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Roman Empire

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The army was the central institution of the Roman Empire. It was during the Augustan Age that the Roman army was transformed from the agent of conquest and tool in the struggle for political dominance to an institution whose principal military role was defense against outside threats and deterrence of domestic unrest; its primary political role was to ensure the status quo of an ordered state—a role that it largely filled until the chaotic years of the 3rd century CE when the army once again became a tool in the hands of aspirant dynasts. Although armies had been stationed for long periods in the provinces during the Republic, the creation of an empire-wide entity with set terms of service, a coherent pay scale, and centralized control of command defined the structure on which the stability of the state depended. The governing principle appears to have been finance. As wealthy as Augustus was and as better organized as the state might have become, Augustus could not spend money he did not have over the long term—the post-Augustan army was melded with the tax system that supported it. The post-Augustan army differed from Republican armies in terms of its military strength as well as its mission. The Republican and Augustan armies were primarily recruited from peninsular Italy. In the course of the 1st century CE, recruitment shifted to the provinces. Additionally, new provincial units were recruited to act as auxiliaries, initially under leaders from the communities from which they were drawn (a continuation of Republican practice). After the civil wars of 69 CE, it became clear that this was an unwise practice, and officers for auxiliary units were drawn from the same pool of imperial aristocrats as the legions. Auxiliary units served under somewhat less favorable terms than did soldiers recruited into the legions, and all provincial units were less favorably treated than were the imperial guard units that were formed into the praetorian guard under Augustus. Unlike the provincial armies, the praetorians often played a significant role in determining the imperial succession. Major areas of ongoing debate and research include the nature of the Roman strategic thinking; the experience of battle; the impact of the army on the imperial economy, both on macro and regional scales; terms of service; officering and recruitment; the relationship between the army and civilian society; and the creation of a specifically military culture. The role of the army in politics is a final topic of considerable importance, both in terms of the structure of political society and in terms of the way in which Roman writers wrote about their army.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
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  7. Numerous general accounts of the Roman imperial army are available. The works cited here are representative of recent developments in the field and offer a selection of works that may enable the nonspecialist to gain access to the field. Ritterling 1924 remains a valuable resource and was foundational for later study of the Roman army as it brought together the evidence for all the legions. It also enshrined a “legions-first” approach to the study of the Roman military. Pollard and Berry 2012 is a user-friendly and efficient update of Ritterling 1924, whereas Le Bohec and Wolff 2000 is a much more detailed update. Le Bohec 1994 and Southern 2006 are very fine surveys of the Roman imperial army, concentrating on issues of organization. Erdkamp 2007 provides a range of studies on both the Republican and imperial armies and is an indispensable guide to a wide range of issues in the study of the Roman military. Whereas Sabin, et al. 2007 covers the span of Greek and Roman history, individual contributions on the imperial period are fresh and insightful, such as Campbell and Tritle 2013 which offers a series of synoptic chapters focusing on issues in warfare across antiquity.
  8.  
  9. Campbell, J. B., and L. A. Tritle. The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  10. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195304657.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  11. General survey of warfare in the ancient world, Greek and Roman, with synoptic chapters on general subjects, ranging from archaic Greece to the Roman Empire and some more specific chapters on warfare in the Roman Empire. Especially useful for long-range issues even if less focused on issues that are especially relevant to the Roman Empire than other general surveys are.
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  13. Erdkamp, P. A Companion to the Roman Army. Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell, 2007.
  14. DOI: 10.1002/9780470996577Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  15. Covers the Republic to Late Antiquity, but divides chapters on specifically imperial topics from the other periods. Chapters 11–25 (pp. 183–476) deal with the empire. Chapters offer useful surveys of specific issues but do not shy away from making significant contributions to the areas that they review. Important, up-to-date introduction to the subject as a whole, with a welcome stress on material culture that is not present in all such volumes.
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  17. Le Bohec, Y. The Imperial Roman Army. Translated by Raphael Bate. London: B. T. Batsford, 1994.
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  19. The English translation of the author’s L’armée romaine sous le Haut-Empire (3d ed. Paris: Picard, 2005) is a lucid and invaluable study of the imperial army, beginning with a discussion of its underlying structures—starting with its organization, the sort of people who were recruited, training, tactics, and strategy before giving an outline of the army’s role in the empire’s history, its function, and cultural influence.
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  21. Le Bohec, Y., and C. Wolff, eds. Les légions de Rome sous le Haut-Empire: Actes du Congrès de Lyon (17–19 septembre 1998). Paris: Diffusion de Boccard, 2000.
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  23. An important collection of articles on the history of each legion in the Roman imperial army. The collection updates Emil Ritterling’s masterful article, “Legio,” in Ritterling 1924. Individual articles were contributed by a wide range of authors.
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  25. Pollard, N., and J. Berry. The Complete Roman Legions. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012.
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  27. User-friendly, efficient, and thoroughly up-to-date account of the Roman legions. Although directed to a nonscholarly audience (and splendidly illustrated), the book is an important introduction to the subject for any student of the Roman world.
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  29. Ritterling, E. “Legio.” In Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft: Neue Bearbeitung. Edited by A. Pauly, G. Wissowa, W. Kroll, K. Witte, K. Mittelhaus, and K. Ziegler. Stuttgart: J. B. Metzler, 1924.
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  31. For some time the starting point for any study of the Roman imperial army, a brilliant collection and analysis of the evidence for all the legions of the imperial period, organized legion by legion. Although now replaced by Le Bohec and Wolff 2000, it had a significant impact on the study of the Roman military for the better part of a century. See cols. 1894–1980 cols. 1211–1829.
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  33. Sabin, P., H. van Wees, and M. Whitby, eds. The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare. 2 vols. Cambridge, UK, and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
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  35. Volume 2 (Rome from the Late Republic to the Late Empire) offers a topically arranged, often insightful, introduction to Roman warfare in the late Republic and the Empire. Subjects include international relations, military forces, types of wars, the experience of battle, warfare and the state, and warfare and society. The chapters on the historiography of warfare (pp. 3–81) in Volume 1 (Greece, the Hellenistic World, and the Rise of Rome) are also of general relevance with Michael Whitby’s chapter, “Reconstructing Ancient Warfare,” an especially important discussion of the literary sources (pp. 54–81).
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  37. Southern, P. The Roman Army: A Social and Institutional History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2006.
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  39. The introduction offers a helpful discussion of the sources followed by a discussion of the army’s development from the late Republic to the Empire. The third chapter (pp. 87–141) discusses the army, including discussion of the officer corps and recruitment patterns for legionaries and auxiliaries. Includes good discussions of the army’s culture and field operations (including an extended discussion of weaponry). The concluding chapters deal with the army of the Later Empire and famous Roman soldiers.
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  41. Sources
  42.  
  43. The sources for Roman military history fall into three categories: literary, documentary, and archaeological. Literary consists of literary masterpieces such as Tacitus’s Annals and Histories as well as other narrative histories and handbooks on tactics, ballistics, and stratagems. Documentary sources are divided between texts written on nonperishable materials (the domain of the epigraphist) and those written on perishable materials (primarily papyri) which are studied by papyrologists. Epigraphy and Papyrology are crucial for reconstructing the daily functioning of the Roman army. Archaeological evidence (Archaeology) reveals the nature of Roman military construction and the use of space within Roman encampments (an important indication of status within units), aspects of Roman strategic thinking as reflected in large-scale military construction projects, and the nature of Roman equipment—in some cases, this evidence enables us to follow the course of actual military actions.
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  45. Literary
  46.  
  47. The literary sources for the Roman military are complicated, ranging from the sophisticated accounts in narrative historians such as Tacitus, Cassius Dio, and Josephus, which provide most of our information about strategy and tactics, to documentary evidence from papyri, inscriptions, and documentary sources. In addition to the works cited here, extensive bibliographies for Josephus and Tacitus may be found through the Oxford Bibliographies articles on Flavius Josephus and Tacitus. For Cassius Dio, the two best introductions in English are Millar 1966 and Gowing 1992, both of which place him firmly in his intellectual milieu; however, Millar focuses on Dio’s account of his own time, whereas Gowing discusses the wars that accompanied the rise of Augustus to power. For Tacitus, whose Histories, Annals, and Agricola provides extensive information about Roman warfare in the 1st century CE and about Roman attitudes toward imperial expansion, the starting point remains Syme 1958, although Haynes 2003 and Ash 1999 are extremely valuable for understanding the rhetorical aspects of the narrative of the civil war in 69 CE. Pagán 2012 offers a wide-ranging collection of articles on all aspects of Tacitean studies. Campbell 2004 offers a very useful introduction to technical writers about warfare in the ancient world. Rajak 2002 remains an excellent introduction to Josephus and his world, whereas Edmondson, et al. 2005 offers a number of useful perspectives on Josephus’s intellectual and social background as well as his style as a writer, concentrating on his career in Rome to balance Rajak’s focus on his earlier life in Palestine. Josephus’s Jewish War is a critically important narrative as it is written both from the perspective of a person confronting the Roman army in battle and then collaborating with it. In addition to the narrative accounts of Roman history, a number of technical works on strategy, tactics, and ballistics are also available. Particularly important in this regard are the works of Arrian, the 2nd-century historian and politician, whose Order of Battle against the Alans and Tactica are important evidence for practical Roman military thinking (written by one who actually commanded troops in battle). Other works in this genre is Aelianus Tacticus’s book on tactics and Apollodorus of Damascus’s book on besieging cities. In a different vein are works such as Frontinus’s Stratagems, which show prospective generals ways in which various ruses have succeeded in the past. Campbell 2004 is an excellent introduction to these works.
  48.  
  49. Ash, R. Ordering Anarchy: Armies and Leaders in Tacitus’ Histories. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1999.
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  51. A careful reading of Tacitus’s handling of armies and individuals in his Histories, showing how he attributes definite personalities to subgroups within the army and makes groups of soldiers significant actors in his account. Very subtle reading of different individuals follows the study of the army.
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  53. Campbell, J. B. Greek and Roman Military Writers: Selected Readings. London and New York: Routledge, 2004.
