance based on Qian’s version.
  128.  
  129. Lau, D. C. (Liu Dianjue) 劉殿爵, Chen Fangzheng 陳方正, and He Zhihua 何志華, eds. A Concordance to the Shènzi (慎子逐字索引). Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, 2000.
  130.  
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  132.  
  133. The only printed concordance of the fragments attributed to Shen Dao available aside from Thompson 1979, it is also available online as part of the Chinese Ancient Texts database (subscription only). Based on the edition that Qian Xizuo 錢熙祚 included in his collection Shoushange congshu (守山閣叢書).
  134.  
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  136.  
  137. Qian Xizuo 錢熙祚. Shenzi fu yiwen (慎子: 附逸文). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1985.
  138.  
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  140.  
  141. Considered by Thompson 1979 to be the best-reconstituted redaction of the text in terms of the number of attested passages. Includes a commentary by Teng Fu 滕輔, dating to before 400 CE. First published in 1844 in the Shoushange congshu (守山閣叢書).
  142.  
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  144.  
  145. Shen Maoshang 慎懋賞. Shenzi san zhong he zhi: Fu yiwen (慎子三種合帙：附逸文). Taipei: Guangwen shuju, 1975.
  146.  
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  148.  
  149. Reconstruction of the text by a scholar who believed himself to be a descendent of Shen Dao. Includes substantial commentary. First published in 1579.
  150.  
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  152.  
  153. Thompson, P. M. The Shen Tzu Fragments. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979.
  154.  
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  156.  
  157. In addition to producing his own critical edition of the Shenzi fragments, also includes plates from seven different medieval editions of the fragments.
  158.  
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  160.  
  161. Shen Buhai
  162. Shen Buhai (Shen Pu-hai, Shenzi, Shen Tzu), d. 337 BCE, is associated with another set of fragmented passages. These fragments show a keen interest in developing a set of administrative techniques for establishing an extensive state bureaucracy.
  163.  
  164. Studies and Translations
  165. Creel 1974 is perhaps the most valuable monograph on Shen Buhai available in any language, not only providing a translation and insightful analysis of Shen’s thought but also giving the reader all the tools necessary to evaluate Creel’s own argument. Chen 1997 is the most recent extensive analysis of Shen Buhai’s thought in Chinese and looks at his relationship with a range of other thinkers.
  166.  
  167. Chen Fu 陳復. Shenzi de sixiang (申子的思想). Taipei: Tangshan chubanshe, 1997.
  168.  
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  170.  
  171. Takes Shen Buhai’s idea of technique (shu 術) as fundamental, arguing that his interest in law is derivative. Examines the relationship between Shen and ideas found in a variety of other texts, including the Guanzi, Laozi, Han Feizi, and Sunzi Bingfa.
  172.  
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  174.  
  175. Creel, Herrlee G. Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B. C. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
  176.  
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  178.  
  179. The sole monograph dedicated to Shen Buhai in any Western language. Treats Shen as a misunderstood thinker whose actual influence on the Chinese bureaucratic structure was monumental. Provides a detailed background to Shen and his times. Appendices collect all the remaining fragments attributed to the book that bore Shen Buhai’s name as well as all quotations attributed to him and analyze their authenticity.
  180.  
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  182.  
  183. Editions of the Text
  184. The Shenzi (申子) was last mentioned as an existing text in 1616, as part of a private library. Yan 1958 and Ma 1967 are two attempts to reconstruct the Shenzi, both as part of larger reconstruction projects. Creel 1974 uses them as the basis for his reconstruction, although he has available materials that Yan and Ma were unable to access. Lau, et al. 2000 provides a concordance based on Ma 1967.
  185.  
  186. Creel, Herrlee G. Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B. C. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
  187.  
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  189.  
  190. Includes a reconstruction of the Shen Buhai Fragments as well as a concordance to the work and English translation.
  191.  
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  193.  
  194. Lau, D. C. (Liu Dianjue) 劉殿爵, Chen Fangzheng 陳方正, and He Zhihua 何志華, eds. A Concordance to the Shēnzi (申子逐字索引). Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, 2000.
  195.  
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  197.  
  198. The only printed concordance of the fragments attributed to Shen Buhai available aside from Creel 1974, also available online as part of the Chinese Ancient Texts database (subscription only). Based on the Yuhanshanfang jiyishu (玉函山房輯佚書) edition of the text.
  199.  
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  201.  
  202. Ma Guohan 馬國翰. Yuhan shanfang jiyi shu (玉函山房輯佚書). Taipei: Wenhai chubanshe, 1967.
  203.  
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  205.  
  206. Ma’s reconstruction of Shen Buhai’s work is part of a larger project that collects together fragments of a wide variety of lost books. This edition is a facsimile of the 1971 edition.
  207.  
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  209.  
  210. Yan Kejun 嚴可均. Quan shanggu sandai Qin Han Sanguo Liuchao wen (全上古三代秦漢三國六朝文). Shanghai: Zhonghua shuju, 1958.
  211.  
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  213.  
  214. This ambitious project, not limited to Shen Buhai, includes the first attempt to reconstruct Shen Buhai’s work. Includes stone and bronze inscriptions. First published in 1893.
  215.  
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  217.  
  218. Shang Yang
  219. Shang Yang (Gongsun Yang, Lord Shang), 390–338 BCE, gave his name to the text known as the Book of Lord Shang (Shangjunshu 商君書). This text focuses on the importance of a legal system including substantial punishments and rewards as key for the organization, development, and flourishing of the state.
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  221. Studies and Translations
  222. There has been little English-language work done on Shang Yang, with Duyvendak 1928 still standing as the most detailed historical, textual, and philosophical analysis. Li 1977 is an anthology consisting mostly of translations of Chinese essays, including work by contemporary Chinese scholars Xiao Gongquan (蕭公權) and Yang Kuan (楊寬). The most comprehensive analysis of this text in Japanese remains Yoshinami 1992, a wide-ranging philosophical, historical, and philological study, while Zheng 1987 is one of the most detailed Chinese-language analyses available. Tong 2013 is also useful for its examinations of the relationship among the chapters. Lévi 2005, a readable translation, is aimed more at the general reader, while Zhang 2008 provides a generally careful, modern Chinese translation with useful notes and references.
  223.  
  224. Duyvendak, J. J. L. The Book of Lord Shang: A Classic of the Chinese School of Law. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1928.
  225.  
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  227.  
  228. Although dated, the sole English-language translation as well as the most comprehensive English-language resource to Shang Yang’s position in history and his social reform, the ideas found in the book that bears his name, and the history and authenticity of the text. In an attempt to date the various chapters, a grammatical analysis is provided.
  229.  
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  231.  
  232. Lévi, Jean. Le livre du prince Shang. 2d ed. Paris: Flammarion, 2005.
  233.  
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  235.  
  236. Translation by a French Sinologist is the most recent Western-language translation available. While it includes an introduction to the text, it is aimed at a general audience and so lacks substantial footnotes, references, and bibliography.
  237.  
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  239.  
  240. Li, Yu-Ning, ed. Shang Yang’s Reforms and State Control in China. White Plains, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1977.
  241.  
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  243.  
  244. Edited collection of essays on Shang Yang’s life and thought consisting mainly of translated Chinese articles, many of which are colored by the fact that they were written during the Chinese government’s anti-Confucian campaign. Introduction provides a useful overview of how Shang Yang has been viewed throughout China’s history.
  245.  
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  247.  
