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Buddhism in Mongolia (Buddhism)

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May 29th, 2018
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  1. Introduction
  2. A large-scale conversion of Mongols to Buddhism began in the 16th century and lasted until the early 20th century. Buddhism was the predominant religious tradition of the Mongols, influencing every aspect of Mongolian cultural, political, and religious life. After almost seven decades of communist suppression of religious freedom, which began in 1921, the Buddhist tradition in the early 21st century is becoming once again a dominant religious force in Mongolia, giving rise to a new proliferation of art, literature, and ritual. However, Mongolian Buddhism as an area of study is still in its infancy, and the amount of scholarship is small. In the early 21st century one can find basic introductions that contain short encyclopedia entries related to Mongolian Buddhism, general historical overviews focusing on the political and social history of Buddhism in Mongolia, and a limited number of articles.
  3.  
  4. General Overviews
  5. This section includes general treatments of the social and political conditions of Buddhism in Mongolia prior to the communist revolution and during the Communist period. Pozdneyev 1971 and Pozdneyev 1978 offer an ethnographic perspective of the conditions of Buddhists’ institutions and practices in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Cheney 1968 gives a brief cultural and social background of Buddhism from the prerevolutionary period. Danzan 2008 and Rupen 1964 are concerned with the 20th-century conditions and predicaments of the Buddhist tradition in Mongolia.
  6.  
  7. Cheney, George A. The Pre-Revolutionary Culture of Outer Mongolia. Occasional Papers 5. Bloomington, IN: Mongolia Society, 1968.
  8.  
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  10.  
  11. This monograph provides useful general information on the social, economic, cultural, and political contexts of Buddhism in Mongolia.
  12.  
  13. Find this resource:
  14.  
  15.  
  16. Danzan, Narantuya. Religion in 20th Century Mongolia: Social Changes and Popular Practices. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM, 2008.
  17.  
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  19.  
  20. Relying on oral sources, which were censored and misinterpreted under the socialist regime, the book investigates the changes of popular religious beliefs and practice in 20th-century Mongolia. This book illustrates how Communist education, ideology, and policies shaped the beliefs, values, and ideas of most Mongols.
  21.  
  22. Find this resource:
  23.  
  24.  
  25. Pozdneyev, Aleksei M. Mongolia and the Mongols. Vols. 1–2. Translated by John Roger Shaw and Dale Plank. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1971.
  26.  
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  28.  
  29. An informative ethnographic source for the study of the social conditions of Buddhism and Buddhist practices within diverse regions of Mongolia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
  30.  
  31. Find this resource:
  32.  
  33.  
  34. Pozdneyev, Aleksei M. Religion and Ritual in Society: Lamaist Buddhism in Late-19th Century Mongolia. Translated by Alo Raun and Linda Raun. Bloomington, IN: Mongolia Society, 1978.
  35.  
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  37.  
  38. A useful ethnographic resource for the study of Buddhist institutions and practices in Mongolia during the late 19th century.
  39.  
  40. Find this resource:
  41.  
  42.  
  43. Rupen, Robert A. Mongols of the Twentieth Century. 2 vols. Uralic and Altaic Series 37. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1964.
  44.  
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  46.  
  47. An extensive study of the political climate resulting from the Communist revolution in the early 20th century in Buryatia and Outer Mongolia and its effects on Mongolian Buddhism in these regions.
  48.  
  49. Find this resource:
  50.  
  51.  
  52. Reference Works
  53. While reference materials in the Mongolian language abound, they are scanty in Western languages. Among them, Atwood 2004 offers a considerable number of entries related to the religious and political figures important in the history of Mongolian Buddhism, an entry on the history and literature of Buddhism in Mongolia, and more. Sárközy and Szerb 1995 is an indispensable resource for the reader and translator of Buddhist literature in Mongolian. Dorjsuren 2007 gives a useful although brief list of important Tibetan-Mongolian terminological dictionaries utilized by Mongolian translators of Buddhist literature from Tibetan in the 18th through the early 20th centuries.
  54.  
  55. Atwood, Christopher P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. New York: Facts on File, 2004.
  56.  
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  58.  
  59. An excellent resource that contains many entries that are either directly or indirectly relevant for the study of Mongolian Buddhism.
  60.  
  61. Find this resource:
  62.  
  63.  
  64. Dorjsuren, Burnee. “A Review of the Tibetan-Mongolian Lexicographical Tradition.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 371–378. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  65.  
  66. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  67.  
  68. A short review of some of the Tibetan-Mongolian dictionaries composed for the work of translating Tibetan Buddhist texts into Mongolian from the 16th to the 20th centuries.
  69.  
  70. Find this resource:
  71.  
  72.  
  73. Sárközy, Alice, and János Szerb. A Buddhist Terminological Dictionary: The Mongolian “Mahāvyutpatti.” Asiatische Forschungen 130. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1995.
  74.  
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  76.  
  77. An extremely useful reference tool for those working with Buddhist materials in the classical Mongolian. It contains 9,565 entries with their English equivalents, classified into 277 categories, and an index of Mongolian words and phrases with relevant pages. It is based on the manuscript version of the Mongolian Mahāvyutpatti preserved in Saint Petersburg.
  78.  
  79. Find this resource:
  80.  
  81.  