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  55. Collection of translation of technical writing about warfare from the Classical period to the Later Empire. The best introduction to this genre of writing, including a number of books written by commanders of Roman troops.
  56. Find this resource:
  57. Edmondson, J., S. Mason, and J. Rives. Josephus and Flavian Rome. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
  58. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199262120.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  59. Collection of essays exploring many aspects of Josephus’s world. Includes specific treatments of the narrative of the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem and Josephus’s narrative style.
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  61. Gowing, A. The Triumviral Narratives of Appian and Cassius Dio. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992.
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  63. Eloquent discussion of the historiographic tradition surrounding the civil wars after Caesar’s assassination. This is the one significant study in English of Appian as a narrative historian as well as the most detailed examination of Dio’s account of these wars.
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  65. Haynes, H. The History of Make-Believe: Tacitus on Imperial Rome. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003.
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  67. An incisive discussion of Tacitus’s histories looking carefully at the rhetoric of civil war that takes advantage of modern narratological techniques. The author’s main interest is in exploring the intersection of what Romans in the 1st century CE believed to be true and how Tacitus presented those beliefs. For those using Tacitus to reconstruct Roman warfare, this book provides important caveats on how to read the narrative.
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  69. Millar, F. A Study of Cassius Dio. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966.
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  71. A subtle study of Cassius Dio as a historian that is also an important analysis of the period from Marcus Aurelius through the end of the Severan dynasty.
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  73. Pagán, V. A Companion to Tacitus. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012.
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  75. A collection of lucid essays on all aspects of Tacitean scholarship. An important guide to the various approaches to this author.
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  77. Rajak, T. Josephus: The Historian and His Society. 2d ed. London: Duckworth, 2002.
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  79. In this basic introduction to the life and work of Josephus, Rajak provides an excellent analysis of Josephus’s account of the Jewish Revolt of 65–72 CE, which resulted in the destruction of the temple at Jerusalem and of Masada.
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  81. Syme, R. Tacitus. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958.
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  83. One of the most influential books ever written about a Roman historian. Syme places Tacitus firmly in his political and artistic milieu and offers a careful rebuttal of much earlier scholarship on the subject. The discussion of the Histories offers a basic introduction to the work.
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  85. Epigraphy
  86.  
  87. Most of the epigraphy relevant to the study of the military in the imperial period is Latin. Thanks in large part to its empire-wide sweep, epigraphy adds more, on an annual basis, to our knowledge of antiquity than any other area of study. L’Année épigraphique (AE), now fills the need for an annual review of new publications in Latin (albeit in a less than systematic way at first) and of Greek inscriptions that are directly connected with Roman history. Each issue of AE provides a detailed index, which is invaluable for those seeking to stay up to date with new epigraphic evidence for the Roman army. Although AE is the primary epigraphic resource for the Roman military, those working with Greek text will also need access to the two publications that offer annual reviews of newly discovered or reedited Greek inscriptions: the Bulletin épigraphique (BE), which appears as a regular section in the Revue des études grecques (REG), and the Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum (SEG), which began publication in 1923. The publication of SEG was interrupted in 1971 and resumed, with a new editorial team, in 1979 (beginning with the 1976–1977 publications). The very high current standard for all three reviews was established by BE, which was edited by Jean and Louis Robert from 1938 to 1984. The major collection for Latin inscriptions is the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL) set in motion by Theodor Mommsen in 1843. The situation for Greek epigraphy is more complex, given the need to work with regional collections of documents. Those looking for details of collections other than the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum should consult the resources available with details through the Center for the Study of Ancient Documents or discussions in standard handbooks. For the study of the Roman army, Dessau 1892–1916 is an important starting point as the author extracted a large number of significant inscriptions from the corpora that existed by the end of the 19th century. Since Dessau, the most significant development in military epigraphy has been the discovery of a large number of diplomata, the documents handed to auxiliaries on retirement; for details of their publication, see Military Diplomas. McLean 2002 is an invaluable English-language guide to Greek epigraphy as a whole. Gordon 1983 is still extremely useful on the Latin side because it illustrates all the texts that it analyzes with excellent photographs. The standard handbook for Latin epigraphy is now Lassère 2007, although Cooley 2012 is unique among handouts in concentrating on subelite epigraphy, especially that from the area of the Bay of Naples, and for offering additional material on the way in which collections of inscriptions came together. Another particular issue, attested primarily through inscriptions, is that of Roman military decorations. Maxfield 1981 shows how these were graded according to the status of the person receiving the award. Hauken 1998 offers a collection of inscriptions relating to the interaction (often brutal) between soldiers and the empire’s civilian population.
  88.  
  89. L’Année épigraphique.
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  91. Annual survey of Greek epigraphic publications published in Revue des Études Grecques since 1889. The Bulletin does not typically reproduce the complete texts, but offers excellent commentary. The issues from 1938/9–2001 have been published in fourteen volumes by Les Belles Lettres (Paris).
  92. Find this resource:
  93. Cooley, A. E. The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  94. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139020442Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  95. A first-rate introduction to the wealth of material available to historians of all areas of the Roman world, with some excellent sections on the Roman military (especially a case study of the epigraphy of the site of Bu Njem).
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  97. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum.
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  99. Provides useful, ongoing information about the history of the project as well as recent developments in the project.
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  101. Dessau, H. Inscriptiones latinae selectae. 3 vols. in 5 parts. Berlin: Weidemann, 1892–1916.
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  103. Selection of Latin inscriptions derived from CIL with some Greek inscriptions at the end of Volume 3 (pp. 1003–1040). The selection is intended to illustrate the range of subjects for which Latin inscriptions provide important evidence. Dessau’s notes offer excellent guidance to issues connected with the texts he has selected.
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  105. Epigraphic Database Heidelberg.
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  107. The Epigraphic Database Heidelberg contains the texts of Latin and bilingual (i.e., Latin-Greek) inscriptions of the Roman Empire. Texts of inscriptions are collected and kept up to date on the basis of modern research. Specific queries are available through the search function, and search results are often displayed together with photos and drawings.
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  109. Gordon, A. E. Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1983.
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  111. A very helpful introduction to all periods of Latin epigraphy. Although the number of texts is limited, they are discussed well with excellent photographs.
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  113. Hauken, T. Petition and Response: An Epigraphic Study of Petitions to Roman Emperors, 181–249. Bergen: Norwegian Institute at Athens, 1998.
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  115. A critical collection of documents consisting of appeals by provincials against mistreatment by the agents of the imperial government—soldiers are routinely the oppressors but are also, at times, intercessors for communities.
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  117. Lassère, J.-M. Manuel d’épigraphie romaine. 2d ed. 2 vols. Paris: Picard, DL, 2007.
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  119. Excellent introduction to Latin epigraphy, giving numerous examples of texts. Includes a good section on the epigraphy of the Roman military.
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  121. Maxfield, V. The Military Decorations of the Roman Army. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1981.
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  123. Extremely important and wide-ranging study of the military honors awarded by the Roman army looking at how the specific honors awarded came into being and then discussing awards by rank from senators to centurions to the lower ranks.
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  125. McLean, B. H. An Introduction to Greek Epigraphy of the Hellenistic and Roman Periods from Alexander the Great down to the Reign of Constantine (323 B.C.–A.D. 337). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002.
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  127. An extremely handy introduction to the world of Greek epigraphy, giving up-to-date information about corpora as of the time of publication and sound guidance to the use of inscriptions in many areas.
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  129. Roxan, M., and J. J. Wilkes, ed. Documenting the Roman Army: Essays in Honour of Margaret Roxan. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Supplement 81. London: Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London, 2003.
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  131. Very useful collection of essays discussing the documentary sources for the Roman army.
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  133. Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum.
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  135. Founded in 1923, twenty-five volumes were published between 1923 and 1950, and 1971. After a hiatus lasting until 1978 when the publication was revived. In its present form it provides complete texts of new publications with excellent commentary and commentary on revisions of earlier publications.
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  137. Military Diplomas
  138.  
  139. A Roman soldier who was honorably discharged from an auxiliary unit received Roman citizenship from the emperor as a reward for his service and was also given a diploma. A diploma has four surfaces, and it is traditional to refer to the external faces of each tabula (conventionally referred to as tabula 1 and tabula 2) as side A and the internal faces as side B. Tabula 1 side A was inscribed with the complete decree granting release, and tabula 2 side A was inscribed with the signatures of seven witnesses. The complete text of the decree is recopied on sides B of the internal faces of the tabula. The rights granted veterans included immunity from the head tax (tributum capitis) and citizenship for his children (but not his partner, to whom he could be legally wed). After 140 CE, the citizenship was granted only to children born after the veteran had left the service. Despite the grammatical lapse in its title, Roman Military Diploma On-Line is a useful website offering transcriptions with excellent photographs of many diplomata. The key work in bringing diplomata together in readily accessible form has been done, for many years, by Margaret Roxan (Roxan 1978, Roxan 1985, Roxan 1994); this work has now been taken up by Paul Holder, first in conjunction with Roxan (Roxan and Holder 2003) and now individually by Holder (Holder 2006).
  140.  
  141. Holder, P. Roman Military Diplomas. Vol. 5. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Supplement 88. London: Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London, 2006.
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  143. Contains copies of 124 diplomata or fragments of diplomata.
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  145. Roman Military Diploma On-Line.
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  147. This website publishes excellent photographs of military diplomas. It does not include editions of the texts. It is a subsection of a website devoted to publishing images of material connected to the Roman army (including equipment, brick stamps, and coins as well as diplomas).
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  149. Roxan, M. Roman Military Diplomas 1954–1977. London: Institute of Archaeology, 1978–.
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  151. Contains copies of eighty-two diplomata or fragments of diplomata.
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  153. Roxan, M. Roman Military Diplomas, 1978–1984. London: Institute of Archaeology, 1985.
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  155. Contains copies of fifty-seven new diplomata or fragments of diplomata.
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  157. Roxan, M. Roman Military Diplomas, 1985–1993. London: University College London Institute of Archaeology, 1994.
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  159. Contains copies of sixty-six diplomata or fragments of diplomata.
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  161. Roxan, M., and P. Holder. Roman Military Diplomas. Vol. 6. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies, Supplement 82. London: Institute of Classical Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London, 2003.