  248. Perelomov, Leonard S. Kniga Pravitelia Oblasti Shan (Shang jun shu). Moscow: Ladomir, 1993.
  249.  
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  251.  
  252. Originally published in 1968, and updated with a new postface, this is the most recent in-depth study and translation of the Shangjunshu in any European language.
  253.  
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  255.  
  256. Tong Weimin 仝衛敏. Chutu wenxian yu “Shangjunshu” zonghe yanjiu (出土文獻與《商君書》綜合研究). Vols. 16–17 of Gudian wenxian yanjiu ji kan (古典文獻研究輯刊). Edited by Pan Meiyue 潘美月 and Du Jiexiang 杜潔祥. Taipei: Hua mulan chubanshe, 2013.
  257.  
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  259.  
  260. Recent study of the Book of Lord Shang that examines the ideas found in the text as well as the relationship among the various chapters.
  261.  
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  263.  
  264. Yoshinami Takashi 好并隆司. Shokun sho kenkyu (商君書研究). Hiroshima, Japan: Keisuisha, 1992.
  265.  
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  267.  
  268. The most comprehensive study of the Book of Lord Shang available in Japanese. Examines a range of issues, contextualizing the book in its broader historical background, looking at its main ideas, and examining the authorship of each chapter.
  269.  
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  271.  
  272. Zhang Linxiang 张林祥. Shangjunshu de chengshu yu sixiang yanjiu (「商君書」的成书与思想研究). Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2008.
  273.  
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  275.  
  276. Perhaps the most comprehensive study of the composition and thought of the Book of Lord Shang, providing summaries of a variety of earlier Chinese analyses of the text as well as developing Zhang’s own theories on the authorship and philosophy of the text.
  277.  
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  279.  
  280. Zheng Liangshu 鄭良樹. Shang Yang ji qi xuepai (商鞅及其學派). Taipei: Taiwan xuesheng shuju, 1987.
  281.  
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  283.  
  284. One of the most important modern Chinese studies of the Book of Lord Shang, looks at the text as having been written by members of Shang Yang’s “school of thought.” In addition to examining the provenience of each chapter, looks at the development of this school of thought.
  285.  
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  287.  
  288. Editions of the Text
  289. There are numerous editions of the Shangjunshu that are quite useful. Zhu 1974 provides an edition with copious explanatory notes as well as several useful appendices. Jiang 1974 has equally useful notes and is profitably read alongside Zhu 1974. While the analysis in Gao 1974 is influenced by Marxist ideology, it provides useful introductions to each chapter. Although not able to take advantage of the advances made by later scholars, Wang 1915 includes the notes of major Qing dynasty scholars who worked on the Shangjunshu. Zhang 2012 is one of the most detailed Chinese-language examinations of the Book of Lord Shang and includes a heavily annotated translation into Modern Chinese. A volume in the ICS Ancient Chinese Texts Concordance Series, Lau and Chen 1992 is the only concordance of the Shangjunshu available.
  290.  
  291. Gao Heng 高亨. Shangjunshu zhu yi (商君書注譯). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974.
  292.  
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  294.  
  295. The analysis of this critical edition and study of the Shangjunshu is influenced by the Marxist ideology of the time, but it includes useful Qin and Han dynasty references to Shang Yang.
  296.  
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  298.  
  299. Jiang Lihong 蔣禮鴻. Shangjunshu zhuizhi (商君書錐指). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974.
  300.  
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  302.  
  303. A major modern Chinese textual analysis of the Book of Lord Shang. Includes an appendix which sets out to correct the Quqiang (去彊) chapter on the basis of the Shuomin (說民) and Ruomin (弱民) chapters.
  304.  
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  306.  
  307. Lau, D. C. (Liu Dianjue) 劉殿爵 and Chen Fangzheng 陳方正, eds. A Concordance to the Shangjunshu (商君書逐字索引). Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, 1992.
  308.  
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  310.  
  311. The only printed concordance of the Shangjunshu available, also available online as part of the Chinese Ancient Texts database (subscription only). Based on the Sibu congkan (四部叢刊) edition of the text.
  312.  
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  314.  
  315. Wang Shirun 王時潤. Shangjunshu jiao quan (商君書校詮). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1915.
  316.  
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  318.  
  319. Although superseded by later editions, useful for those reading Duyvendak 1928 (cited under Studies and Translations), as it is the text upon which his translation was based.
  320.  
  321. Find this resource:
  322.  
  323. Zhang Jue 張覺. Shangjunshu jiao shu (商君書校疏). Beijing: Zhishi chanquan chubanshe, 2012.
  324.  
  325. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  326.  
  327. The most up-to-date edition of the text available. Includes updated version of Zhang’s earlier translation with more extensive notes and commentary. Also provides the reader with an examination of the ideas of early Legalism and of the relationship between Shang Yang and the book that bears his name. The bibliography at the end provides rich resources for further study.
  328.  
  329. Find this resource:
  330.  
  331. Zhu Shizhe 朱師轍. Shangjunshu jiegu dingben (商君書解詁定本). Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1974.
  332.  
  333. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334.  
  335. Originally published in 1921, a heavily revised version was published in 1956 and reprinted in 1974. Valuable edition including a variety of explanatory notes. Appendix includes a list of the editions Zhu used in compiling.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339. Han Feizi
  340. The Han Feizi (Han Fei, Han Fei Tzu) is credited to a statesman of that name who died in 233 BCE. This book is the most philosophically sophisticated analysis of political and social organization from a social scientific perspective found in the early Chinese corpus. While it incorporates many of the ideas found in the writings attributed to Shen Dao, Shen Buhai, and Shang Yang, it rejects substantial parts of these thinkers’ positions and incorporates other ideas from a wide range of early Chinese political theorists.
  341.  
  342. Studies
  343. There have been few lengthy works focusing on Han Fei in English, with Wang and Chang 1986 and Lundahl 1992 serving as the only two monographs dedicated to him. Goldin 2013 is the only English-language anthology available and includes a range of papers looking at varied aspects of Han Fei’s philosophy, most of which are mentioned individually elsewhere in this bibliography. Japanese and Chinese scholars on the other hand have long been interested in Han Fei. Tanaka 1947 is particularly interesting for its analysis of Han Fei’s philosophy of law, while Song 2010 provides one of the first detailed analyses of Han Fei using the tools of contemporary political science. Kimura 1944 is a Japanese-language analysis of the composition and authorship of the Han Feizi while Zheng 1993 is a Chinese-language examination. In addition to these works, the modern critical editions of the Han Feizi (see Editions of the Text) as well as the modern Chinese and Japanese translations of the work (see Translations) provide extensive notes and essays useful for understanding Han Fei’s thought.
  344.  
  345. Goldin, Paul R., ed. Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. New York: Springer, 2013.
  346.  
  347. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  348.  
  349. The first English-language anthology dedicated to Han Fei, this collection brings together a range of essays on a variety of aspects of Han Fei’s philosophy and his predecessors.
  350.  
  351. Find this resource:
  352.  
  353. Kimura Eiichi 木村英一. Hōka shisō no kenkyū (法家思想の硏究). Tokyo: Kōbundō Shobō, 1944.
  354.  
  355. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  356.  
  357. Perhaps the most important philological analysis of the Han Feizi in Japanese, with assessments of the authenticity of each chapter. Skeptical of Han Fei’s authorship of the greater part of the text, arguing that much of it was written by followers of Han Fei’s school of thought.
  358.  
  359. Find this resource:
  360.  