  82. Historical Background
  83. The history of the Mongolian Buddhist tradition is marked by the close connection between Mongolian Buddhism and the state, as the religion was either greatly supported by the state or suppressed by it. Moses 1977, Skrynnikova 1999, Elverskog 2006, and Wallace 2010 give predominantly the accounts of Buddhism in prerevolutionary Mongolia, whereas Jerryson 2007 and Bulag 2007 focus mainly on the demise of Buddhism in Khalkha and Inner Mongolia, respectively, during the Soviet period. Throughout its history Mongolian Buddhism has had close connections to the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, and it came into close contact with Chinese and Manchu religious and cultural contexts, especially during the Mongol imperial period and during the Qing dynasty’s occupation of Mongolia.
  84.  
  85. Bulag, Uradyn E. “From Empire to Nation: The Demise of Buddhism in Inner Mongolia.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 19–58. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  86.  
  87. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  88.  
  89. A brief historical analysis of Panchen Lama’s political activities during the demise of Buddhism in the Mongolian Peoples’ Republic and in Inner Mongolia in the early 20th century.
  90.  
  91. Find this resource:
  92.  
  93.  
  94. Elverskog, Johan. Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006.
  95.  
  96. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  97.  
  98. An insightful study of the creation of a new Mongol Buddhist identity and the Mongol conceptions of community and religion during the Qing dynasty’s rule in Mongolia and its promotion of Gelukpa orthodoxy.
  99.  
  100. Find this resource:
  101.  
  102.  
  103. Jerryson, Michael K. Mongolian Buddhism: The Rise and Fall of the Sangha. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007.
  104.  
  105. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  106.  
  107. A historical look at the demise of Buddhism in Mongolia during the Communist period. It includes an introduction to the history of Buddhism in Mongolia and interviews with Mongolian Buddhists who lived through the period of the suppression of Buddhist practices.
  108.  
  109. Find this resource:
  110.  
  111.  
  112. Kaplonski, Christopher. “Prelude to Violence: Show Trials and State Power in 1930s Mongolia.” American Ethnologist 35.2 (2008): 321–337.
  113.  
  114. DOI: 10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00038.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  115.  
  116. This paper examines the role of the show trials of Mongolian lamas in 1930s socialist Mongolia as a precursor to the mass repressions of the late 1930s. Through an examination of the presented narrative of the conspiracy, it highlights the ways the state attempted to shift allegiances from the Buddhist establishment to the state and convince people to accept the coming violence as necessary.
  117.  
  118. Find this resource:
  119.  
  120.  
  121. Moses, Larry William. The Political Role of Mongol Buddhism. Indiana University Uralic Altaic Series 133. Bloomington: Asian Studies Research Institute, Indiana University, 1977.
  122.  
  123. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  124.  
  125. Useful overview of the political history of Mongolian Buddhism, especially in the first half of the 20th century. The book also contains chapters on Mongolian Buddhism in general and monastic institutionalization during the imperial and postimperial periods and during the autonomous period of the Bogd Khan state.
  126.  
  127. Find this resource:
  128.  
  129.  
  130. Skrynnikova, T. D. Lamaistskaya Tserkovy i Gosudarstvo: Vneshnyaya Mongoliya XVI–Nachalo XX Veka. Novosibirsk, Russia: Nauka, 1999.
  131.  
  132. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  133.  
  134. (The Lamaist church and state: Outer Mongolia, 16th–beginning of the 20th century). A sociohistorical analysis of Buddhism in Khalkha Mongolia from the 16th century to 1911. It examines the political organizations related to the Mongolian Buddhist tradition, the structures of Buddhist institutions, and the relationship between the Buddhist church and the state prior to and during the Qing dynasty’s rule in Mongolia.
  135.  
  136. Find this resource:
  137.  
  138.  
  139. Wallace, Vesna A. “‘The Legalized Violence’: Punitive Measures of Buddhist Khans in Mongolia.” In Buddhist Warfare. Edited by Michael Jerryson and Mark Juergensmeyer, 91–104. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  140.  
  141. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  142.  
  143. An analysis of the punitive measures introduced by Buddhist Qing rulers in Mongolia and those practiced by the eighth Jebtsundamba Khutuktu during the short period of the Bogdo Khan state in the early 20th century.
  144.  
  145. Find this resource:
  146.  
  147.  
  148. Mongolian-Tibetan Buddhist Connections
  149. The Mongols’ conversions to Buddhism in the 13th and 16th centuries were characterized by the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism into Mongolia. Their early historical relations are discussed in Rossabi 1988, Bira 2001a, Bira 2001b, and Van der Kuijp 2004. Bulag and Diemberger 2007 explores the new areas of research of the Mongolian-Tibetan interface, and Elverskog 2007 raises new questions concerning the Mongols’ orientation toward Tibetan Buddhism.
  150.  
  151. Bira, Shagdaryn. “Indo-Tibetan and Mongolian Historiographical Mutual Contacts.” In Studies in Mongolian History, Culture, and Historiography. Vol. 3. Edited by T. Ishdorj and K. Purevtogtokh. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: International Association for Mongol Studies, 2001a.
  152.  
  153. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  154.  
  155. A brief analysis of the influence of the Tibetan historical school on the development of Mongolian historiography, characterized by the Buddhist methodology of history.
  156.  
  157. Find this resource:
  158.  
  159.  
  160. Bira, Shagdaryn. “Khubilai Khan and ‘Phags-Pa Lama.” In Studies in Mongolian History, Culture, and Historiography. Vol. 3. Edited by T. Ishdorj and K. Purevtogtokh. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: International Association for Mongol Studies, 2001b.
  161.  
  162. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  163.  