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  163. Contains copies of 121 diplomata or fragments of diplomata.
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  165. Papyrology
  166.  
  167. The basic review of papyrological publications is the Bibliographie Papyrologique (BP), prepared under the auspices of the Centre de Papyrologie et d’Épigraphie grecque de l’Université Libre de Bruxelles, which covers publications since 1930. In 2008 BP issued a CD-ROM covering the first seventy-five years, and electronic updates are issued on a quarterly basis to subscribing institutions (or individuals). The Berichtigungsliste der griechischen Papyrusurkunden aus Ägypten, which began publication in 1922, tracks corrections made to papyri that have already been published. The Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Ägypten reprints official documents first published in journals rather than in standard papyrological series that are known either for the place of origin for the papyri (e.g., the P.Oxy for papyri discovered at Oxyrhynchus) or the collection that houses them (i.e., P.Mich. for papyri that reside in the collection at the University of Michigan). Turner 1980 is a superb introduction to papyri in a brief compass. Youtie 1963 likewise offers the methodological reflection of one of the great masters of the craft. Bagnall 2009 is now a basic introduction to the work of papyrology. The website Papyri.info (see Marichal 1992) offers important access to many projects, whereas the Advanced Papyrological Information System (APIS) offers immediate access to the Greek texts of a vast number of papyri. Fink 1971 is an invaluable collection of papyri connected with the Roman military known at the time of publication. Since that time, the most significant development has come through the publications of ostraca (documents written on potsherds) or the documents (written on bark) that were preserved in a bog at the site of Vindolanda in the United Kingdom, which reveal a great deal about the daily working of the army and its interaction with the civilian population. Marichal 1992 publishes the ostraca from the site of Bu Njem in Libya (the Roman fort of Gholaia). Cuvigny 2005 and Cuvigny 2012 are especially important for their analysis of the way in which the garrisons functioned, whereas Bagnall 1976 publishes texts documenting a cohort stationed at Edfu in Egypt.
  168.  
  169. Advanced Papyrological Information System (APIS).
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  171. APIS is a “virtual library,” a University of Michigan website offering online access to papyrological collections, including more than 17,000 records and 13,000 images. Users are able to view digital images and catalog records containing information on papyrus characteristics, corrections to published papyri, and republications. (See also the basic Select Bibliography of Papyrology available through the University of Michigan Papyrus Collection.)
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  173. Bagnall, R. The Florida Ostraca: Documents from the Roman Army in Upper Egypt. Greek, Roman and Byzantine Monographs 7. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1976.
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  175. Publication of thirty-one ostraca from Edfu relating to the activities of the Cohors I Augusta Praetoria Lusitanorum Equitata in the middle of the 2nd century CE.
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  177. Bagnall, R. The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
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  179. A wide-ranging account of the discipline including chapters on the history of the discipline, the proper handling of papyri, the language of papyri, proper editorial techniques, using papyri for historical purposes, and important issues such as the evidence that papyri offer for the nature of ancient education, the cultural history of ancient Egypt, and the contribution of papyrological evidence to the history of religion.
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  181. Bibliographie Papyrologique.
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  183. Founded in 1932 the purpose of Bibliographie Papyrologique complete, correct and speedy information about papyrological publications.
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  185. Berichtigungsliste der griechischen Papyrusurkunden aus Ägypten.
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  187. Founded in 1911, volumes list, in alphabetical order of papyri, the new corrections of readings and dates for published documents, as well as supplementary information in recent literature.
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  189. Bowman, A., and J. D. Thomas. Vindolanda: The Latin Writing Tablets. Britannia Monograph 4. London: Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, 1983.
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  191. First of three volumes publishing the extensive collection of writing tablets preserved in a bog at the site of the Roman fort of Vindolanda. The documents are crucial evidence for the operations and social relations of the 9th Batavian cohort (in particular) in the later 1st century CE. Other units represented are the 3rd Batavian cohort and (in one document) the 3rd Tungrian cohort. The documents are easily accessed through the website Vindolanda Tablets Online. The Vindolanda Writing Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandenses) (London: British Museum, Vol. 2, 1994 and Vol. 3, 2003). The Vindolanda Writing-Tablets (Tabulae Vindolandenses IV, Part 1 and 2), Britannia 41–42 (2010, 2011), pp. 187–224; 113–144.
  192. Find this resource:
  193. Cuvigny, H. Ostraca de Krokodilô: La correspondence militaire et sa circulation, O. Krok. 1–151); Praesidia du désert de Bérénice 2. Fouilles de l’IFAO 51. Le Caire, France: Institute Français d’Archéologie Orientale, 2005.
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  195. Publication of 151 ostraca from a small fort sixty-three kilometers east of Coptos on the road to Myos Hormos with a garrison of three to five cavalrymen and eight to ten infantry. The texts provide important information about how information was transmitted throughout the frontier zone.
  196. Find this resource:
  197. Cuvigny, H., ed. Didymoi: Une garnison romaine dans le désert oriental d’Égypte. Vol. 2, Les textes. 2012.
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  199. Publication of 400 new texts—mostly in Greek (the majority), Latin, and Palmyrene—from the Roman army base at Didymoi in Egypt (1st–3rd centuries CE). Texts provide important information both about the activities of the garrison in the desert zone and about conditions on the base. Photographs of the text (without transcription or translation) are available online.
  200. Find this resource:
  201. Fink, Robert O. Roman Military Records on Papyrus. Philological Monographs 26. Cleveland, OH: Case Western Reserve University Press, 1971.
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  203. Collection of 134 texts in Greek and Latin with English translation and commentary. Important both as a guide to the day-to-day workings of the Roman army and as a survey of the forms of documentation connected with the military.
  204. Find this resource:
  205. Marichal, R. Les ostraca de Bu Njem. Libya Antiqua, Supplement 7. Tripoli, Libya: Département des antiquités, Assraya al Hamra, 1992.
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  207. Publication of the ostraca from the auxiliary fort at Bu Njem in Libya. The ostraca provide important evidence for the workings of a Roman auxiliary cohort and for the nature of the Latin spoken by the common soldiers in the unit. The texts may be accessed on the website Papyri.info.
  208. Find this resource:
  209. Sammelbuch griechischer Urkunden aus Ägypten.
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  211. First published in 1913–1915 the series presents documentary papyri, ostraca, inscriptions, mummy tablets and related texts published in journals or unindexed catalogues.
  212. Find this resource:
  213. Turner, E. G. Greek Papyri: An Introduction. 2d ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980.
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  215. Discusses the history of papyrology, the nature of papyrus as a writing material, the way in which texts should be edited, the owners of papyri, the principal types of documents, and the contribution of papyrology to our knowledge of Greek literature with an additional chapter on the principal editions of papyri. Also available as an ACLS Humanities E-Book.
  216. Find this resource:
  217. Youtie, H. C. “The Papyrologist: Artificer of Fact.” Greek Roman and Byzantine Studies 4.1 (1963): 19–32.
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  219. Fundamental discussion of the editing of documentary papyri.
  220. Find this resource:
  221. Archaeology
  222.  
  223. The archaeology of the Roman army is an immensely complicated subject ranging from the study of individual sites to studies of weaponry and equipment. The issue is further complicated by different national traditions and the fact that the army’s footprint differed from province to province. Some of the volumes listed under General Overviews can offer useful introductions across provinces, especially Pollard and Berry 2012. From 1990 to 2002, the Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies published, as its title suggests, articles on Roman military equipment. Bishop and Coulston 2006 offers an excellent overview of the subject, whereas James 2010 is an extremely important publication of weaponry from Dura Europos, made especially significant both because of the evidence for long-term Roman occupation and for the extensive surviving evidence from the final siege and capture of the city in 256 CE. The state of archaeological research of the Roman frontiers, or limes, is updated in a series of biennial conferences which are published through the regular conferences on frontier studies (Limes-studien) of which twenty-two have been held on a regular basis since the late 1950s. Some of these volumes are very difficult to access; Bennett, et al. 2002 and Visy 2005 are among the more accessible and are typical of the enormous range of these volumes. Kennedy and Riley 1990 is a very important work on the eastern frontiers as a whole, using aerial photography to track Roman presence in the landscape. Allison 2013 collects and analyzes the evidence for Roman bases, using the physical evidence to offer a rich reconstruction of soldiers’ lives. In addition, a number of specific sites have become baseline sites for the study of specific sorts of Roman military establishments, a number of these have active websites which are the best way of accessing current information (see Digital Introductions to Major Sites in this section). Two crucial monuments in Rome depicting the Roman army at war are Trajan’s Column in the heart of Trajan’s Forum and the column of Marcus Aurelius in the Piazza Colonna. The best introduction to Trajan’s Column, with excellent reproduction of images, can be found online. For information on the Column of Marcus Aurelius, see Beckmann 2011; for the Column of Trajan, see Settis, et al. 1988. Dillon and Welch 2006 collects a number of papers that offer important guidance for the interpretation of art representing warfare.
  224.  
  225. Allison, P. People and Spaces in Roman Military Bases. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  226. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139600248Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  227. A thorough study of sites along the German frontier, both legionary and auxiliary. Allison seeks to recreate the living experience in these sites, which include Vetera (a major legionary base); Rottweil (a legionary fort); Oberstimm (possibly a supply station); Ellingen (an auxiliary fortress), and Hesselbach (an auxiliary base). Allison shows that there is strong evidence for the presence of women on Roman bases and for family formation, despite the formal ban on soldiers’ marrying.
  228. Find this resource:
  229. Beckmann, M. The Column of Marcus Aurelius: The Genesis and Meaning of a Roman Imperial Monument. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011.
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  231. Detailed study of the Column of Marcus Aurelius, discussing the form and function of the monument with a detailed analysis of the frieze. His discussion of whether the frieze can be read as a “narrative” of Marcus’s wars is especially valuable (as he points out, the frieze cannot be used in this way).
  232. Find this resource:
  233. Bennett, J., P. Freeman, Z. T. Fiema, and B. Hoffmann, eds. Limes XVIII: Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies held in Amman, Jordan (September 2000). BAR International Series 1084. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2002.