  361. Lundahl, Bertil. Han Fei Zi: The Man and the Work. Stockholm: Institute of Oriental Languages Stockholm University, 1992.
  362.  
  363. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  364.  
  365. Focused on the question of the authenticity of the various chapters of the Han Feizi, and It is particularly useful for its summary of modern Chinese and Japanese scholarship on the issue. Also provides a detailed introduction to Han Fei’s life, an overview of the various thinkers who have fallen under the label of Legalism, and a discussion of the various editions of the Han Feizi.
  366.  
  367. Find this resource:
  368.  
  369. Song Hongbing 宋洪兵. Han Feizi zhengzhi sixiang zai yanjiu (韓非子政治思想再研究). Beijing: Zhongguo renmin daxue chubanshe, 2010.
  370.  
  371. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  372.  
  373. A political science–based approach to Han Fei that denies that he should be thought of as an advocate of totalitarianism or absolutism. Further argues that Han Fei understands the Way (dao 道) as the ultimate standard.
  374.  
  375. Find this resource:
  376.  
  377. Tanaka Kōtarō 田中耕太郎. Hōke no hō jisshō shugi (法家の法實證主義). Tokyo: Fukumura Shoten, 1947.
  378.  
  379. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  380.  
  381. Takes Han Fei as a legal positivist and contrasts his ideas on law with what he sees as Confucian natural law. Recognizes that there are elements of Daoism in the Han Feizi that look like natural law, but argues that they are distinct from the rest of Han Fei’s thought.
  382.  
  383. Find this resource:
  384.  
  385. Wang, Hsiao-Po, and Leo S. Chang. The Philosophical Foundations of Han Fei’s Political Theory. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986.
  386.  
  387. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  388.  
  389. The only English-language monograph on Han Fei’s thought. Examines five chapters of the Han Feizi that have often been labeled “Daoist” and argues that Han Fei uses a Daoist conception of the natural world to ground his political theory.
  390.  
  391. Find this resource:
  392.  
  393. Zheng Liangshu 鄭良樹. Han Fei zhi zhushu ji sixiang (韓非之著述及思想). Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 1993.
  394.  
  395. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  396.  
  397. The most extensive Chinese-language study of the composition of the Han Feizi and the authorship of its chapters. Argues that the majority of the text is written by Han Fei, including the controversial Jielao chapter.
  398.  
  399. Find this resource:
  400.  
  401. Translations
  402. The Han Feizi has been translated numerous times and into a variety of languages. The only complete English-language translation is Liao 1939, which shows its age. While they are only partial translations, both Watson 2003 and Sahleen 2005 are more reliable. Lévi 1999 is a good French translation while Mögling 1994 is a German translation; both seem aimed at the casual reader. The modern Chinese translation of Zhang 1992 is usually reliable and includes substantial notes defending his interpretation as well as a version of the original text. Onozawa 1978 is a reliable Japanese translation. For translations of the two commentaries on the Laozi found in the Han Feizi, see Sarkissian 2001 and Queen 2013 in the Commentaries to the Laozi Found in the Han Feizi section.
  403.  
  404. Lévi, Jean. Han-Fei-tse, ou, Le tao du prince. Paris: Seuil, 1999.
  405.  
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407.  
  408. Compete French translation. More useful and accurate than Liao 1939, but with only sparse explanatory notes.
  409.  
  410. Find this resource:
  411.  
  412. Liao, Wên-kuei. The Complete Works of Han Fei tzu: A Classic of Chinese Legalism. 2 vols. London: A. Probsthain, 1939.
  413.  
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415.  
  416. The only complete English-language translation of the Han Feizi, but seriously deficient in many ways; care should be taken when using it.
  417.  
  418. Find this resource:
  419.  
  420. Mögling, Wilmar. Die Kunst der Staatsführung: Die Schriften des Meisters Han Fei. Leipzig: Kiepenheuer, 1994.
  421.  
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423.  
  424. A complete German translation of the Han Feizi. A revision of Wilmar Mögling, Macht und Gesetz in den Auffassungen des Han Feizi: Eine Studie zum altchinesischen Legismus. PhD diss., Universität Leipzig, 1987, lacking the footnotes and Chinese characters found there.
  425.  
  426. Find this resource:
  427.  
  428. Onozawa Seiichi 小野沢精一. Kanpishi (韓非子). Tokyo: Shūeisha, 1978.
  429.  
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431.  
  432. Excellent Japanese translation of the Han Feizi including the original text and substantial commentary and notes, making use of earlier Japanese philological studies.
  433.  
  434. Find this resource:
  435.  
  436. Sahleen, Joel. “Han Feizi.” In Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy. Edited by Philip J. Ivanhoe and Bryan W. Van Norden, 311–361. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett, 2005.
  437.  
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439.  
  440. Perhaps the most accurate available, this partial translation of eight chapters is aimed at students and has some overlap with Watson 2003.
  441.  
  442. Find this resource:
  443.  
  444. Watson, Burton. Han Feizi: Basic Writings. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003.
  445.  
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447.  
  448. Excellent and very readable partial translation covering twelve of the core chapters of the Han Feizi. (First published in 1964 under the name Han Fei Tzu: Basic Writings).
  449.  
  450. Find this resource:
  451.  
  452. Zhang Jue 张觉. Han Feizi quan yi (韩非子全译). Guiyang, China: Guizhou renmin chubanshe, 1992.
  453.  
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455.  
  456. Perhaps the most useful modern Chinese translation available. Includes the original text, in simplified characters, and substantial notes, as well as summaries at the beginning of each chapter.
  457.  
  458. Find this resource:
  459.  
  460. Editions of the Text
  461. Numerous scholars in the 20th century have worked to create critical editions of the Han Feizi. Chen 1969 is a heavily annotated edition of the text that is invaluable not only for its notes but also for its useful appendices. Chen 2000 seems to borrow heavily from Chen 1969 but also provides additional insights and has become perhaps the most widely available scholarly edition of the text. Zhu 1992 provides a richly detailed modern commentary to the text as well as a detailed introduction and Yan 1980, a fifty-two-volume work, brings together as many of the extant Chinese and Japanese commentaries as the author could find and is invaluable for those doing close textual analysis. A volume in the ICS Ancient Chinese Texts Concordance Series, Lau, et al. 2000 is the most up-to-date concordance of the Han Feizi available.
  462.  
  463. Chen Qitian 陳啟天. Zengding han fei zi xiao shi (增訂韓非子校釋). Taipei: Shangwu, 1969.
  464.  
  465. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  466.  
  467. Originally published in 1940, has gone through two revisions. Includes extensive references to Japanese as well as Chinese scholarship as well as a wealth of additional material in the appendix, including Chen’s own summaries and commentary on numerous editions and commentaries on the Han Feizi.
  468.  
  469. Find this resource:
  470.  
  471. Chen Qiyou 陳奇猷. Han Feizi xin jiao zhu (韓非子新校注). 2 vols. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2000.
  472.  
  473. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  474.  
  475. Perhaps the most widely available scholarly edition of the Han Feizi. Includes substantial notes that sometimes overlap with Chen 1969. References numerous other commentaries in providing its explanations and interpretations.
  476.  
  477. Find this resource:
  478.  
  479. Lau, D. C. (Liu Dianjue) 劉殿爵, Chen Fangzheng 陳方正, and He Zhihua 何志華, eds. A Concordance to the Hanfeizi (韓非子逐字索引). Hong Kong: The Commercial Press, 2000.
  480.  
  481. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  482.  