  164. An essay that touches on the religious policy of Khubilai Khan and on his relationship with his imperial preceptor, the Tibetan monk Phagpa Lama (‘Phags-pa bla-ma bLo Gros rGyal mTshan).
  165.  
  166. Find this resource:
  167.  
  168.  
  169. Bulag, Uradyn E., and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, eds. The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  170.  
  171. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  172.  
  173. A collection of eighteen essays examining the Mongolian-Tibetan relations from various perspectives and dealing with topics related to different aspects and historical periods of Mongolian Buddhism.
  174.  
  175. Find this resource:
  176.  
  177.  
  178. Elverskog, Johan. “Tibetocentrism, Religious Conversion, and the Study of Mongolian Buddhism.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 59–80. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  179.  
  180. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  181.  
  182. A brief analysis of the episodes from the Mongolian account of Altan Khan’s conversion to Buddhism. It attempts to challenge some of the basic assumptions surrounding the Tibetan-Mongol interface that deny the Mongols’ agency in their own religious history.
  183.  
  184. Find this resource:
  185.  
  186.  
  187. Klaus, Sagaster, ed. and trans. Die Wiesse Geschichte (C’ayan Teüke): Eine mongolische Quelle zur Lehre von den Beiden Ordnungen; Religion und Staat in Tibet und der Mongolie. Asiatische Forschungen 41. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1976.
  188.  
  189. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  190.  
  191. An annotated German translation and commentary of the Mongolian work Die Wiesse Geschichte (C’ayan Teüke) (White history), which propounds a dual principle of governance (qoyar yosul, lugs gnyis) that was first formulated in the 13th century and that governed the relationship between Buddhism and the state during the premodern period. The volume also contains a transcription of the facsimile prepared by Walter Heissig.
  192.  
  193. Find this resource:
  194.  
  195.  
  196. Petech, Luciano. Central Tibet and the Mongols: The Yüan Sa-Skya Period of Tibetan History. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1990.
  197.  
  198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  199.  
  200. Among its various goals, this history of central Tibet during the Mongol period tries to show that ‘Phags pa did not have as important a role in Khubilai Khan’s court as is presented by the Tibetan traditional accounts.
  201.  
  202. Find this resource:
  203.  
  204.  
  205. Rossabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.
  206.  
  207. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  208.  
  209. This detailed biography of Khubilai Khan’s life and his imperial career provides the reader with the political and cultural climates of the 13th century, when Tibetan Buddhist influence began to enter the Mongol imperial courts.
  210.  
  211. Find this resource:
  212.  
  213.  
  214. Van der Kuijp, Leonard W. J. The Kālacakra and the Patronage of Tibetan Buddhism by the Mongol Imperial Family. Central Eurasia Studies Lectures 4. Bloomington: Department of Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University, 2004.
  215.  
  216. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  217.  
  218. A meticulous study of the dossier on the printing projects of Tibetan texts related to the Kālacakra literature and a discussion of different notices of Kālacakra initiations and teachings given by Tibetan hierarchs to members of the Mongol imperial family during the Yüan dynasty.
  219.  
  220. Find this resource:
  221.  
  222.  
  223. Mongolian Buddhist and Qing Connections
  224. The Qing dynasty’s political and intellectual culture and the Qing court’s patronage of Buddhism in Mongolia shaped the Mongolian Buddhist tradition. Elverskog 2006, Crossley 1999, Cosmo and Bao 2003, and Berger 2003 are useful resources for understanding the sociopolitical and cultural climates in which Mongolian Buddhism flourished during the Qing period. Berger 2003 and Köhle 2008 also provide arguments that contradict the interpretations of the Qing court’s patronage of Buddhism among Mongols as merely a political manipulation.
  225.  
  226. Berger, Patricia Ann. Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003.
  227.  
  228. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  229.  
  230. This is an excellent study of Manchu court culture and its support and patronage of Buddhism in Mongolia and Tibet that takes into consideration the abundance of Buddhist art that was produced and distributed under the patronage of the Qing court. It also examines the ways certain Buddhist ideas underlie the Qing view of rulership.
  231.  
  232. Find this resource:
  233.  
  234.  
  235. Cosmo, Nicola Di, and Dalizhabu Bao. Manchu-Mongol Relations on the Eve of the Qing Conquest: A Documentary History. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2003.
  236.  
  237. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  238.  
  239. Providing the reader with Manchu and Mongol documents, this volume offers important information on the relations between Manchus and Mongols prior to the Manchu conquest of China in 1644 and at the time when Hong Taiji brought the southern Mongol tribes into the fold of the Manchu state.
  240.  
  241. Find this resource:
  242.  
  243.  
  244. Crossley, Pamela Kyle. A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
  245.  
  246. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  247.  
  248. In her investigation of the origins of nationalism and cultural identity in 17th- and 18th-century China, the author addresses the historical and ideological aspects of Buddhism in the Qing dynasty, which is relevant for the understanding of Buddhism in Mongolia during the Qing period.
  249.  
  250. Find this resource:
  251.  
  252.  
  253. Elverskog, Johan. Our Great Qing: The Mongols, Buddhism, and the State in Late Imperial China. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2006.
  254.  
  255. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  256.  
  257. An excellent analysis of the intellectual and political history of Mongolia that sheds light on a socioreligious revolution in Mongolia from the 16th to the early 20th centuries. It addresses the changes brought by the Qing dynasty’s promotion of Gelugpa Buddhism in Mongolia, which influenced Mongol historical narratives, monastic education, and rituals.
  258.  
  259. Find this resource:
  260.  
  261.  