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  235. The volume reflects on archaeological and historical developments in Roman frontier studies. Contains fifteen sections, including papers on general themes, the eastern frontier, Rome and Parthia, the Anatolian provinces and the Black Sea region, the Germanys, early Roman Germany, the Danubian and Balkan provinces, Dacia, the Spains, Britain, the Roman army, Roman fortifications, fleets and frontiers, and documents and archives.
  236. Find this resource:
  237. Bishop, M. C., and J. C. Coulston. Roman Military Equipment from the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome. Oxford: Oxbow, 2006.
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  239. Opening with three chapters on sources (pp. 1–48), the book offers a rapid and efficient survey of the development of Roman military equipment across a span of 600 years in five chapters (pp. 50–232). An important concluding section on the production of military equipment shows that, in the imperial period, it was produced in local workshops and stresses the difference between the equipment of legionaries and auxiliaries.
  240. Find this resource:
  241. Dillon, S., and K. Welch. Representations of War in Ancient Rome. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  243. An important collection of essays on the representation of warfare in the Roman world, both in the Republic and the empire. Articles discuss the ideological implications of monuments, audience reception, the reconstruction of display contexts, as well as the language of images and the ideological implication of monuments.
  244. Find this resource:
  245. James, S. Excavations at Dura-Europos, 1928–1937: Final Report 7, The Arms and Armour and Other Military Equipment. Oxford: Oxbow, 2010.
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  247. Publication of arms and armor found at Dura Europos, including horse armor and a wide variety of weapons, and excellent modern illustrations reconstructing the appearance of those who once used them. James also discusses the evidence on the site for the final siege, arguing for Persian use of chemical weapons in mining operations.
  248. Find this resource:
  249. Kennedy, D., and D. N. Riley. Rome’s Desert Frontier: From the Air. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1990.
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  251. Extensive publication of aerial photographs from the 1930s showing the Roman frontier lines in Syria and Jordan. The book discusses the proper use of survey information (without excavation the sites cannot be dated closely). Kennedy reveals the complexity of these issues and has explored a number of sites on the ground. One of the values of aerial photographs is that they establish relationships between sites enabling the recognition, for instance, of forts constructed as part of siege operations in the Bar Kokhba revolt of the 130s CE.
  252. Find this resource:
  253. Settis, S., A. La Regina, and G. Agosti. La Colonna traiana. Turin, Italy: Einaudi, 1988.
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  255. Fundamental print publication of Trajan’s Column with excellent photographs. The surrounding text is somewhat idiosyncratic.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Visy, Z. Limes XIX: Proceedings of the Nineteenth International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies Held in Pécs, Hungary, September 2003. Pécs, Hungary: University of Pécs, 2005.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. A collection of ninety-nine papers arranged in nine sessions treating epigraphy, the way in which frontiers worked, civilian life throughout the frontier zone, barbarians and Romans, military diet, soldiers and religion, material culture, and directions in archaeological research.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Digital Introductions to Major Sites
  262.  
  263. As in all areas of Classical Studies, there are significant web resources to help one to become oriented in the subject. Given that there is often a serious time lag between initial excavation and the publication of archaeological materials, digital resources have an especially important role to play in making necessary information available. Listed here are a few of the most significant. There are, for instance, significant web resources for the northern limes, the frontier line along the Rhine and Danube that has been designated a world heritage site (see European Roman Limes). In the United Kingdom, Vindolanda (an auxiliary fort) and Housesteads (a mile castle on Hadrian’s Wall) are well-known and important sites with excellent websites (see Vindolanda Charitable Trust and Housesteads Roman Fort—Hadrian’s Wall, respectively). Teutoburger Wald, the site of the Roman defeat in 9 CE where work is ongoing, likewise has an excellent website (see Arminius: Varus). In the case of a major journal, now defunct, for the study of Roman military equipment (Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies) makes back issues readily available.
  264.  
  265. Arminius: Varus.
  266. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. The destruction of three Roman legions at the battle of Teutoburger Wald changed Roman ambitions in Germany. The rediscovery of the site in 1987 sparked important excavations and work on the later traditions concerning the battle. The website listed above enables visitors to gain an overview of all projects connected with the Kalkreise site; for work on the site itself, see the website Varusforschung.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. European Roman Limes.
  270. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  271. The website for the northern limes, the frontier line along the Rhine and Danube that has been designated a world heritage site. This site offers invaluable information to those who wish to trace the lines of the Roman frontier.
  272. Find this resource:
  273. Housesteads Roman Fort—Hadrian’s Wall.
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  275. Housesteads is the best preserved of mile castles on Hadrian’s Wall, and this English Heritage website offers important information about visiting the site as well as an important introduction to the excavation.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies.
  278. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. The best source for this publication.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Trajan’s Column. The McMaster Trajan Project, 1999.
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  283. Trajan’s Column remains one of the most important monuments reflecting the imperial ideology of the 2nd century CE as well as details of what the Roman army looked like on campaign. This site is the best introduction to Trajan’s Column, with excellent reproduction of images.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Vindolanda Charitable Trust.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. The website for the Roman auxiliary fort at Vindolanda; a very important resource for the site. For information about the texts of the writing materials found there, see the entries cited under Papyrology.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Grand Strategy and Frontiers
  290.  
  291. The question of whether there was a coherent grand strategy of the Roman Empire was raised by Luttwak 1976, which remains a critically important theoretical study by a non-Classicist despite the extended critiques it has provoked from professional ancient historians. Luttwak 2009, despite treating a later period, is also important as a restatement and refinement of his earlier views. The most significant criticism of Luttwak is that the Roman Empire had no visible general staff that could create a strategy of the sort he suggests and evidence from the provinces suggests a great deal of local autonomy in the execution of policy. Of course, a great deal of evidence is available for centrally directed frontier policy in structures such as Hadrian’s Wall, the African fossatum, and the wooden limes along the Rhine and Danube. For a readily accessible survey, see Wilkes 2005 and Elton 1996. The most significant critiques of Luttwak are Millar 1982, building on his fundamental study of Roman government; Millar 1992 (originally published in 1977); and Isaac 1990, who uses evidence from Israel to argue against coherent placement of frontier posts. Brunt 1978 remains a critical analysis of the ideology informing Roman expansion. Potter 1996 argues that the mechanisms for making policy are better documented than Millar and Isaac had allowed, whereas Mattern 1999, with an emphasis on the mentalité of Roman imperial control, adds a thoroughly original element to the discussion.
  292.  
  293. Brunt, P. “Laus Imperii.” In Imperialism in the Ancient World. Edited by P. Garnsey and C. R. Whittaker, 159–191. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. Exploration of the Roman theory of Empire in the last generation of the Republic with direct application to later generations. Discusses the Roman view of their empire, the ideology of expansion, conception of world empire connected with the Roman view that they controlled territories that they did not formally annex. Also important is the Roman view that Romans should profit from the empire.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Elton, H. Frontiers of the Roman Empire. London: Batsford, 1996.
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  299. Clear and sophisticated examination of the Roman conception of frontiers from the establishment of the frontier zones onward, treating relations between Rome and client kings, the role of the army on the frontier, commercial activity, and frontier society.
  300. Find this resource:
  301. Isaac, B. The Limits of Empire: The Roman Army in the East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.
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  303. A powerfully argued alternative to Luttwak 1976, asserting that no Roman source formulates clear-cut aims that this strategy was intended to achieve. The primary driver of policymaking was the emperor’s desire to protect his position and gain glory. Evidence on the ground suggests that Roman planners did not have access to good maps when organizing their frontier, and physical structures do not seem to have played a significant role when frontiers were threatened.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Luttwak, E. The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire from the First Century A.D. to the Third. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
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  307. Luttwak sees three phases in the development of imperial policy. The first phase, essentially Julio-Claudian, depended on mobile armies and client states to protect key areas. The second period (2nd–3rd centuries CE) involved “scientific defense,” with less dependence on client states and greater reliance on set defensive lines. A new strategy, “defense in depth,” was adopted as a result of the breakdowns in the 3rd century involving multiple defensive points and border forces intended to hold off an enemy until central reserves could arrive.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Luttwak, E. The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 2009.
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  311. The book opens with a useful review of the issue of grand strategy and then surveys the way in which the Byzantine state, often weaker than its rivals (or the aggregate power of its rivals), managed to maintain its standing as a great power through an adroit mixture of diplomacy, technology, and battlefield sophistication. Important supplement to Luttwak 1976 as it addresses how a state without a general staff can still generate strategic thinking in response to external pressure.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Mattern, S. Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1999.
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  315. The theme of Mattern’s book is the way in which the emperors negotiated the dichotomy between the ideology of conquest and the constraints placed on it by its economic limitations and the Roman system of decision making and its military establishment. Mattern suggests that the coherence in Roman responses and a significant degree of central control over the actions of governors do not necessarily add up to something that we would recognize as a “grand strategy.” Mattern argues instead for a coherent system of values dictating tendencies in response to an external threat.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Millar, F. “Emperors, Frontiers and Foreign Relations, 31 B.C. to A.D. 378.” Britannia 13 (1982): 1–23.
  318. DOI: 10.2307/526487Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. This paper fleshes out the picture of the emperor’s activities with respect to foreign affairs, showing that the parameters of imperial decision making were set by the quality (poor) of the available information, difficulties in communication, and the cultural presuppositions of imperial culture.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Millar, F. The Emperor in the Roman World. 2d ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
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  323. Monumental and monumentally important examination of the government of the Roman Empire with implications for the study of imperial government in all areas of premodern history. Based on vast quantities of evidence for the emperor’s dealings with subjects of all sorts, the author analyzes the way in which emperors communicated with their subjects and the nature of the imperial presence in the empire—illustrating Millar’s dictum that “the emperor was what the emperor did” (p. 6).
  324. Find this resource:
  325. Potter, D. S. “Emperors, Their Borders, and Their Neighbours: The Scope of Imperial Mandata.” In The Roman Army in the East. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 18. Edited by D. L. Kennedy, 49–66. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1996.
  326. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  327. Discusses the mechanisms through which the imperial government provided direction to imperial governors—and hence could evolve specific strategies over time.