  483. The most up-to-date printed concordance of the Han Feizi available, also available online as part of the Chinese Ancient Texts database (subscription only). Based on the Sibu congkan (四部叢刊) edition of the text.
  484.  
  485. Find this resource:
  486.  
  487. Yan Lingfeng 嚴靈逢, ed. Wu qiu bei zhai Han Feizi ji cheng (無求備齋韓非子集成). 52 vols. Taipei: Chengwen chubanshe, 1980.
  488.  
  489. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  490.  
  491. Brings together most extant versions and commentaries on the Han Feizi. Divided into (1) texts without commentary, (2) texts with commentary, (3) selections from the work, (4) reading notes to the work, (5) miscellaneous writings concerning the work, and (6) Japanese works concerning the Han Feizi in Chinese.
  492.  
  493. Find this resource:
  494.  
  495. Zhu Shouling 朱守亮. Han Feizi jie shi (韓非子釋評). 4 vols. Taipei: Wunan tushuban gongsi, 1992.
  496.  
  497. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  498.  
  499. Perhaps the most detailed modern commentary available. Includes 176-page introduction to Han Fei and his thought. Appendix brings together passages found in texts from the Han dynasty through the modern era that comment on Han Fei as well as a collection of lost fragments perhaps attributable to Han Fei.
  500.  
  501. Find this resource:
  502.  
  503. Bibliographies and Reviews
  504. All the work included in the sections for Shen Dao: Editions of the Text, Shen Buhai: Editions of the Text, Shang Yang: Editions of the Text, and Han Feizi: Editions of the Text are rich with bibliographic details, and many include comprehensive bibliographies at the end. However, those wishing for a quick overview should consult Loewe 1993. Onozawa 1980 includes a detailed bibliography of Japanese and Chinese work on Han Fei up to 1980 while Kosaki 2007 provides more updated information of postwar Japanese work on Han Fei. Zheng 1993 attempts to provide a comprehensive bibliography of work on Han Fei in East Asian and Western languages, while Gao 1994 provides a more focused review of contemporary Confucian analyses of Han Fei. Finally, Sato 2013 provides a useful English survey of contemporary Chinese and Japanese research on Han Fei and Legalism.
  505.  
  506. Gao Boyuan 高柏園. Han Fei zhexue yanjiu (韓非哲學研究). Taipei: Wenjin chubanshe, 1994.
  507.  
  508. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  509.  
  510. Focuses on contemporary Taiwanese Confucian views on the Han Feizi, including those of Mou Zongsan, Wang Baoxiong, and Xiong Shili.
  511.  
  512. Find this resource:
  513.  
  514. Kosaki Tomonori 小崎智則. “‘Kanpishi’ okeru kunshuron: Chuugoku kodaishakai no kenryokukouzou wo megutte (『韓非子』における君主論: 中国古代社会の権力構造をめぐって).” PhD diss., Nagoya University, 2007.
  515.  
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. Dissertation valuable for its review of Japanese studies on the Han Feizi since World War II.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522. Loewe, Michael, ed. Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide. Berkeley: Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley, 1993.
  523.  
  524. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  525.  
  526. Rich resource including brief descriptions of a variety of early Chinese texts, including the Legalist ones. Entries outline content, important editions, commentaries, contemporary work, and translations.
  527.  
  528. Find this resource:
  529.  
  530. Onozawa Seiichi 小野沢精一. “Hōka shisō 法家思想.” In Kōza Tōyō shisō (講座東洋思想). Vol. 4. Edited by Uno Seiichi 宇野精一, Nakamura Hajime 中村元, and Tamaki Kōshirō 玉城, 89-188. Tokyo: Tōkyō Daigaku Shuppankai, 1980.
  531.  
  532. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  533.  
  534. Includes a bibliography of Chinese and Japanese literature on the Han Feizi.
  535.  
  536. Find this resource:
  537.  
  538. Sato, Masayuki, “Studies of the Han Feizi in China, Taiwan, and Japan.” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 257–282. New York: Springer, 2013.
  539.  
  540. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  541.  
  542. Provides the only English-language survey of contemporary Chinese and Japanese research on the Han Feizi. He also includes references to a range of other Chinese- and Japanese-language bibliographies and surveys of Legalism.
  543.  
  544. Find this resource:
  545.  
  546. Zheng Liangshu 鄭良樹. Han Feizi zhi jian shumu (韓非子知見書目). Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1993.
  547.  
  548. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  549.  
  550. Provides an overview of research on the Han Feizi, beginning with the commentary of Liu Bing 劉眪 (c. 370–440 CE) and continuing through the early 1990s. More comprehensive in its inclusion of Chinese sources than non-Chinese sources.
  551.  
  552. Find this resource:
  553.  
  554. Studies of the Term “Legalism” (Fajia 法家)
  555. As noted in the introduction, there has long been controversy not only over whether “Legalism” is the appropriate translation of the Chinese term fajia, but also whether the Chinese term itself usefully picks out a group of thinkers who should be considered together. Goldin 2011 is a recent take on these issues that answers a resounding “no” to both of these questions. Creel 1970 accepts the value of the term fajia but finds “Legalist” as the English translation to be quite problematic. While not solely aimed at analyzing Legalism, Smith 2003 provides an analysis of problems arising from identifying thinkers with particular schools of thought.
  556.  
  557. Creel, Herrlee G. “The Fa-chia: ‘Legalists’ or ‘Administrators’?” In What Is Taoism? And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History. By Herrlee G. Creel, 92–120. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
  558.  
  559. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  560.  
  561. Argues that while the Chinese term fajia may be useful, the term “Legalist” should be discarded. Discussion is based on an understanding of fajia as arising from Shang Yang, who emphasized penal law, and Shen Buhai, who was interested in bureaucracy and who had little or no interest in the law. First published in 1961.
  562.  
  563. Find this resource:
  564.  
  565. Goldin, Paul R. “Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese ‘Legalism.’” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38.1 (2011): 88–104.
  566.  
  567. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01629.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  568.  
  569. Argues that the term “Legalism” should be abandoned as it is not useful as a heuristic device and obscures our understanding of those thinkers who are often subsumed under this label.
  570.  
  571. Find this resource:
  572.  
  573. Smith, Kidder. “Sima Tan and the Invention of ‘Daoism,’ ‘Legalism,’ et cetera.” Journal of Asian Studies 62.1 (2003): 129–156.
  574.  
  575. DOI: 10.2307/3096138Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  576.  
  577. Discusses how and when the term Legalism arose long after the deaths of those who are now numbered among its members and notes how none of these thinkers took themselves as belonging to a group with the others as members.
  578.  
  579. Find this resource:
  580.  
  581. Legalism on Morality and Fa 法 (Law/Method)
  582. As can be seen in Schwartz 1985 and Graham 1989 in the General Overviews, among others, the Legalists in general and Han Fei in particular are usually taken to advocate an amoral political theory. Harris 2013 analyzes why Han Fei takes such a stance, laying out the arguments against the use of morality in politics that he musters in his attacks on the Confucians. Winston 2005, however, argues that we can find an internal morality of law in Han Feizi’s political and legal thought. Bárcenas 2013 also argues that rather than being amoral in his political thought, Han Fei is actually interested in deriving an alternative way to achieve moral ends in politics that does not have the deficiencies he sees in the Confucians and other literati of the time. Harris 2011 on the other hand argues that Han Fei’s legal thought depends on a non-moral sense of normativity. MacCormack 2006 reviews the ideas of the Legalists, treating them as having striking similarities to Western legal positivists such as Austin, a position similar to what we see in Tanaka 1947 (cited under Han Feizi: Studies). Yang 2013 and Wang 1977 both focus more closely on the concept of fa, with the former arguing that it serves a humanistic purpose in Han Fei’s political theory and the latter arguing that a theory of fa is the central concern of Shen Dao.