  262. Köhle, Natalie. “Why Did the Kangxi Emperor Go to Wutai Shan? Patronage, Pilgrimage, and the Place of Tibetan Buddhism at the Early Qing Court.” Late Imperial China 29.1 (June 2008): 73–119.
  263.  
  264. DOI: 10.1353/late.0.0007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  265.  
  266. The essay argues that Qing patronage of Tibetan Buddhism is not just an incidental strategy designed to win over the Mongols but also an inner Asian component of the political ideology of Manchu emperors.
  267.  
  268. Find this resource:
  269.  
  270.  
  271. Contemporary Mongolian Buddhism
  272. A revitalization of Mongolian Buddhism began in the late 1980s, when Mongolia gained independence from the Soviet Union and instituted a religious freedom act. Sociopolitical, cultural, and religious aspects of the Buddhist revival in Outer Mongolia are discussed in Bareja-Starzynska and Havnevik 2006 and Wallace 2008, while Vanchikova 2006 gives an account of the conditions of contemporary Buddhism in Buryatia.
  273.  
  274. Bareja-Starzynska, Agata, and Hanna Havnevik. “A Preliminary Study of Buddhism in Present-Day Mongolia.” In Mongols from Country to City: Floating Boundaries, Pastoralism, and City Life in the Mongol Lands. Edited by Ole Bruun and Li Narangoa, 212–236. Studies in Asian Topics 3. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2006.
  275.  
  276. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  277.  
  278. A brief preliminary study of Buddhism in Mongolia after 1990 that makes references to the internal organization of monasteries, terminology for monks and nuns, Buddhism and national identity, and nunneries.
  279.  
  280. Find this resource:
  281.  
  282.  
  283. Vanchikova, Tsymzhit. “Buddhism in Buryatia: Past and Present.” In Mongols from Country to City: Floating Boundaries, Pastoralism, and City Life in the Mongol Lands. Edited by Ole Bruun and Li Narangoa, 272–289. Studies in Asian Topics 3. Copenhagen, Denmark: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, 2006.
  284.  
  285. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  286.  
  287. After brief comments on the rise of Buddhism in Buryatia and its demise during the Soviet period, the essay describes the education of Buddhist monks, Buddhist missionary work in contemporary Buryatia, feminist Buddhist movements, and the new attitude of the governing bodies toward Buddhism.
  288.  
  289. Find this resource:
  290.  
  291.  
  292. Wallace, Vesna A. “Mediating the Power of Dharma: The Mongols’ Approaches to Reviving Buddhism in Mongolia.” Silk Road 6.1 (Summer 2008): 44–53.
  293.  
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295.  
  296. An essay that discusses the challenges in the revival of Buddhism in Mongolia, various ways contemporary Mongolian Buddhists endeavor to revitalize their Buddhist tradition, and governmental involvement in these endeavors.
  297.  
  298. Find this resource:
  299.  
  300.  
  301. Ritual Practices
  302. Mongolian Buddhism abounds in a wide range of ritual practices that have permeated almost every aspect of Mongolian Buddhist life. Bawden 1994a, Bawden 1994b, and Sárközi 1989 analyze the healing rituals and the rituals of protection from evil entities; Atwood 1996 and Sneath 2007 examine two widely popular rituals related to the Mongolian fire cult and ovoo (stone cairn) worship, respectively. Wallace 2010 analyzes different rituals of worshipping Buddhist canonical texts and the usage of those texts in healing rites. Havnevik, et al. 2007 compares luzhin (Tib. lus sbyin; body offering) rituals of lay and monastic practitioners in the urban and rural areas. Bayar 2007 gives a historical account of the burial rite of Chinggis Khan and the worship of Chinggis Khan as an emanation of a Buddha.
  303.  
  304. Atwood, Christopher P. “Buddhism and Popular Ritual in Mongolian Religion: A Reexamination of the Fire Cult.” History of Religions 36.2 November 1996: pp. 112–139.
  305.  
  306. DOI: 10.1086/463455Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307.  
  308. The essay challenges the 19th-century scholarship on the two-tier model of Mongolian religion through an analysis of different fire rituals, those performed by laypeople and those performed by monastic ritualists.
  309.  
  310. Find this resource:
  311.  
  312.  
  313. Bawden, Charles R. “On the Practice of Scapulimancy among the Mongols.” In Confronting the Supernatural: Mongolian Traditional Ways and Means. By Charles R. Bawden, 111–142. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1994a.
  314.  
  315. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  316.  
  317. An analysis of the Mongolian practice of scapulimancy, which became integrated into Mongolian Buddhism.
  318.  
  319. Find this resource:
  320.  
  321.  
  322. Bawden, Charles R. “The Supernatural Element in Sickness and Death according to Mongol Tradition.” In Confronting the Supernatural: Mongolian Traditional Ways and Means. By Charles R. Bawden, 41–110. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1994b.
  323.  
  324. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  325.  
  326. A study of the Mongolian healing rituals and the rituals of predicting healing and death that have formed a part of popular Buddhist practices in Mongolia.
  327.  
  328. Find this resource:
  329.  
  330.  
  331. Bayar, Nasan. “On Chinggis Khan and Being Like a Buddha: A Perspective on Cultural Conflation in Contemporary Inner Mongolia.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 197–222. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  332.  
  333. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  334.  
  335. A brief historical study of the burial rite of Chinggis Khan and his mausoleum in Inner Mongolia and of the rites of worshipping Chinggis Khan as a Buddha.
  336.  