  328. Find this resource:
  329. Wilkes, J. “Provinces and Frontiers.” In The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 12. 2d ed. Edited by A. K. Bowman, P. Garnsey, and A. Cameron, 212–268. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  330. DOI: 10.1017/CHOL9780521301992Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Although essentially concerned with the 3rd and early 4th centuries, the chapter offers a concise and important discussion of the different sorts of defensive works constructed on the frontiers.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. The Impact of Rome on Its Neighbors
  334.  
  335. Connected with the question of grand strategy is the question of what impact Rome had on neighboring people. Whittaker 1994 is the most influential study in this area, arguing that the establishment of frontier zones sparked specific developments beyond the immediate reach of Roman power. The ultimate sociological impact of frontier zones was the creation of entities capable of overthrowing the empire. Drinkwater 2007 is an admirable study of one of those entities. Dignas and Winter 2007 is a valuable source for the study of relations between Rome and its most dangerous neighbor from the 3rd century onward. Potter 2012 is specifically concerned with internal constraints on Roman imperial expansion.
  336.  
  337. Dignas, B., and E. Winter. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  338. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511619182Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Accessible study of the relationship between Rome and the Sassanid Persians. Although most of the book treats matters that fall outside the scope of this article, the early sections (pp. 18–32; 71–88; 119–130) are very useful for those looking for information on the creation of the Sassanian state, which might arguably be seen not only as a product of the dynamic situation on the Iranian plateau, but also as an institution brought into being by Rome’s weakening of the previous Arsacid regime.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Drinkwater, J. F. The Alamanni and Rome 213–496: Caracalla to Clovis. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007.
  342. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295685.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. Excellent study of the relations between Rome and Germanic tribes in southern Germany, arguing that the Alamanni were largely a Roman construct. This is an important application of theories of the dynamic nature of frontier societies, which lies behind the development of Alamannic consciousness. His argument that the Alamannic threat was to some degree a Roman construct will remain usefully controversial.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Potter, D. S. “The Limits of Power.” In A Companion to Roman Imperialism. Edited by D. Hoyos, 319–332. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2012.
  346. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Discussion of the political and economic constraints on the expansion of the Roman Empire after Augustus. Stress is placed on the nature of debates about expansion within the Roman elite.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Whittaker, C. R. Frontiers of the Roman Empire: A Social and Economic Study. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994.
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  351. An eloquent book that examines the frontier zones of the empire, noting the difference between a frontier line that separates and differentiates and a zone that unites and integrates. In his view, the very success of the Romans in establishing frontier zones at the limit of areas where their 1st-century armies could operate in Western Europe undermined the empire by bringing prosperity to previously underdeveloped lands whose people could not have been a threat to Rome.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. The Experience of Battle
  354.  
  355. The influence of John Keegan’s style of military history, concentrating on the experience of battle as exemplified in Keegan 1976, began to be felt in Classical studies through work on Greek hoplite warfare almost in the 1980s, it is a later arrival in writing about Roman military history. Goldsworthy 1996, Lendon 2006, and Sabin 2000 offer sophisticated takes on Keegan’s methods to illuminate the Roman practice of war.
  356.  
  357. Goldsworthy, A. The Roman Army at War: 100 BC—AD 200. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. Path-breaking study of the Roman army in battle, which introduced the study of ancient warfare to the sort of analysis that John Keegan had popularized for other periods. Additionally, there are important observations about Roman strategic and operational thinking, especially for the imperial period.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. Keegan, J. The Face of Battle: A Study of Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme. London: John Cape, 1976.
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  363. Important examination of the way that battle narratives are composed, concentrating on the experience of the soldier rather than that of the general. The account of Agincourt is especially relevant to students of the ancient world.
  364. Find this resource:
  365. Lendon, J. E. Soldiers and Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2006.
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  367. A vigorously argued and important study of warfare in the Greek and Roman worlds, stressing the importance of cultural values in determining battlefield behavior, with a special stress on competition. The author advances the view of Roman military practice that stresses the conflict between virtus and disciplina, suggesting that soldiers looked for opportunities to display individual courage, whereas generals stressed the importance of discipline and their roles as planners, the result being a creative tension that helps to explain Roman success on the battlefield.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Sabin, P. “The Face of Roman Battle.” Journal of Roman Studies 90 (2000): 1–17.
  370. DOI: 10.1017/S0075435800031300Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. Sabin explores various models for understanding Roman infantry battles, concluding that the most likely model that battles were natural standoffs between the two sides, punctuated by periodic and localized charges into contact.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. The Roman Army: Organization, Recruitment, and Tactics
  374.  
  375. How did the Roman army work? Systematic study of the internal structures of the Roman army was well underway by the beginning of the 20th century. Major areas of concern and debate remain. One of the major questions concerns the training of senior officers is, how professional were these officers and what level of practical experience was required? Another question is, what was the social status of centurions and their relationship to the men they commanded? Connected with this is the question, how did the Roman army fit with provincial society—was it a privileged army of occupation whose activities were largely separate from those of the civilians whose experiences with members of the military were often difficult, or was it gradually integrated into provincial society as more and more soldiers were taken into the legion from provincial sources and retired in the areas where they served? Can any one model work to describe the varieties of interaction over time? Finally to what extent were units in the army raised in accordance with Roman beliefs about the military capacities of different groups—and to what extent did those beliefs structure provincial communities?
  376.  
  377. The Officers
  378.  
  379. One of the most important questions in the study of the Roman imperial army is that of the professionalism of its officers. General officers were not trained in military academies but rose through the ranks of the senate and equestrian orders, often with a good deal more experience in civilian administration than in military operations. How much difference did this make in an army that was usually not engaged in active campaigning? For active campaigns, it does appear that men with considerable hands-on experience were preferred, the most obvious example of the multiple factors behind the selection of a commander in a war zone was the future emperor Vespasian, whose appointment to command in Judaea was linked both to his partnership with a powerful imperial freedman and his significant command experience in Britain. Lower down the ladder was the question of individual unit command. Most unit commanders did not stay with their units for long periods of time, and they were often drawn from the empire’s elite classes—some men were promoted from the ranks, but they were certainly not a majority. Once promoted, these unit commanders would be unlikely to stay with their original units. It is likely that the day-to-day management of Roman troops was left to officers below the level of centurion who would serve for long periods of time with their units and develop a great deal of local familiarity. They would also have had a great deal more in common with the men under their commands than with their more senior officers.
  380.  
  381. Generals
  382.  
  383. Our knowledge of all these aspects of the Roman military is heavily based on documentary sources, largely the study of inscriptions. The question of the competency of senior officers has aroused the most controversy in reaction to the work of Birley 1954, Syme 1953, and Syme 1965, which sought to isolate a cadre of especially competent commanders. Reactions against this view, of which the most significant is Campbell 1975, might be taken as showing that, although special military competence or training was not necessary under usual situations, emergencies did require men of genuine ability. Campbell 1987 provides useful insight, based on military manuals, for the way in which prospective Roman generals might have thought about acquiring necessary knowledge.
  384.  
  385. Birley, E. “Senators in the Emperors’ Service.” Proceedings of the British Academy 39 (1954): 197–214.
  386. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  387. Important discussion of senatorial careers based on methods the author used in British intelligence for the study of the German officer corps. Argues that certain select individuals pursued careers that ensured rapid promotion to important provinces, noting early career appointments that place a man on the “fast track” to success. Reprinted in E. Birley, The Roman Army: Papers, 1929–1986 (Amsterdam: Gieben, 1988), pp. 75–114.
  388. Find this resource:
  389. Campbell, Brian. “Who Were the ‘Viri Militares’?” Journal of Roman Studies 65 (1975): 11–31.
  390. DOI: 10.2307/370060Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Important challenge to the views of Birley and Syme, questioning the existence or relevance of the concept of vir militaris. Campbell is correct in that there were, at best, few such people, but that would not necessarily invalidate the view he attacks.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Campbell, Brian. “Teach Yourself How to Be a General.” Journal of Roman Studies 77 (1987): 13–29.
  394. DOI: 10.2307/300572Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. Important exploration of Roman military handbooks, showing the connection between military handbooks and the reality of military command and also showing why collections of stratagems were particularly relevant in an era of slow military change.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Syme, R. “Review of A. Degrassi: I Fasti Consolari dell’ Impero Romano dal 30 Av anti Christo al 613 Dopo Christo.” Journal of Roman Studies 43 (1953): 148–161.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. Fundamental study of career patterns on people who held the consulate in the imperial period. Identifies a group of individuals whose demonstrated military competence (viri militares), Syme argues, assured swift promotion to significant military commands.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Syme, R. “Governors of Pannonia Inferior.” Historia 14 (1965): 342–361.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Further discussion of the concept of the vir militaris.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Centurions
  406.  
  407. Studies of the lower-order centurions must deal with the question of whether the centurionate was primarily a launching pad for aristocratic careers or a landing ground for exceptionally talented enlisted men. Domaszewski 1967 is an updated reprint of the foundational study of the command structure of the Roman legions. See Dobson 1979 for a discussion of the impact of this work despite its unpleasantly racist thesis—that the Roman army was ruined by the failure to maintain its essentially Italian character—since the original publication (in 1908). Birley 1953, again building on his wartime experience, called for attention to be paid, not so much to what the structure of ranks was (this was established by Domaszewski), but rather to how the structures actually worked, which he thought could be learned from study of the documentary record. In this regard, very important contributions have come from Dobson 1970, Dobson 1972, and Dobson 1974 showing that centurions were a definite class apart from others in the legions, mingling men who were starting their careers, usually after completing required municipal services as civilians around the age of 30, in the imperial administration with some men who were promoted from the ranks. Speidel 1992 shows how a man could be promoted into the centurionate of auxiliary units as a reward for merit on the enthusiastic recommendation of men serving under him. H. Devijer has done important work on the equestrian officers of the Roman army, though as is characteristic of scholarship in this area, the work is the result of a painstaking, case-by-case study. Devijer 1986 offers a synthetic study of equestrian officers from the eastern part of the empire based on a catalogue of more than 200 careers and a reminder that the “provincialization” of the army was not a sign of weakness, as Domaszewski and others of his generation believed, but rather of strength.