  583.  
  584. Bárcenas, Alejandro. “Han Fei’s Enlightened Ruler.” Asian Philosophy 23.3 (2013): 236–259.
  585.  
  586. DOI: 10.1080/09552367.2013.807129Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587.  
  588. Argues that Han Fei’s political vision relies upon an underlying moral conception of the Way. Although his political vision is radically different from his contemporaries,’ he takes Han Fei to provide an alternate method for reaching moral goals within the political realm.
  589.  
  590. Find this resource:
  591.  
  592. Harris, Eirik Lang. “Is the Law in the Way? On the Source of Han Fei’s Laws.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38.1 (2011): 73–87.
  593.  
  594. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01631.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  595.  
  596. Argues that Han Fei develops a non-moral normativity in his political thought and that his view of law does not fit in with contemporary Western categories.
  597.  
  598. Find this resource:
  599.  
  600. Harris, Eirik Lang. “Han Fei on the Problem of Morality.” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 107–131. New York: Springer, 2013.
  601.  
  602. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  603.  
  604. Lays out Han Fei’s criticisms of the Confucians in their attempt to build a political order on the back of their virtue-based ethical order.
  605.  
  606. Find this resource:
  607.  
  608. MacCormack, Geoffrey. “The Legalist School and Its Influence upon Traditional Chinese Law.” Archiv für Rechts- und Sozialphilosophie 92.1 (2006): 59–81.
  609.  
  610. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  611.  
  612. Reviews the ideas of Legalist thinkers as they relate to the role of the law and its relation to morality and discusses how Legalist ideas were incorporated into the legal thinking and reality of later dynasties.
  613.  
  614. Find this resource:
  615.  
  616. Moody, Peter R. “Han Fei in His Context: Legalism on the Eve of the Qin Conquest.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38.1 (2011): 14–30.
  617.  
  618. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01626.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  619.  
  620. An attempt to look at Han Fei’s writings from the perspective of Han Fei himself and understand his work in its original context of the Warring States. Moody takes Han Fei to have a sincere concern for the well-being of the people within the state.
  621.  
  622. Find this resource:
  623.  
  624. Wang, Hsiao-po. “The Significance of the Concept of ‘Fa’ in Han Fei’s Thought System.” Translated by L. S. Chang. Philosophy East and West 27.1 (1977): 35–52.
  625.  
  626. DOI: 10.2307/1397699Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627.  
  628. Argues that Han Fei sees the role of fa as serving a humanistic purpose that allows for the creation of a fair society where everyone is equal before the law.
  629.  
  630. Find this resource:
  631.  
  632. Winston, Kenneth. “The Internal Morality of Chinese Legalism.” Singapore Journal of Legal Studies (2005): 313–347.
  633.  
  634. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  635.  
  636. By drawing on the work of the legal sociologist Lon Fuller, in particular his analysis of the internal morality of law, argues that we can see an explicit articulation of morality within Han Fei’s conception of the law.
  637.  
  638. Find this resource:
  639.  
  640. Yang, Soon-ja. “Shen Dao’s Theory of Fa and His Influence on Han Fei.” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 47–63. New York: Springer, 2013.
  641.  
  642. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643.  
  644. Argues against the traditional account whereby Shen Dao was primarily interested in shi (勢 positional power), providing evidence that he was fundamentally concerned with fa (法), which is taken to refer to the objective standards of rewards and punishments that the ruler should follow.
  645.  
  646. Find this resource:
  647.  
  648. The Concept of Xingming (Hsing-Ming 刑名)
  649. Although it is generally agreed that xingming is a central concept in Legalist political theory, there is disagreement about what exactly it means. Creel 1970 provided the first detailed English-language examination of these terms, drawing on Shen Buhai and Han Fei to argue that xingming refers to performance and title. Wang and Chang 1986 on the other hand at times follows Creel while elsewhere arguing that the terms are tied more closely to the legal statutes and penal codes. Makeham 1990 disagrees with both Creel 1970 and Wang and Chang 1986, arguing, rather, that the term refers to ensuring the correspondence between what someone says and what they actually achieve. Levi 1993 focuses more on xingming as a development of the Confucian idea of zhengming 正名 (rectification of names). Finally, Yang 2010 argues that these scholars’ analysis is problematic insofar as they attribute the concept of xingming to Shen Buhai. Yang argues that he does not have such a concept and that ming has a different meaning for him than for Han Fei.
  650.  
  651. Creel, Herrlee G. “The Meaning of 刑名 Hsing-ming.” In What Is Taoism? And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History. By Herrlee G. Creel, 79–91. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970.
  652.  
  653. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  654.  
  655. Argues that xingming is equivalent to mingshi (名實) in its sense of title and performance, denoting a particular technique for controlling governmental personnel. Originally published in Studia Serica Bernhard Karlgren Dedicata, edited by Søren Egerod and Else Glahn (Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1959).
  656.  
  657. Find this resource:
  658.  
  659. Levi, Jean. “Quelques aspects de la rectification des noms dans la pensée etla pratique politiques de la Chine ancienne.” Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident 15 (1993): 23–53.
  660.  
  661. DOI: 10.3406/oroc.1993.973Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  662.  
  663. Analysis of xingming in Han Fei taking it to be an extension of the Confucian concept of zhengming 正名 (rectification of names) that moves beyond “correct naming” to the evaluation of behavior and its correlative rewards and punishments.
  664.  
  665. Find this resource:
  666.  
  667. Makeham, John. “The Legalist Concept of Hsing-ming: An Example of the Contribution of Archaeological Evidence to the Re-interpretation of Transmitted Texts.” Monumenta Serica, Journal of Oriental Studies 39 (1990): 87–114.
  668.  
  669. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  670.  
  671. Argues that ming refers to words or claims, on the basis of which someone is given a task. Xing plays a dual semantic role, meaning both form (形 xing) and standard (型 xing). The task, once completed, is the standard by which to evaluate the initial claim (ming).
  672.  
  673. Find this resource:
  674.  
  675. Wang, Hsiao-Po, and Leo S. Chang. The Philosophical Foundations of Han Fei’s Political Theory. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986.
  676.  
  677. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  678.  
  679. Study arguing that ming refers to the name of crimes as written in the legal statutes and xing refers to the punishment that has been designated as appropriate for that crime while also saying that the term implies that there must be a correspondence between name and reality.
  680.  
  681. Find this resource:
  682.  
  683. Yang, Soon-ja. “The Secular Foundation of Rulership: The Political Thought of Han Feizi (ca. 280–233 B.C.) and His Predecessors.” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 2010.
  684.  
  685. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  686.  
  687. This wide-ranging dissertation on Legalism takes issue with the idea, which arose in the Han dynasty and has continued to today, that Shen Buhai was an advocate of xingming, arguing that his concept of ming was quite different from what we see in Han Fei.
  688.  
  689. Find this resource:
  690.  