  337. Find this resource:
  338.  
  339.  
  340. Havnevik, Hanna, Byambaa Ragchaa, and Agata Bareja-Starzynska. “Some Practices of the Buddhist Red Tradition in Contemporary Mongolia.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 223–238. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  341.  
  342. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343.  
  344. A study of a contemporary luzhin (Tib. lus sbyin; “body offering”) ritual practice carried out by lay practitioners and monks in the Mongolian capital Ulaanbaatar and in Mongolia’s countryside.
  345.  
  346. Find this resource:
  347.  
  348.  
  349. Sárközi, Alice. “Symbolism in Exorcizing the Evil Spirits.” Paper presented at the 27th Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Walberberg, West Germany, 12–17 June 1984. In Religious and Lay Symbolism in the Altaic World and Other Papers. Edited by Klaus Sagaster with Helmut Eimer, 314–324. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1989.
  350.  
  351. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  352.  
  353. A study of the rituals of appeasing the dead and exorcizing evil spirits based on the textual study of Mongolian ritual handbooks and on the accounts of the early 20th-century Russian ethnographer Aleksei Pozdneyev.
  354.  
  355. Find this resource:
  356.  
  357.  
  358. Sneath, David. “Ritual Idioms and Spatial Orders: Comparing the Rites for Mongolian and Tibetan ‘Local Deities.’” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 135–158. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  359.  
  360. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  361.  
  362. A brief comparative study of the Mongolian ovoo (stone cairn) and Tibetan la rtse (hill peak) rituals based on Mergen Diyanchi Lama’s work “Rites and So on for the Establishment of an Obo.” The essay includes short discussions on the ritual order, political space, and interrelated politicoritual idioms in Mongolia and Tibet.
  363.  
  364. Find this resource:
  365.  
  366.  
  367. Wallace, Vesna A. “Texts as Deities: Mongols’ Rituals of Worshipping Sūtras and Rituals of Accomplishing Various Goals by Means of Sūtras.” In Tibetan Ritual. Edited by José Ignacio Cabezón, 207–224. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  368.  
  369. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  370.  
  371. A study of the Mongolian rituals of copying and reading Buddhist canonical texts, the rituals of book worship, and the use of Buddhist texts in the rituals of healing and protection from evil entities.
  372.  
  373. Find this resource:
  374.  
  375.  
  376. Monasteries
  377. Although prior to the Communist revolution there were numerous monasteries and temples in Mongolia, only a few studies have focused on the major monasteries in southern and northern Mongolia. Charleux 2002 and Charleux 2003 give accounts of the Nyingma monasteries that flourished in southern Mongolia, while Tsultem 2009 and Cendina 1999 examine the histories and lives of the two most important monasteries in Outer Mongolia, Ikh Khüree and Erdene Zuu.
  378.  
  379. Charleux, Isabelle. “Padmasambhava’s Travel to the North: The Pilgrimage to the Monastery of the Caves and the Old Schools of Tibetan Buddhism in Mongolia.” Central Asiatic Journal 46.2 (2002): 168–232.
  380.  
  381. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  382.  
  383. This lengthy essay deals with the history, legend, and early 21st-century condition of the sole Nyingma monastery of southern Mongolia, known as the Temple of the Caves, which flourished in the 18th century. It also discusses Padmasambhava’s popularity in Mongolia and other Nyingma traditions among the Mongols.
  384.  
  385. Find this resource:
  386.  
  387.  
  388. Charleux, Isabelle. “Buddhist Monasteries in Southern Mongolia.” In The Buddhist Monastery: A Cross-cultural Survey. Edited by Pierre Pichard and François Lagirarde. Études Thématiques 12. Paris: École francaise d’Extrême-Orient, 2003.
  389.  
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391.  
  392. A survey of Buddhist monasteries in southern Mongolia that covers the 12th to the 20th centuries. It gives a description of the general locations and density of monasteries and their environments, layouts, and elements until the early 20th century.
  393.  
  394. Find this resource:
  395.  
  396.  
  397. Cendina, A. D. Istoriia Ėrdėni-Dzu. Moscow: Vostočnaja literatura, 1999.
  398.  
  399. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  400.  
  401. (History of Erdene Zuu.) A useful source for the study of the history of the Erdene Zuu monastery that contains a Russian translation of the Mongolian original followed by the commentary and original Mongolian text.
  402.  
  403. Find this resource:
  404.  
  405.  
  406. Tsultem, Uranchimeg. “Ikh Khüree: Nomadic Monastery of Mongolia.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2009.
  407.  
  408. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  409.  
  410. Although focusing primarily on the art of Ikh Khüree, which was the center of Mongolian Buddhism, this dissertation offers a reliable and useful account of the complex history of Ikh Khüree.
  411.  
  412. Find this resource:
  413.  
  414.  
  415. Primary Texts
  416. The Mongols produced a large body of Buddhist literary works belonging to various genres, ranging from the historical, ritual, prophetic, didactic, medical, and philosophical to biographical works. They wrote in literary Mongolian and predominantly in Tibetan.
  417.  
  418. Translations
  419. From the 14th to the early 20th centuries the Mongols translated numerous texts from Tibetan. Dharmatāla 1987 contains a translation of a traditional Buddhist historical account of the origins and spread of Buddhism in Mongolia. Siklós 1996 and Poppe 1971 offer translations of two canonical Buddhist works, and Poppe 1967 and Kiripolská 2000 contain translations of the different versions of the popular Mongolian narrative of the Buddha’s life, The Twelve Deeds of the Buddha, from literary Mongolian. Sárközi 1992 makes the selected works of prophetic genre available in her translation, and Sazykin 1998 offers a didactic work that was translated into Mongolian from Tibetan. Bawden 1997 offers a translation of an oral narrative given by the lama who survived the Communist purge.