  408.  
  409. Birley, E. “The Origins of Legionary Centurions.” Laurae Aquincenses 2 (1941): 47–62.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. Candidates with sufficiently good qualifications were commissioned directly as centurions, men of good education who had enlisted the guard came next for promotion, then legionary soldiers. The increasing number of centurions of provincial origin reflects increased recruitment of provincials. Reprinted in E. Birley, The Roman Army: Papers, 1929–1986 (Amsterdam: Gieben, 1988), pp. 189–205.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Birley, E. “The Epigraphy of the Roman Army.” Actes du deuxième Congrès international d’épigraphie grecque et latine, Paris, 1952, 226–238. Paris: Libraire d’Amerique et d’Orient Adrien Maisonneuve, 1953.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. Discusses the need for a document-based research agenda to study the way in which the Roman army functioned based on the study of careers. Reprinted in E. Birley, The Roman Army: Papers, 1929–1986 (Amsterdam: Gieben, 1988), pp. 3–11.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. Devijer, H. “Equestrian Officers from the East.” In The Defence of the Roman and Byzantine East: Proceedings of a Colloquium Held at the University of Sheffield in April 1986. Edited by P. Freeman and D. L. Kennedy. BAR International Series 297. Oxford: BAR, 1986.
  418. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  419. Detailed examination of more than 300 careers of equestrian officers, showing that in the 1st century CE five provinces provided equestrian officers—Asia, Galatia, Lycia-Pamphylia, Bithynia-Pontus, and Syria—with the bulk of these officers coming from the first two provinces where there had been heavy Italian settlement and military colonization. In the 2nd century, Syria and Egypt join Asia and Galatia as significant points of origin. In the 3rd century, the significance of Galatia declines markedly, while that of Syria increases.
  420. Find this resource:
  421. Dobson, B. “The Centurionate and Social Mobility during the Principate.” In Recherches sur les structures sociales dans l’antiquité classique, Caen, 25–26 avril 1969. Edited by C. Nicolet, 99–115. Paris: CNRS, 1970.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Examines social status of centurions after retirement. Notes that the centurionate was not a homogenous social class, consisting of men promoted from the ranks and men of equestrian rank directly commissioned as centurions. Reprinted in D. Breeze and B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 201–219.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Dobson, B. “Legionary Centurion or Equestrian Officer?” Ancient Society 3 (1972): 193–207.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Discussion of the careers of men directly commissioned as centurions, noting that a centurion aimed to become a primipilaris, whereas equestrian officers aimed to hold higher equestrian offices. Useful summary of different pay grades within the centurionate. Reprinted in D. Breeze and B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 186–200.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Dobson, B. “The Significance of the Centurion and the ‘Primipilaris’ in the Roman Army and Administration.” In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römische Welt II. I. Edited by H. Tempori, 392–434. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. Late Republican senior centurions, primi ordines, were senior officers within a legion, and the primus pilus ranked first. The Augustan establishment of permanent legions changed the nature of the position so that the post was typically held for one year, making its holder become eligible for a generous retirement bonus and higher positions in municipal or imperial administration as a primipilaris. Typical appointments were as a praefectus castrorum, tribune of one of the praetorian or urban cohorts or equestrian procuratorships. Reprinted in D. Breeze and B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 143–185.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Dobson, B. “The Rangordnung of the Roman Army.” In Actes VII Congr. International d’ épigraphie. Edited by D. M. Pippidi, 191–204. Bucharest, Romania: Editura Academiei, 1979.
  434. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Clear discussion of the principles of von Domaszewski’s classic work on the hierarchical structure of the Roman officer corps. Reprinted in D. Breeze and B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 129–142.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Domaszewski, A. von. Die Rangordnung des römischen Heeres. Beihefte der Bonner Jahrbücher 14. Cologne: Graz, 1967.
  438. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Classic study of the rank structure of the Roman army with an introduction updating the contents by B. Dobson. The first edition of this book was published in 1908.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Speidel, M. “Becoming a Centurion in Africa: Brave Deeds and the Support of the Troops as Promotion Criteria.” In Roman Army Studies. Vol. 2. Edited by M. Speidel, 124–128. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1992.
  442. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  443. Surveys inscriptions recording the promotion of men from the ranks to the centurionate supported by the acclamation of fellow soldiers.
  444. Find this resource:
  445. Legionaries
  446.  
  447. MacMullen 1984 raised the important question of the sort of society that a Roman legion was, which has provoked further discussion of relationships within a legion. The internal structure of cohorts depends in the first instance on Domaszewski 1967 (cited under Centurions), but that has been refined in Breeze 1971 and Breeze 1974. Brunt 1950 remains a very important, critical analysis of Domaszewski’s conclusions, arguing that the terms of service for common soldiers were less good than is suggested in other work. Speidel 2001 shows that specialist skills in desired professions might have enhanced a person’s chances of being accepted into the army, but these skills were no help, and possibly a hindrance, for seeking promotion. Phang 2001 and Phang 2008 are extremely important studies of Roman policy toward soldiers’ marriage and Roman concepts of discipline. Mann 1983 collects the evidence for the recruitment of legions, stressing the move away from conscription to volunteers. Brunt 1974 agrees that this was a trend, but the author suggests that it was the result of enhanced pay and privileges and points out that the heavily volunteer force of the 3rd century CE was not especially loyal. Brunt suggests that the voluntary principle triumphed rather late in the day during the principate.
  448.  
  449. Breeze, D. “Pay Grades and Ranks below the Centurionate.” Journal of Roman Studies 61 (1971): 50–55.
  450. DOI: 10.2307/300012Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. Study of the internal structure of a legion based on the inscription honoring Tiberius Claudius Maximus, the soldier who captured the Dacian king Decebelus, showing three basic statuses—that of regular soldier and immunis, a soldier who was immune from some camp duties, paid at the basic rate; and the principals who received one-and-a-half times the salary, or double the salary of a regular legionary. Reprinted in D. Breeze and B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 59–64.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Breeze, D. “The Organisation and Career Structure of the Immunes and Principales of the Roman Army.” Bonner Jahrücher 174 (1974): 245–292.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. During the 2nd century CE, the career structure within the Roman army became more complex as changes in the praetorian guard spread to the legions. The praetorian guard offered two paths for promotion, one involving two or three positions within a century followed by at least one of the following positions: beneficarius praefecti praetorio, fisci curator, cornicularius tribuni, and cornicularius praefecti praetorio. In the legions, a path to promotion included the ranks of optio and signifer. A soldier might hold four or five posts in the course of his career. Reprinted in D. Breeze and B. Dobson, Roman Officers and Frontiers (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 11–58.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Brunt, P. A. “Pay and Superannuation in the Roman Army.” Papers of the British School at Rome 18 (1950): 50–71.
  458. DOI: 10.1017/S0068246200006152Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. Discussion of the development of Roman pay scales over time, more critical of Domaszewski’s approach than is the norm. Argues that significant improvements in the terms of service for soldiers did not take place until the 3rd century CE. Also argues that Augustan retirement benefits were not especially generous, yielding an income lower than a soldier’s annual salary.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Brunt, P. A. “Conscription and Volunteering in the Roman Imperial Army.” Scripta Classica Israelica 1 (1974): 90–115.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. Argues against the notion that the Roman army was largely a volunteer force for more than a short period of time, suggesting that the triumph of the voluntary principle was the result of local recruiting and a general improvement in the conditions of service. Reprinted in P. A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 188–214.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. MacMullen, R. “The Legion as Society.” Historia 33 (1984): 440–456.
  466. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  467. Thoughtful examination of the legion as the focus of a soldier’s life from the Republic to the empire. Reprinted in R. MacMullen, Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 225–235.
  468. Find this resource:
  469. Mann, J. C. Legionary Recruitment and Veteran Settlement during the Principate. Occasional Publication 7. London: Institute of Archaeology, 1983.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Detailed study of the recruitment of legionaries in the imperial period. Epigraphic evidence suggests that Italy decreased in importance as the point of origin for the approximately 8,000 recruits required annually for the legions. Over time, men tended to go from specific areas of the empire into service where others from their district had gone. The garrison of Britain was heavily recruited from Spain and southern France, whereas the North African Danubian legions were raised locally. The Eastern legions reveal very few men of Western extraction. Most men were also volunteers.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Phang, S. E. The Marriage of Roman Soldiers (13 B.C.–A.D. 235): Law and Family in the Imperial Army. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Detailed study of the restriction on soldiers’ marrying while on active service, showing that it was introduced by Augustus, probably in 13 BCE (it was lifted by Septimius Severus in 197 CE). The second section surveys soldiers’ sex lives, showing that they contracted a variety of relationships, often by the time of retirement with a woman who would be identified as a wife (though not legally); children could gain citizen status on their father’s retirement. The ban theoretically separated soldiers from civilians, eliminating “feminine” influence causing degeneration of soldiers’ martial qualities.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Phang, S. E. Roman Military Service: Ideologies of Discipline in the Late Republic and Early Principate. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  478. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511497872Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Phang’s definition of disciplina goes well beyond simple military discipline (a chapter is devoted to the army’s training in areas that include combat and unit solidarity either on campaign or in times of peace (pp. 37–72). The book includes an extensive discussion of the army as a labor force when not at war.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Speidel, M. A. “Specialization and Promotion in the Roman Imperial Army.” In Administration, Prosopography and Appointment Policies in the Roman Empire. Edited by L. de Blois, 50–61. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2001.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Did professional specialization increase the chances of promotion for the average soldier in the Roman army? Concentrating on men who had immunity from camp duties as specialists, Speidel shows that they did not have an enhanced chance for promotion. Chances for promotion to higher rank depended not as much on what skills a person had, as where the soldier displayed them. Those assigned to staff work had better chances than others. Reprinted in M. A. Speidel, Heer und Herrschaft im römischen Reich der hohen Kaiserzeit (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009), pp. 439–450.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. The Auxiliaries
  486.  