  691. Legalism and the Ruler
  692. It is long been argued that the Legalists support totalitarian rulers, and this is a position advocated in Ojima 1943. Rubin 1976 also argues that Shang Yang was a totalitarian and Mou 1983 does the same with respect to Han Fei, though he disagrees with Rubin about Shang Yang. Such a view of the Legalists is also accepted by Fu 1996 (cited under General Overviews). However, works such as Wang 1977 (cited under Legalism on Morality and Fa 法 (Law/Method)), Moody 1979 (cited under Comparative and Cross-Cultural Studies), and Song 2010 (cited under Han Feizi: Studies) challenge such an understanding. Pines 2013 argues that Han Fei wishes all power to lie in the hands of the ruler but notes a paradox arising from this that forces the ruler away from decision-making. Galvany 2013 also focuses on the absolute power of the ruler, noting, however, that Han Fei advocates attaining this power by modeling oneself on the Way, divorcing oneself from all others, and residing in an incomprehensible position far above.
  693.  
  694. Galvany, Albert. “Beyond the Rule of Rules: The Foundations of Sovereign Power in the Han Feizi.” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 87–106. New York: Springer, 2013.
  695.  
  696. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  697.  
  698. Argues that Han Fei wishes the ruler to gain absolute power by identifying with the impenetrable Way. In developing an asymmetrical and incommensurable relationship between himself and his subjects, the ruler emulates the Way, becoming impenetrable, inaccessible, and opaque.
  699.  
  700. Find this resource:
  701.  
  702. Mou Zongsan 牟宗三. Zhongguo zhexueshi jiu jiang: Zhongguo zhexue zhi jianshu ji qi suo hanyun zhi wenti (中國哲學十九講: 中國哲學之簡述及其所涵蘊之問題). Taipei: Taiwan Xuesheng shuju, 1983.
  703.  
  704. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  705.  
  706. Several essays in this study of Chinese philosophy argue that Shang Yang was unproblematically utilitarian with respect to the law. Han Fei, though, is seen to have used Shen Buhai’s concept of shu 術 (political techniques) to develop totalitarian control of the state, which Mou reacts to very negatively.
  707.  
  708. Find this resource:
  709.  
  710. Ojima Sukema 小島祐馬. “Hōka no kyōkoku jakumin setsu (法家の强國弱民說).” In Kodai Shina kenkyū (古代支那硏究). By Ojima Sukema 小島祐馬, 326–341. Tokyo: Kōbundō Shobō, 1943.
  711.  
  712. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  713.  
  714. A Marxist-inspired analysis of Legalism that argues that the concentration of power in the hands of the ruler will necessarily be detrimental to the people being ruled.
  715.  
  716. Find this resource:
  717.  
  718. Pines, Yuri. “Submerged by Absolute Power: The Ruler’s Predicament in the Han Feizi.” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 67–86. New York: Springer, 2013.
  719.  
  720. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  721.  
  722. Argues that Han Fei wishes to increase the power of the ruler as the only way to maintain order in the state. This can only be done when the ruler reduces his own intervention in policymaking, which, paradoxically, shifts the real source of authority from the ruler to his ministers.
  723.  
  724. Find this resource:
  725.  
  726. Rubin, Vitaly. “The Theory and Practice of a Totalitarian State: Shang Yang and Legalism.” In Individual and State in Ancient China: Essays on Four Chinese Philosophers. Translated by Stephen I. Levine, 55–87. New York: Columbia University Press, 1976.
  727.  
  728. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  729.  
  730. This overview of Shang Yang and the ideas of the book that bears his name credits him with putting forward totalitarian methods for strengthening the power of the ruler, centralizing government, and expanding resources that led the state of Qin to be a force to be reckoned with.
  731.  
  732. Find this resource:
  733.  
  734. Rhetoric and Persuasion
  735. Although the deaths of Shang Yang and Han Fei call into question how effectively they were able to apply their ideas on persuasion, the two texts that bear their names provide important insights into the role that they saw rhetoric and persuasion as playing in their broader political thought. Pines 2012 is the first English attempt to understand the reasoning behind the extremely alienating rhetoric seen in parts of the Shangjunshu. Lu 1998 is a broader overview of Han Fei’s political thought, with a particular emphasis on rhetorical style, while Hunter 2013 focuses on the Shuinan chapter of the Han Feizi in an attempt to understand the role of persuasion in Han Fei’s overall thought. Zhang 1997 is a detailed analysis of the art of debate as found in the Han Feizi while Lyon 2008 directly compares rhetoric in Han Fei with that found in Athenian democracy.
  736.  
  737. Hunter, Michael. “The Difficulty with ‘The Difficulties of Persuasion’ (‘Shuinan’ 說難).” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 169–195. New York: Springer, 2013.
  738.  
  739. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  740.  
  741. Treats the concept of shui 說 (persuasion) as being of fundamental interest to the author(s) of the Han Feizi. Takes Han Fei as accepting the value of shui so long as it is practiced by those who have a sincere desire to protect the state.
  742.  
  743. Find this resource:
  744.  
  745. Lu, Xing. “Conceptualization of Shui and Ming Bian by Han Feizi.” In Rhetoric in Ancient China: Fifth to Third Century B.C.E. By Xing Lu, 258–287. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1998.
  746.  
  747. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  748.  
  749. An overview of Han Fei’s thought arguing that his rhetorical perspective arose from his political ideas. Focuses on his concept of ming 名 (names), his theory of shui 說 (persuasion), his attacks on bian 辯 (argumentation), and his rhetorical style.
  750.  
  751. Find this resource:
  752.  
  753. Lyon, Arabella. “Rhetorical Authority in Athenian Democracy and the Chinese Legalism of Han Fei.” Philosophy and Rhetoric 41.1 (2008): 51–71.
  754.  
  755. DOI: 10.1353/par.2008.0004Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  756.  
  757. Contrasts the Athenian preoccupation with subjectivity and the power of ego with Han Fei’s concern with violence and his trust in a strong and stable state for the good of the people arising out of the law rather than an individual’s power.
  758.  
  759. Find this resource:
  760.  
  761. Pines, Yuri. “Alienating Rhetoric in the Book of Lord Shang and Its Moderation.” Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident 34 (2012): 79–119.
  762.  
  763. DOI: 10.4000/extremeorient.254Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  764.  
  765. Argues that the rhetoric in the Book of Lord Shang against numerous conventional moral norms may have been designed to portray Shang Yang as a daring and innovative thinker. Part of an edition of Extrême-Orient, Extrême-Occident dedicated to political rhetoric in early China.
  766.  
  767. Find this resource:
  768.  
  769. Zhang Suzhen 張素貞. Han Feizi nan pian yanjiu: Han Feizi de bian lun shu (韓非子難篇研究－韓非子的辯輪術). Taipei: Taiwan Xuesheng shuju, 1997.
  770.  
  771. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  772.  
  773. This detailed analysis and discussion of the art of debate as elucidated by the nan 難 (difficulties) chapters of the Han Feizi is divided into sections discussing fa 法 (laws/methods), shu 術 (political techniques), and shi 勢 (positional power).
  774.  
  775. Find this resource:
  776.  
  777. Relationship with Confucianism
  778. Ever since Sima Qian claimed that Han Fei had been a student of Xunzi, the vast majority of scholars have accepted this relationship and discussed how Han Fei turned away from his Confucian background. Bárcenas 2012 accepts the relationship and argues that Han Fei was indebted to Xunzi for his conception of human nature. Kaizuka 1982, however, provides a detailed argument that there was no relationship between Han Fei and Xunzi; and while not going so far as Kaizuka, Sato 2013 reaches a far different conclusion than Bárcenas, arguing that there is no reason to think that Han Fei’s conception of human nature was at all indebted to Xunzi. Flanagan and Hu 2011 shifts the debate by looking at how and why more positive conceptions of human nature, such as that found in Mengzi, have found favor over the more negative conception found in Han Fei and argues that Han Fei’s philosophical psychology needs to be taken more seriously. Van Norden 2013 also argues that Han Fei needs to be taken more seriously, and that doing so does not require abandoning the important insights found in Xunzi’s writings. Also useful is Hutton 2008 (cited under Comparative and Cross-Cultural Studies), which touches on aspects of Han Fei’s disagreement with the Confucians over political morality.