  420.  
  421. Bawden, Charles R., trans. Tales of an Old Lama. Buddhica Britannica Series Continua 8. Tring, UK: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1997.
  422.  
  423. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  424.  
  425. A translation of an account of monastic life in pre-Communist Mongolia and its demise during the revolution narrated by a former lama, Jambal. It offers an interesting perspective on the monastic life from a lower-ranking monk. The original was published in 1959 by Tsend Damdinsüren.
  426.  
  427. Find this resource:
  428.  
  429.  
  430. Dharmatāla, Damchø Gyatsho. Rosary of White Lotuses: Being the Clear Account of How the Precious Teaching of Buddha Appeared and Spread in the Great Hor Country. Translated by Piotr Klafkowski. Asiatische Forschungen 95. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1987.
  431.  
  432. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  433.  
  434. An annotated translation of a Buddhist historical work on the introduction of Buddhism to Mongolia composed in Tibetan and titled Chen-po Hor-gyi yul-du dam-pa’i-chos ji-ltar dar-ba’i -tshul gsal-bar brjod-pa padma dkar-po’i phreng-ba. This is a valuable source for the study of the Mongolian Buddhist historiographical perspective on Buddhist origins in Mongolia.
  435.  
  436. Find this resource:
  437.  
  438.  
  439. Kiripolská, Marta. “The Twelve Deeds of the Buddha: A 19th Century Buriat Translation of the Hymn.” Mongolian Studies: Journal of the Mongolia Society 23 (2000): 17–42.
  440.  
  441. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  442.  
  443. A translation of a short Mongolian text composed by the 19th-century Buriat translator and author Vāgindra Sumatikalpa Bhadradāna and preserved in its manuscript form in the Náprstek Museum in Prague and in a xylographic edition in Budapest.
  444.  
  445. Find this resource:
  446.  
  447.  
  448. Poppe, Nicholas, trans. Twelve Deeds of Buddha: A Mongolian Version of the Lalitavistara. Far Eastern and Russian Institute Publications on Asia 16. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1967.
  449.  
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451.  
  452. A translation of a text popular among the Mongols and traditionally ascribed to the 14th-century author and translator of Tibetan texts into Mongolian, Sharavsenge (Shes rab sang rgye).
  453.  
  454. Find this resource:
  455.  
  456.  
  457. Poppe, Nicholas, trans. The Diamond Sutra: Three Mongolian Versions of the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramirā. Asiatische Forschungen 35. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1971.
  458.  
  459. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  460.  
  461. An annotated translation and comparative linguistic analysis of three different Mongolian versions of the Vajracchedikā sòtra, one of the most popular canonical texts among Mongolian Buddhists.
  462.  
  463. Find this resource:
  464.  
  465.  
  466. Sárközi, Alice. Political Prophecies in Mongolia in the 17–20th Centuries. Asiatische Forschungen 116. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1992.
  467.  
  468. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  469.  
  470. A translation of the selected epistles and prophetic writings of the eighth Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu to the Mongols.
  471.  
  472. Find this resource:
  473.  
  474.  
  475. Sazykin, Aleksei G. “Messages of Holy Lamas about the Sinfulness and Perniciousness of Smoking Tobacco.” Translated by György Kara. Mongolian Studies: Journal of the Mongolia Society 21 (1998): 49–69.
  476.  
  477. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  478.  
  479. A translation of the short didactic work kept in Saint Petersburg at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy that discusses the spiritual and environmental perils of tobacco smoking. The text is translated from the classical Mongolian, which in turn is a translation of the Tibetan text attributed to the third Dalai Lama.
  480.  
  481. Find this resource:
  482.  
  483.  
  484. Siklós, Bulcsu. The Vajrabhairava Tantras. Buddhica Britannica Series Continua 7. Tring, UK: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1996.
  485.  
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487.  
  488. An annotated translation of Tibetan and Mongolian versions of the Vajrabhairava Tantras. A transliteration of Tibetan and Mongolian source texts, a glossary of selected terms, and an enlarged drawing of the Vajrabhairava’s mandala are included in the volume.
  489.  
  490. Find this resource:
  491.  
  492.  
  493. Textual Studies
  494. This section includes textual studies related to literary and ritual aspects of selected Mongolian Buddhist literary works. Sazykin 1999 discusses the linguistic features of the fifth version of the Mongolian Vajracchedikā of the Buriat origin. Bawden 1994 and Bawden 1990 examine the ritual texts related to ovoo (stone cairn) worship and “wind-horse” offerings.
  495.  
  496. Bawden, Charles R. “Mongolian ‘Wind-Horse’ Offerings.” In Indo-Tibetan Studies. Edited by Tadeusz Skorupski, 29–38 Buddhica Britannica Series Continua 2. Tring, UK: Institute of Buddhist Studies, 1990.
  497.  
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499.  
  500. A brief study of a Mongolian text on the “wind-horse” incense offering accompanied by a transcription of a versified Mongolian text and its translation.
  501.  
  502. Find this resource:
  503.  
  504.  
  505. Bawden, Charles R. “Two Mongol Texts concerning Obo-Worship.” In Confronting the Supernatural: Mongolian Traditional Ways and Means; Collected Papers. By Charles R. Bawden, 1–19. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1994.