  487. Units of noncitizens recruited as independent infantry cohorts, cavalry alae, and mixed infantry/cavalry cohorts provided a vital supplement to the legionary forces, often being far more flexible than the larger legions. They were deployed for a wide range of missions throughout the empire. Cheesman 1914 is still a useful starting point for the history of auxiliary units, although it is plainly in need of updating. Some of this was accomplished by Saddington 1982; Devijver 1976–2001 is an even more recent update. Adams 1995 and Adams 1999 offer two important studies based on evidence from Vindolanda and Bu Njem of the quality of Latin spoken in the army, showing that officers, even from provincial backgrounds, spoke good Latin; their men were less certain in their command of the language. These studies should be read now with the evidence for the use of Greek in the daily functioning of the army in Egypt (see Cuvigny 2005 and Cuvigny 2012, cited under Sources: Papyrology).
  488.  
  489. Adams, J. N. “The Language of the Vindolanda Writing Tablets: An Interim Report.” Journal of Roman Studies 85 (1995): 86–134.
  490. DOI: 10.1017/S0075435800074773Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Important study of the Latin used in the Vindolanda Writing Tablets. Its conclusions should be read with those in Adams 1999.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Adams, J. N. “The Poets of Bu Njem: Language, Culture and the Centurionate.” Journal of Roman Studies 89 (1999): 109–134.
  494. DOI: 10.1017/S0075435800060056Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  495. Adams’s articles show that although officers might have a solid command of Latin—with some differentiation between junior and senior officers—the men who served under them, even when not at ease with the language, would nonetheless have used it. That might be a sign of class solidarity as reflected in the adoption of Roman-like behaviors by the rank and file.
  496. Find this resource:
  497. Cheesman, G. L. The Auxilia of the Roman Imperial Army. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1914.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. Basic study of the organization of the auxiliary forces of the Roman army, obviously dated, but still an important starting point.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Devijver, H. Prosopographia militiarum equestrium quae fuerunt ab Augusto ad Gallienum. 3 vols. Symbolae Facultatis Litterarum et Philosophiae Lovaniensis, Series A. Louvain, Belgium: Universitaire Pers Leuven, 1976–2001.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. Prosopographical list of officers serving with auxiliary units in the first three centuries CE. The third volume contains a very helpful list of known units. The study as a whole is an invaluable starting point for the study of the Roman army’s command structure.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Haynes, I. Blood of the Provinces: The Roman Auxilia and the Making of Provincial Society from Augustus to the Severans. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
  506. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199655342.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. An excellent introduction to the development of auxiliary forces in the Roman empire, well informed by the latest research in all areas. Haynes looks not just at the army’s bureaucratic structures, but also at the military culture of auxiliary units with important discussions of recruitment, daily life, religious activities, training and language.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Saddington, D. B. The Development of the Roman Auxiliary Forces from Caesar to Vespasian: 49 B.C.–A.D. 79. Harare: University of Zimbabwe Press, 1982.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Saddington argues that the civil wars after 44 BCE gave a strong impetus to the creation of long-serving professional units, although much of the regularization of the terms of service came later, under Claudius and Vespasian. He underscores the significance of the move from using socii allies in the late Republic to regular units of non-Roman soldiers under Roman command. He notes that long-serving professional units develop, in some cases, out of units raised for emergency service.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Ethnicity and the Auxilia
  514.  
  515. One of the most significant issues in the study of the auxilia is the extent to which troops were encouraged to retain a firm sense of ethnic identity. Roymans 2004 and Oltean 2009 show that in the cases of Batavian and Dacian units—derived from famously warlike peoples—the soldiers were encouraged to do so, whereas Fitz 1972 shows that similar conclusions can be drawn from an Emesene unit in the Balkans. Van Driel-Murray 2002 discusses the possibility that the Romans inflated the martial reputation of some peoples—especially those of the lower Rhine—as was the case in later colonialist armies. Saddington 2009 offers a useful overview of the topic.
  516.  
  517. Fitz, J. Les Syriens à Intercisa. Collection Latomus 122. Brussels: Éditions Latomus, 1972.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. Study of more than 200 inscriptions from the camp fort at Intercisa garrisoned in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE by cohors I miliaria Hemesorum. The unit was formed after Marcus Aurelius’s Parthian War, over time a strong admixture of men appears to have been recruited from the Balkans, although the unit continued to retain an “Eastern” identity.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Oltean, I. A. “Dacian Ethic Identity and the Roman Army.” In The Armies and Frontiers of Rome: Papers offered to David J. Breeze on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday and His Retirement from Historic Scotland. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 74. Edited by W. S. Hanson, 90–101. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2009.
  522. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  523. Argues that it was the aim of the Roman army to reinvent Dacian ethnic identity and provide the environment for the shaping of a new military identity. Although Dacians visible in the civilian environment stress a Roman identity, those in a military environment will tend to stress Dacian heritage by taking the names of famous Dacians of the past (e.g., Decebelus).
  524. Find this resource:
  525. Roymans, N. Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2004.
  526. DOI: 10.5117/9789053567050Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. The book is divided into three parts: the first being a study of the Batavian people before the arrival of Caesar, the second treats the development of the administrative infrastructure under Roman rule, and the third discusses the formation of a new ethnic identity for the Batavians as a specifically militaristic people—the Batavians shape themselves to fit the Roman image of them.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Saddington, D. B. “Recruitment Patterns and Ethnic Identities in Roman Auxiliary Regiments.” In The Armies and Frontiers of Rome. Edited by W. S. Hanson, 83–89. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 74. Portsmouth, RI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 2009.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Specialist units continued to draw on their original areas of recruitment. In some cases there was notable continuity with a specific entity—e.g., the Batavians; in other cases, the link was looser (a province). Soldiers often recorded their place of origin on tombstones, and unit religious observances provided significant structures for continuity.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. van Driel-Murray, C. “Ethnic Soldiers: The Experience of the Lower Rhine Tribes.” In Kontinuität und Diskontinuität: Germania inferior am Beginn und am Ende der römischen Herrschaft. Edited by T. Grünewald and S. Seibel, 200–217. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2002.
  534. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. A very useful theoretical treatment of the concept of martial races, arguing that in the 19th and 20th centuries they were constructs of imperial powers as they appear to have been in the Roman Empire. In her view “the relationship between Rome and the Tribes of the Lower Rhine area matches in virtually every particular the predictions of ‘ethnic soldier theory’ and the fortunes of the civilian community are inextricably bound to their military exploitation” (p. 215).
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Special Units and the Fleet
  538.  
  539. The Praetorian Guard, established under Augustus and concentrated in Rome under Tiberius, played a much more significant role in Roman politics than did the frontier army. The fundamental studies of this institution are Durry 1938 and Passerini 1939. Speidel 1994 offers a lucid analysis of the imperial horse guards as an elite unit, originally of German origin for the emperor’s personal protection. Speidel’s model for the interaction between the guards and the provincial army tracks that of Durry and might be considered more broadly applicable to issues such as that of the grand strategy of the empire. The Roman navy was essentially used for the transport of troops and protection of sea-lanes from pirates. Special units were formed to operate on the Rhine and Danube, as well as in the North Sea. Kienast 1966 remains the basic study of the imperial navy.
  540.  
  541. Durry, M. Les cohortes prétoriennes. Paris: de Boccard, 1938.
  542. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Fundamental study of the Praetorian Guard showing how soldiers regularly moved into the guard from the vigiles and urban cohorts and how there was a regular line of promotion of officers through the same units. Even if not “official,” this was significant, and, with rare exceptions, meant that the guard was recruited differently than the provincial legions. Durry’s view that recruitment became increasingly provincial in the later 2nd century is not supported by the evidence; readers should refer to Ronald Syme’s review of the book (“Review of Les Cohortes Prétoriennes,” Journal of Roman Studies 29 [1939], pp. 242–248).
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Kienast, D. Untersuchungen zu den Kriegsflotten der römischen Kaiserzeit. Bonn, Germany: Habelt, 1966.
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Basic study of the imperial Roman navy with discussions of the size and function of the establishment, officers and men, and the ships. Kienast suggests the fleets based at Misenum and Ravenna could be deployed for strategic purposes, whereas provincial fleets were used for coastal defense. The fourth section of Kienast’s book deals with the complex naval operations of the age of Constantine. Given the navy’s poor showing in the 3rd-century Mediterranean, its operational ability was plainly upgraded in the final decades of the 3rd century.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Passerini, A. Le coorti pretorie. Rome: A. Signorelli, 1939.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Passerini does not attempt to recreate Durry’s book, but rather studies two aspects of the guard, its establishment as a military institution, and its prefects. On both counts, his views are controversial, for he argues that the guard was primarily a military rather than a political entity and that the praetorian prefecture was a regular office in the early empire. He is correct that the office did not function consistently as the function changed according to those the emperor chose to appoint, but it was a consistent post.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Speidel, M. Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors’ Horse Guards. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1994.
  554. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  555. Speidel offers a model for a centralized system of managing the army by treating the development of the imperial horse guards from Caesar to the late empire. The guard became a training ground for senior officers and, during the 3rd century, evolved into a training school for the Roman army as a whole. Noted for their loyalty to the emperor, they strengthened the bond between the emperor and provincial armies. Guardsmen were appointed to provincial armies as troop leaders and drillmasters and, in the 3rd century, became unit commanders.
  556. Find this resource:
  557. Starr, C. The Roman Imperial Navy, 31 B.C.–A.D. 324. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1941.
  558. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  559. Lucid and efficient discussion of the Roman imperial navy’s infrastructure and with sections on the ports, personnel, and uses. Starr examines both the imperial fleets based in Italy and provincial fleets. He notes that the basic accomplishment of the imperial navy was the eradication of Mediterranean piracy.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. The Army and the Imperial Economy
  562.  
  563. A crucial question in assessing the role of the Roman army is, what did it cost? Goldsmith 1987 and Hopkins 1980 offer important overviews on the total cost of the army and its impact. Goldsmith builds on the earlier work of MacMullen 1984, whereas Speidel 1992 sets out the building blocks for future work.
  564.  
  565. Goldsmith, R. Premodern Financial Systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
  566. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511895630Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  567. Extremely important book providing an analysis of the Roman imperial budget in the time of Augustus along with other studies of premodern states which provide invaluable comparative material against which to test his conclusion that the Roman army consumed between 50 percent to 70 percent of the imperial budget (with greater probability that the percentage was at the high end).