  779.  
  780. Bárcenas, Alejandro. “Xunzi and Han Fei on Human Nature.” International Philosophical Quarterly 52.2 (2012): 135–148.
  781.  
  782. DOI: 10.5840/ipq201252214Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  783.  
  784. Argues that Han Fei’s notion of xing 性 (human nature/tendencies) was influenced by Xunzi. Explains Han Fei as seeing human tendencies as crude and undeveloped but malleable to a certain extent.
  785.  
  786. Find this resource:
  787.  
  788. Flanagan, Owen, and Jing Hu. “Han Fei Zi’s Philosophical Psychology: Human Nature, Scarcity, and the Neo-Darwinian Consensus.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38.2 (2011): 293–316.
  789.  
  790. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.2011.01632.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  791.  
  792. Lays out Han Fei’s conception of human nature and its relation with the conceptions of Mengzi and Xunzi and develops an argument for why there has been less attention paid to his negative conception of human nature than to Mengzi’s more positive one.
  793.  
  794. Find this resource:
  795.  
  796. Kaizuka Shigeki 貝塚茂樹. Kanpi (韓非). Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1982.
  797.  
  798. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  799.  
  800. Biography of Han Fei including a detailed argument that Han Fei was not a student of Xunzi. Rests in part on the fact that the only reference to Xunzi places him in a chronologically impossible position, a mistake Han Fei would never have made had he been Xunzi’s student.
  801.  
  802. Find this resource:
  803.  
  804. Sato, Masayuki. “Did Xunzi’s Theory of Human Nature Provide the Foundation for the Political Thought of Han Fei?” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 147–165. New York: Springer, 2013.
  805.  
  806. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  807.  
  808. Argues that Han Fei is not indebted to Xunzi for his theory of human nature. Rather, claims that Han Fei’s understanding of human characteristics is importantly different from Xunzi’s, and that we need not think of Han Fei as Xunzi’s student.
  809.  
  810. Find this resource:
  811.  
  812. Van Norden, Bryan W. “Han Fei and Confucianism: Toward a Synthesis.” In Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 135–145. New York: Springer, 2013.
  813.  
  814. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815.  
  816. Although acknowledging that Xunzi and Han Feizi would have seem themselves as diametrically opposed, argues that each of these thinkers understood deep needs in humans and our societies and thus a viable political thought needs to acknowledge both of their contributions.
  817.  
  818. Find this resource:
  819.  
  820. Relationship with Other Thinkers
  821. Vervoorn 1981 is one of the few works to examine the relationship between Zhuangzi and Han Fei, arguing that there are important points of similarity, while Zhou 2008 is one of the few which recognizes the extent to which Han Fei is indebted to Mozi. Ivanhoe 2011 examines the influences of both Laozi and Mozi on Han Fei, while taking issue with claims like those of Wang and Chang 1986 which sees a close connection between the ideas of Laozi and those of Han Fei, with the latter simply extending Laozi’s ideas to their natural conclusion. Wang 2007 looks at the relationship between Han Fei’s thought and Huang-Lao thought, while Wang 2012 goes further, looking at what concepts Han Fei inherited from Huang-Lao and how he developed these ideas. Jan 1991 as well examines the relationship between Huang-Lao and Legalism more broadly, looking at parallel passages in an attempt to determine the flow of influence. Finally, Rubin 1974 looks at portrayals of Shen Dao in the Zhuangzi and the Han Feizi in an attempt to discover the authentic Shen Dao.
  822.  
  823. Ivanhoe, Philip J. “Hanfeizi and Moral Self-Cultivation.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38.1 (2011): 31–45.
  824.  
  825. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.2011.01627.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  826.  
  827. Examines the influence of Mozi and Laozi on Han Fei’s thought. Though recognizing that Han Fei was indebted to these thinkers in important ways, highlights essential differences between Laozi’s conception of self-cultivation and Han Fei’s usage of Laozian self-cultivation vocabulary.
  828.  
  829. Find this resource:
  830.  
  831. Jan, Yün-Hua. “Taoist Silk Manuscripts and Early Legalist Thought.” In Sages and Filial Sons: Mythology and Archaeology in Ancient China. Edited by Julia Ching and R. W. L. Guisso, 65–79. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1991.
  832.  
  833. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  834.  
  835. Looks at the parallels between the Huang-Lao text Jingfa 經法 and the texts attributed to Shen Dao, Shen Buhai, and Shang Yang in an attempt to date the former and come to a greater understanding of their thought.
  836.  
  837. Find this resource:
  838.  
  839. Rubin, Vitali. “Shen Tao and Fa-Chia.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 94.3 (1974): 337–346.
  840.  
  841. DOI: 10.2307/600068Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  842.  
  843. Argues that Shen Dao’s portrayal in the Zhuangzi is more accurate to his ideas than his portrayal in the Han Feizi. Particularly, goes against the traditional claim that Shen Dao was an advocate of positional power (shi 勢)).
  844.  
  845. Find this resource:
  846.  
  847. Vervoorn, Aat. “Taoism, Legalism and the Quest for Order in Warring States China.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 8.3 (1981): 303–324.
  848.  
  849. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.1981.tb00258.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  850.  
  851. Notes the important similarities between the thought of Zhuangzi and that of Han Fei, particularly in their search for a solid foundation for order, in determining the appropriate bases of knowledge, and in understanding the nature of the world and how humans should respond to it.
  852.  
  853. Find this resource:
  854.  
  855. Wang, Hsiao-Po, and Leo S. Chang. The Philosophical Foundations of Han Fei’s Political Theory. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1986.
  856.  
  857. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  858.  
  859. Book arguing that the philosophical foundations of Han Fei’s political theory can be found in the ideas of Laozi, taking the “Daoist” chapters of the Han Feizi as the basis for the interpretation of the text as a whole.
  860.  
  861. Find this resource:
  862.  
  863. Wang Weiwei 王威威. Han Fei sixiang yanjiu: Yi Huang Lao wei ben (韩非思想研究: 以黄老为本). Nanjing, China: Nanjing daxue chubanshe, 2012.
  864.  
  865. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  866.  
  867. Taking the Huangdi sijing (黃帝四經) and four Daoist chapters of the Guanzi (管子) as the primary works of Huang-Lao, investigates their relationship to Han Fei’s political thought and takes them to be foundational.
  868.  
  869. Find this resource:
  870.  
  871. Wang Xiaobo 王曉波. Dao yu fa: Fajia sixiang he Huang Lao zhexue jiexi (道與法: 法家思想和黃老哲學解析). Taipei: Taiwan daxue chuban zhongxin, 2007.
  872.  
  873. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  874.  
  875. Using as its impetus Sima Qian’s (司馬遷) claim that Han Fei returns to the root in “Huang-Lao,” investigates a variety of texts that he takes to be Huang-Lao and looks at their relationship to Han Fei’s thought, particularly the role of the terms Dao 道 (Way) and Fa 法 (law/method).
  876.  
  877. Find this resource:
  878.  