  506.  
  507. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  508.  
  509. An analysis of two Mongolian texts related to ovoo (stone cairn) worship composed by Mergen Diyanchi Lama in the 18th century. One is a manual on the construction of ovoos, and the other is a ritual text for ovoo worship.
  510.  
  511. Find this resource:
  512.  
  513.  
  514. Sazykin, Aleksei G. “A Fifth, Anonymous, Mongolian Translation of the ‘Diamond Sutra.’” Translated by György Kara. Mongolian Studies: Journal of the Mongolia Society 22 (1999): 69–99.
  515.  
  516. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  517.  
  518. A brief analysis of a manuscript of the Buriat origin containing the fifth version of the classical Mongolian translation of the Vajracchedikā and kept in Saint Petersburg at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy. A transcribed Mongolian text is included.
  519.  
  520. Find this resource:
  521.  
  522.  
  523. Art, Architecture, and Decorated Books
  524. Once Buddhism became established in Mongolian territories, it gave rise to the development of the uniquely Mongolian Buddhist art and architecture and the production of decorated manuscripts and books characterized by the syncretistic style that combines unique Mongolian elements with those borrowed from different geocultural areas with which the Mongols became familiar through their trade, diplomacy, and religious contacts. Berger and Bartholomew 1995 offers historical accounts of the different periods of Mongolian Buddhist art. Tsultėm 1986 and Tsultėm 1989 offer exquisite selections of Mongolian paintings and sculptures from different periods. Tsultem 2009 focuses on the Buddhist art of Mongolia’s capital of the pre-Communist period. Altangerel 2005 gives a beautiful and rare collection of Mongolian Buddhist sculptures, paintings, and ritual implements together with their descriptions. Bethlenfalvy 2003 and Kélenyi 2003 focus on the illustrations and descriptions of various nature spirits, whose representations have been used in popular healing and protective rites. Tsultėm 1988 gives examples of the different architectural styles of Mongolian Buddhist temples and monasteries, and Wallace 2009 addresses the artistic elements of Mongolian Buddhist manuscripts made of different types of paper and precious metals.
  525.  
  526. Altangerel, Ayurzanyn. Treasures of Mongolian Art: Collections of Altangerel Ayurzana. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: Asian Art Antique Gallery, 2005.
  527.  
  528. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  529.  
  530. A presentation of a private collection of Mongolian Buddhist statues, paintings, stòpas, and ritual implements with short descriptions of the individual pieces, their symbolism, and their functions in Mongolian Buddhism.
  531.  
  532. Find this resource:
  533.  
  534.  
  535. Berger, Patricia, and Terese Tse Bartholomew. Mongolia: The Legacy of Chinggis Khan. London: Thames and Hudson, 1995.
  536.  
  537. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  538.  
  539. An illustrated collection of outstanding essays on Mongolian history and art, including essays on the renaissance of Mongolian Buddhist art in the 16th to the 18th centuries, the art related to Buddhist festivals, manuscript illustrations and book covers, the Mongolian pantheon, and the greatest Mongolian artist, Zanabazar.
  540.  
  541. Find this resource:
  542.  
  543.  
  544. Bethlenfalvy, Géza. “Fearsome and Protective Deities: Sky-, Air-, Earth-, Mountain-, Water-Divinities; Harmful and Helpful Demons; Spirits, Ghosts, Devils, and Witches in Tibet and Mongolia.” In Demons and Protectors: Folk Religion in Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism. Edited by Béla Kelényi, 27–46. Budapest, Hungary: Ferenc Hopp Museum of Eastern Asiatic Art, 2003.
  545.  
  546. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547.  
  548. This essay, with accompanying illustrations, provides classifications and descriptions of deities and demons well known among Tibetans and introduced to Mongolian Buddhism from Tibet. The essay is a part of the catalogue prepared for an exhibition of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist art.
  549.  
  550. Find this resource:
  551.  
  552.  
  553. Kélenyi, Béla. “The Cult of Good Luck.” In Demons and Protectors: Folk Religion in Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism. Edited by Béla Kelényi, 47–78. Budapest, Hungary: Ferenc Hopp Museum of Eastern Asiatic Art, 2003.
  554.  
  555. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  556.  
  557. This essay, accompanied by illustrations, offers useful descriptions of the auspicious astrological symbols, protective seals, amulets for the protection of animals, and diagrams used in popular Mongolian rituals.
  558.  
  559. Find this resource:
  560.  
  561.  
  562. Tsultėm, Niamosoryn. Development of the Mongolian National Style Painting, “Mongol Zurag,” in Brief. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: State Publishing House, 1986.
  563.  
  564. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  565.  
  566. An exquisite collection of Mongolian Buddhist paintings with an introduction discussing the history, the iconography, and the Urga style of painting. The introduction and captions of individual pieces are given in four languages: Russian, English, French, and Spanish.
  567.  
  568. Find this resource:
  569.  
  570.  
  571. Tsultėm, Niamosoryn. Mongolian Architecture. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: State Publishing House, 1988.
  572.  
  573. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  574.  
  575. The volume contains color illustrations of Mongolian Buddhist temples and monasteries, most of which were built in the Manchu architectural style. The introduction offers a brief historical survey of Mongolian Buddhist architecture. The introduction and captions are given in Russian, English, French, and Spanish.
  576.  
  577. Find this resource:
  578.  
  579.  
  580. Tsultėm, Niamosoryn. Mongolian Sculpture. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia: State Publishing House, 1989.