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Hopkins, K. “Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C.–A.D. 400).” Journal of Roman Studies 70 (1980): 101–125.
  570. DOI: 10.2307/299558Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  571. Hopkins argues that the expansion of the empire stimulated the economy of frontier zones and that the requirement to pay taxes monetized the economy of areas in northern and central Europe. An important macro study of the impact of the army.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. MacMullen, R. “The Roman Emperors’ Army Costs.” Latomus 43 (1984): 571–580.
  574. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  575. The method used by MacMullen (looking at the number of “base-pay” units in the army—officers being multiple “base-pay” units) is crucial for studies of the economic impact of the army and should be used with Speidel 1992.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Speidel, M. A. “Roman Army Pay Scales.” Journal of Roman Studies 82 (1992): 87–106.
  578. DOI: 10.2307/301286Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  579. Fundamental study of what legionaries and auxiliaries were paid over time. From the first to third century CE, the soldiers received no pay raises, but the deductions from their pay were gradually reduced and a system of increasing state contributions was introduced. Reprinted in M. A. Speidel, Heer und Herrschaft im römischen Reich der hohen Kaiserzeit (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2009), pp. 349–379.
  580. Find this resource:
  581. The Army and Society
  582.  
  583. The central question is whether or not the army was a “total institution” that cut itself off from civilian society and was absolutely not an agent for any sort of social change or the spread of Roman culture into the provinces. Shaw 1983 is the classic statement of the army as a total institution. His work is nuanced by Pollard 1996 on Dura and, more generally, Pollard 2000 on Syria as a whole. Le Bohec 1989 is not concerned with this question, but his points about the changing composition of the legions (see also Mann 1983 and Brunt 1974, both cited under Legionaries). Alston 1995 offers a very different take, looking not only at repressive aspects of the military regime, but also at greater integration than the Shaw model allows. His work aligns with Fentress 1983 and is a powerful response to Shaw, suggesting that his theoretical perspective did not allow for “knock on” positive effects of Roman occupation. Mattingly 2008 and Mattingly 2010 take a somewhat different approach to the question, moving beyond the terms set out by Fentress and Shaw, which have been very influential; Mattingly works with the concept of discrepant identity to provide a nuanced picture of the experience of Roman occupation, a “crucial point is that identity was used not just to assert shared characteristics, but also to differentiate between groups in society” (Mattingly 2010, p. 19).
  584.  
  585. Alston, R. Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt. London: Routledge, 1995.
  586. DOI: 10.4324/9780203272633Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  587. Takes on the notion that the army was a “total institution,” disconnected from the lives of the people in whose territory it was implanted. Although acknowledging the evidence for abusive behavior on the part of soldiers, Alston shows that there was considerable evidence for soldiers participating in the civilian life of the province in a constructive way.
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  589. Fentress, E. “Forever Berber?” Opus 2 (1983): 161–175.
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  591. Forceful response to Shaw’s discussion of her earlier book, Fentress distinguishes between epistemological models based on archaeology and anthropology. She notes that military building projects might begin with a “self serving” agenda, but the army was not alone in using these structures. She argues that Shaw’s treatment of the army as a homogenous repressive body ignores the structural division between officers and men. In her view, the picture of southern Numidian society divided between estranged blocks of free indigenous peasants on one side and soldiers on the other oversimplifies complex interactions.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. Le Bohec, Y. La troisième Légion Auguste. Paris: CNRS, 1989.
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  595. Model study of a Roman legion examining “the officers and men,” then “time and space” (a history of the main actions of the legion from Augustus to the 3rd century CE), then “Roman Africa and the Roman army,” examining the changing interaction between the legion and the surrounding territory and noting the change from the 1st century when the bulk of the legionaries were Italian to the 2nd century when most recruits were local, at which point soldiers tend to become “elite commoners” as opposed to intrusive invaders.
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  597. Mattingly, D. J. An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC–AD 409. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 2008.
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  599. Lucid and vigorous account of the Roman occupation of Britain. Mattingly’s Britain is a Celtic land and a Roman military zone as the Romans use their power to keep their subjects in line and exploit their resources. The book is divided into three main thematic sections on the military, civil, and rural communities, and the final section, in two chapters, looks at the diversity of British responses to Roman rule and argues that the end of Roman Britain stemmed from the long-term resistance to Roman ways.
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  601. Mattingly, D. J. Imperialism, Power and Identity: Experiencing the Roman Empire. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010.
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  603. A significant reevaluation of the impact of Rome on its subjects, working with the concept of discrepent identity to explore the ways that the empire shaped diverse populations whose experience of empire varied enormously. Mattingly looks at how the Roman state exploited the natural, mercantile, and human resources within its frontiers; topics include sexual relations and violence; census-taking and taxation; mining and pollution; land and labor; and art and iconography.
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  605. Pollard, N. “The Roman Army as ‘Total Institution’ in the Near East? Dura-Europos as a Case Study.” In The Roman Army in the East. Edited by D. Kennedy, 211–227. Journal of Roman Archaeology, Supplementary Series 18. Ann Arbor, MI: Journal of Roman Archaeology, 1996.
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  607. Pollard shows how, at Dura, soldiers acted within specifically defined areas; they did not ordinarily interact with the organs of civic government, though in the countryside, local military officials could exercise judicial and police functions. Although most of the soldiers in cohors XX Palmyrenorum were of Syrian origin, the evidence for cultural and social relationships suggests that the institutional identity of the army supplanted many of the ethnic characteristics of the individuals who composed the garrison cohort.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Pollard, N. Soldiers, Cities, and Civilians in Roman Syria. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000.
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  611. A very important study of the Roman army in Syria, opening with a narrative of the development of military bases which points up differences between the East and West (not the least being that the army turned cities into camps while cities in the West developed around camps). In the second section, Pollard looks at formal and informal interactions between soldiers and civilians and, in the third section, at the role of the army in the economic development of Syria.
  612. Find this resource:
  613. Shaw, B. “Soldiers and Society: The Army in Numidia.” Opus: Rivista internazionale per la storia economica e sociale dell’antichità 2 (1983): 133–159.
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  615. Cast as a review discussion of Numidia and the Roman Army: Social, Military and Economic Aspects of the Frontier Zone by Elizabeth Fentress (BAR International Series 53, Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1979), Shaw argues that “as outsiders to local Numidian society and as members of a ‘total institution’” (p. 148), soldiers were removed from the concerns of indigenous Numidians. He argues that soldiers built primarily for themselves and were not recruited from the typical peasantry. In sum, “the actions of soldiers in ‘civilian’ roles” (pp. 148–149) reinforced the military’s inner solidarity rather than connecting it with the local population.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. The Army at War and in Politics
  618.  
  619. Campbell 1984 remains the critical study of the relationship between the emperor and the army. The Roman Empire fought few aggressive wars—the invasion of Britain under Claudius, Trajan’s Parthian War, and the Parthian campaigns of Septimius Severus—after Augustus. Likewise civil war was also anomalous; there were two serious outbreaks, in 69 CE and 193–198 CE, from the time of Augustus to the 230s CE, at which point political instability was endemic. There were significant defensive wars such as Trajan’s Dacian and the Parthian and Northern Wars of Marcus Aurelius. Listed in this section are works that provide lucid introductions to military conflicts. Bennett 2001 offers a good introduction to Trajan’s wars, whereas Birley 2000 and Birley 1999 offer valuable introductions to wars in the time of Severus and Marcus Aurelius. For Marcus’s northern wars, Kovács 2009 is also very useful. For Britain, see Mattingly 2008 (cited under Army and Society). For the revolt of Batavia in 69 CE, Brunt 1959 remains the crucial study, whereas Wellesley 2000 remains an excellent introduction to the civil war of 69 CE.
  620.  
  621. Bennett, J. Trajan: Optimus Princeps. 2d ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001.
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  623. Bennett begins in the Flavian period, looking at the development of the governing class, into which context he fits the family of Trajan before discussing the reign of Domitian, the succession, and public ideology. Treatment of the Dacian and Parthian Wars is balanced with discussion of Trajan’s administrative style, arguing that he was as autocratic as Domitian but had a more agreeable personal manner.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Birley, A. R. Septimius Severus. London: Routledge, 1999.
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  627. Standard treatment, beginning with a very good treatment of Severus’s North African background and the circumstances of his early career, making the important point that, despite his dependence on control of the army to secure his regime, he was not, per se, a “military” man.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Birley, A. R. Marcus Aurelius: A Biography. Rev. ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
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  631. Standard biography of Marcus Aurelius, which ranges well beyond the emperor to explore the Antonine Age as a whole, and a basic starting point for anyone interested in the period. The discussion of the sources in Appendix 1 is very helpful for the period as a whole.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Brunt, P. A. “The Revolt of Vindex and the Fall of Nero.” Latomus 18 (1959): 531–559.
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  635. Profoundly important study of the revolt that brought Nero down, arguing that discontent with his regime was not limited to the imperial upper class but spread throughout the empire. Reprinted in P. A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 9–32.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Campbell, J. B. The Emperor and the Roman Army, 31 BC–AD 235. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
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  639. The best book on the army as an instrument of imperial politics. Divided into four parts: Part 1 treats the association of the emperor with the army and the costs of the army; Part 2 discusses the legal status of soldiers (looking at issues as diverse as their wills, property, access to the emperor, and ability to oppress the civilian population); Part 3 is concerned with senior officers; and Part 4 is concerned directly with the army in politics.
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  641. Kovács, P. Marcus Aurelius’ Rain Miracle and the Marcomannic Wars. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009.
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  643. Extremely well-executed study, not simply of the traditions connection with the “Rain Miracle,” but also of Marcus’s northern wars as a whole. Issues connected with the ideology of the regime and its reception in subsequent years are handled with as much aplomb as those such as Marcus’s unwillingness to engage in significant annexation north of the Danube.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Wellesley, K. The Year of the Four Emperors. 3d ed. London: Routledge, 2000.
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  647. Long the standard introduction to the subject, a very clear account of the civil war year.
  648. Find this resource:
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