  879. Zhou Fumei 周富美. Mozi Han Feizi lun ji (墨子韓非子論集). Taipei: Guojia chubanshe, 2008.
  880.  
  881. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  882.  
  883. One of the few scholars to highlight Han Fei’s indebtedness to the ideas of Mozi, particularly his ideas that the welfare of the state was primary and that a clearly articulated set of objective, publicly promulgated standards was necessary.
  884.  
  885. Find this resource:
  886.  
  887. The Commentaries to the Laozi Found in the Han Feizi
  888. There are two commentaries to the Laozi found within the text of the Han Feizi, the Jielao (解老) and the Yulao (喻老). As can be seen by examining the relevant sections of the works listed in Han Feizi: Editions of the Text, there is much controversy about the authenticity of these chapters. Lau 1989 does not come to a conclusion about the authenticity of the Jielao chapter, but in an investigation of its metaphysics concludes that it could have been written by Han Fei. Sarkissian 2001 argues that the writing and ideas of these two chapters are so different that they must have come from two different individuals, neither of which was Han Fei. Queen 2013 also engages in a detailed analysis of these two chapters and their differences, leaving open both whether they were written by the same person and whether the Han Fei had a part in their construction. The author of Kim 2010, working independently, concluded with Queen 2013 that each of these commentaries is based on a different version of the Laozi.
  889.  
  890. Kim, Tae Hyun. “Other Laozi Parallels in the Hanfeizi.” Sino-Platonic Papers 199 (2010): 1–76.
  891.  
  892. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  893.  
  894. A detailed analysis of the differences between the quotations of the Laozi found in the Jielao and Yulao chapters and those passages found in the Guodian and Mawangdui versions of the Laozi.
  895.  
  896. Find this resource:
  897.  
  898. Lau, D. C. “Taoist Metaphysics in the Chieh Lao 解老 and Plato’s Theory of Forms.” In Wen-lin: Studies in the Chinese Humanities. Vol. 2. Edited by Tse-tsung Chow, 101–121. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989.
  899.  
  900. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  901.  
  902. Lau’s interest is in how the Jielao develops certain of Laozi’s ideas into a complex metaphysics and how this may interestingly be compared with Plato’s Theory of Forms.
  903.  
  904. Find this resource:
  905.  
  906. Queen, Sarah A. “Han Feizi and the Old Master: A Comparative Analysis and Translation of Han Feizi Chapter 20, ‘Jie Lao,’ and Chapter 21, ‘Yu Lao.’” In The Dao Companion to the Philosophy of Han Fei. Edited by Paul R. Goldin, 197–256. New York: Springer, 2013.
  907.  
  908. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-4318-2Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  909.  
  910. Examination of the two commentaries to the Laozi pointing out a variety of differences in exegetical strategies, the passages examined, viewpoints espoused, and vocabulary used. Also argues that they drew upon different versions of the proto-Laozi. Includes a translation of both chapters.
  911.  
  912. Find this resource:
  913.  
  914. Sarkissian, Hagop. “Laozi: Re-Visiting Two Early Commentaries in the Hanfeizi.” M.A. thesis, University of Toronto, 2001.
  915.  
  916. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  917.  
  918. A careful exploration of the dating, authorship, and political philosophy in the Jielao and Yulao chapters and how they differ, including a translation of both chapters.
  919.  
  920. Find this resource:
  921.  
  922. Comparative and Cross-Cultural Studies
  923. As the field of Chinese thought in the West has developed, a range of political theorists and philosophers have begun to examine how the ideas of Legalist thinkers can be examined in a comparative perspective and how they can be brought to bear on a range of issues of interest to contemporary scholars. Moody 1979 was one of the first comparative works and argues that Han Fei advocates an impersonal system of rule of law and social equality. Hutton 2008 looks at Han Fei’s criticism of Confucian virtue ethics, demonstrating that the issues Han Fei raises are also potential problems for contemporary Western virtue ethics. Fischer 2012 argues that the heuristic of Political Realism is useful for understanding the Book of Lord Shang and allows for useful comparisons with Machiavelli and Hobbes. Martinich 2011 as well draws comparisons to Hobbes, focusing on similarities between Hobbes’s understanding of the sovereign and that of Han Fei. Schneider 2013 is comparative in a different way. Rather than directly comparing Han Fei with particular Western thinkers, the author argues that Han Fei’s writing is very similar to that of Western social scientists. Finally, demonstrating that comparative thought need not be limited to the usual East-West studies, Boesche 2005 looks at Han Fei’s rough contemporary, the Indian statesman Kautilya, and examines similarities in their political visions.
  924.  
  925. Boesche, Roger. “Han Feizi’s Legalism versus Kautilya’s Arthashastra.” Asian Philosophy 15.2 (2005): 157–172.
  926.  
  927. DOI: 10.1080/09552360500123840Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  928.  
  929. Looks at similarities between Han Fei’s ideas and those of the great Indian statesman Kautilya. In particular, he notes the similarities in their views on how to ensure a strong state while demonstrating differences in their economic visions.
  930.  
  931. Find this resource:
  932.  
  933. Fischer, Markus. “The Book of Lord Shang Compared with Machiavelli and Hobbes.” Dao: A Journal of Comparative Philosophy 11.2 (2012): 201–221.
  934.  
  935. DOI: 10.1007/s11712-012-9269-ySave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  936.  
  937. Takes The Book of Lord Shang as an example of political realism, showing what premises of political realism arise out of a comparison of this text with those of Machiavelli and Hobbes.
  938.  
  939. Find this resource:
  940.  
  941. Hutton, Eric L. “Han Feizi’s Criticism of Confucianism and Its Implications for Virtue Ethics.” Journal of Moral Philosophy 5 (2008): 423–453.
  942.  
  943. DOI: 10.1163/174552408X369745Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  944.  
  945. Analysis of the relevance of Han Fei’s criticism of Confucian political ethics to questions in modern virtue ethics. Raises a series of worries that any advocate of virtue ethics needs to respond to.
  946.  
  947. Find this resource:
  948.  
  949. Martinich, A. P. “The Sovereign in the Political Thought of Hanfeizi and Thomas Hobbes.” Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38.1 (2011): 64–72.
  950.  
  951. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01628.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  952.  
  953. Insightful study of Han Feizi’s vision of the sovereign that argues that the political philosophy underlying it is very similar with Hobbes’s theory of the sovereign, particularly in its emphasis on absolute sovereignty, the sovereign’s divine aspects, and its understanding of good governance.
  954.  
  955. Find this resource:
  956.  
  957. Moody, Peter R., Jr. “The Legalism of Han Fei-tzu and Its Affinities with Modern Political Thought.” International Philosophical Quarterly 19.3 (1979): 317–330.
  958.  
  959. DOI: 10.5840/ipq197919317Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  960.  
  961. Examination of Han Fei’s political philosophy that sees it as in important ways presaging aspects of modern political thought, particularly ideas found in Machiavelli and Hobbes. Argues that in the end Legalism is contradictory, though it may still have pragmatic value.
  962.  
  963. Find this resource:
  964.  
  965. Schneider, Henrique. “Reading Han Fei as ‘Social Scientist’: A Case-Study in ‘Historical Correspondence.’” Comparative Philosophy 4.1 (2013): 90–102.
  966.  
  967. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  968.  
  969. Aware of the anachronism involved in calling Han Fei a social scientist, argues that a correspondence can be drawn between what it means to be a social scientist in today’s academy with what Han Fei was doing in the scholarly community of his time.
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