  581.  
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583.  
  584. A beautiful collection of Mongolian Buddhist sculptures ranging from the works of Zanabazar and his disciples to stone slabs and miniature sculptures. The collection is preceded by an explanatory introduction. The introduction and captions of individual pieces are given in four languages: Russian, English, French, and Spanish.
  585.  
  586. Find this resource:
  587.  
  588.  
  589. Tsultem, Uranchimeg. “Ikh Khüree: Nomadic Monastery of Mongolia.” PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2009.
  590.  
  591. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  592.  
  593. An illuminating study of Buddhist art and its meaning in the history of Ikh Khüree (Urga) from 1639 to the early 20th century. It discusses the architectural and symbolic space of Urga, Jebtsundamba’s portraits, and Zanabazar’s creation of the new state and artistic style.
  594.  
  595. Find this resource:
  596.  
  597.  
  598. Wallace, Vesna A. “Diverse Aspects of the Mongolian Buddhist Manuscript Culture and Realms of Its Influence.” In Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art. Edited by Stephen C. Berkwitz, Juliane Schober, and Claudia Brown, 76–94. New York: Routledge, 2009.
  599.  
  600. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  601.  
  602. The essay discusses various aspects of the production of Buddhist manuscripts in pre-Communist Mongolia—the diverse materials used in their production, their artistic features, and the traditionally emphasized importance of their aesthetic values.
  603.  
  604. Find this resource:
  605.  
  606.  
  607. Tradition Holders
  608. Despite their large number, Western sources deal with very few influential holders of the Mongolian Buddhist tradition. Bawden 1961 introduces the reader to the lineage of the incarnations of the heads of Mongolian Buddhism, known as Jebtsundamba Khutukhtus. Norbo 1999 and ErdeniBayar 2007 give biographical accounts of two great Buddhist scholars highly esteemed among the Mongols. The former discusses Zaya Pandita of the 17th century, and the latter introduces the reader to Sum pa mKhan po Ye shes dPal ‘byor of the 18th century. The doctrinal views of the famous lama of the Gobi of the 19th and early 20th centuries, by name Danzan Ravjaa, are discussed in Sardar 2007, whereas Lattimore and Isono 1982 and Hyer and Jagchid 1983 deal with 20th-century figures, one from Outer Mongolia and the other from Inner Mongolia.
  609.  
  610. Bawden, Charles R. The Jebtsundamba Khutukhtus of Urga. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1961.
  611.  
  612. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  613.  
  614. This translation of the lives of the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtus is a useful resource for the study of the Mongolian and Tibetan incarnations of the first Mongolian Bogdo Gegeen, Zanabazar, who lived in the 17th century.
  615.  
  616. Find this resource:
  617.  
  618.  
  619. Erdenibayar. “Sumpa Khenpo Ishibaljur: A Great Figure in Mongolian and Tibetan Cultures.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 303–314. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  620.  
  621. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  622.  
  623. The essay seeks to correct the confusion regarding the origin of Ye shes dPal ‘byor, an 18th-century Buddhist scholar prominent among the Mongols and the Tibetans. Examining his autobiography, the essay argues for Ishibaljor’s Mongolian origin and birth in Kokonuur, and it briefly discusses his contribution to Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhist scholarship.
  624.  
  625. Find this resource:
  626.  
  627.  
  628. Hyer, Paul, and Sechin Jagchid. A Mongolian Living Buddha: Biography of the Kanjurwa Khutughtu. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983.
  629.  
  630. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  631.  
  632. A biography of a leading Buddhist figure in Inner Mongolia during the critical political period of the 1920s to 1945, when Inner Mongolia became a subregion of China. Kanjurwa’s account of his life and activities sheds light on the monastic life and religious practices, the political activities of Mongolian lamas, and the effect of the rise of Communism on Buddhism in that region.
  633.  
  634. Find this resource:
  635.  
  636.  
  637. Lattimore, Owen, and Fujiko Isono. The Diluv Khutagt: Memoirs and Autobiography of a Mongol Buddhist Reincarnation in Religion and Revolution. Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 1982.
  638.  
  639. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  640.  
  641. An illuminating account of the life of one of the most influential Mongolian religious figures of the 20th century, Dilowa Khutukhtu. It describes the political and religious conditions in Mongolia during the Communist revolution and Dilowa’s political activities and his life in exile.
  642.  
  643. Find this resource:
  644.  
  645.  
  646. Norbo, S. Zaya-pandita: Materialy k biografii. Elista: Russian Academy of Sciences, Kalmyk Institute of the Humanities Research, 1999.
  647.  
  648. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  649.  
  650. (Zaya-Pandita: materials for biography.) A useful study of the materials related to the biography of the prominent Oirat scholar and monk of the 17th century Zaya Pandita Namkhaijamts.
  651.  
  652. Find this resource:
  653.  
  654.  
  655. Sardar, Hamid. “Danzan Ravjaa: The Fierce Drunken Lord of the Gobi.” Paper presented at the Tenth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Oxford, 2003. In The Mongolia-Tibet Interface: Opening New Research Terrains in Inner Asia. Edited by Uradyn E. Bulag and Hildegard G. M. Diemberger, 257–294. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 2007.
  656.  
  657. DOI: 10.1163/ej.9789004155213.i-411Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  658.  
  659. An account of the life and teachings of the late 19th- and early 20th-century lama of the Red Hat sect of Mongolian Buddhism who was famous for his poetry, operas, dramas, and visionary writings.
  660.  
  661. Find this resource:
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