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20th-Century French Empire (International Relations)

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  1. Introduction
  2.  
  3. The 20th century saw France’s colonial empire move rapidly through the classic cycle of imperial expansion, attempted consolidation, and ultimate (often violent) decline. The empire reached its greatest physical extent in World War I’s aftermath, with the addition of new mandate territories formerly governed by Ottoman Turkey and Germany increasing the global population living under French rule. By 1936, the year in which a left-liberal Popular Front government conceded the principle of national independence to the Syria and Lebanon mandates, the French tricolor flew over 4 percent of the world’s population: an estimated 86,110,000 people. Territorial expansion and demographic growth were poor indicators of the empire’s underlying condition, however. Many scholars suggest that the empire was in severe crisis. The global depression of the 1930s hit numerous colonies hard. The grand-sounding imperial federations—French West Africa (Afrique Occidentale Française [AOF]), French Equatorial Africa (Afrique Equatoriale Française [AEF]), and French Indochina (Indochine Française)—had limited administrative reach and economic capacity and still less basis in indigenous culture. Among the trio of French-governed territories in the North West African Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) Algeria stood out precisely because it was the sole colony with a European population numbered in the hundreds of thousands. The older island territories—former slave colonies, penal settlements, and trading stations—had proportionately higher populations of French speakers and imperial citizens. But they were mostly small and remote. The “Frenchness” of other colonial communities was measured less in terms of a settler presence than through visible signs of social change. Linguistic transformation, Catholic observance, urban design and the reordering of public space, the adoption of French property law, and the incidence of mixed-race relationships were more frequently cited as indicators of the imperial presence than the growth of settler societies. Indeed, the culture wars between competing metropolitan and indigenous ways of life, language usage, and religious practice were just as critical in the social history of colonized peoples as their armed resistance against the imperial power. Renewed World War split empire administrations, populations, and territories, nurturing myriad forms of organized opposition. This was the prelude to fiercely contested wars of decolonization in Indochina and Algeria, which left bitter legacies that still endure.
  4.  
  5. General Overviews
  6.  
  7. Perhaps because of the sheer breadth of the subject, there are few comprehensive treatments of modern French imperialism. Aldrich 1996 comes closest with a lively, accessible, and always incisive account. Conklin, et al. 2011 offers a particularly well-informed undergraduate textbook, which successfully integrates French colonialism within a broader analysis of modern French history. Thobie, et al. 1990 provides a substantial collection, heavier on factual details than interpretations, but still an excellent source of reference. Ageron 1986 remains one of the best among the many French edited collections to cover aspects of France’s colonial presence overseas on the eve of decolonization. The two-volume collection Thomas 2011 has a strong 20th-century focus with studies of colonial cultures, contestation, and violence ranging across French Africa and Indochina. Clayton 1994 is a straightforward, factually driven account of France’s principal late colonial conflicts. The richest theoretical study, which draws substantially (but by no means exclusively) on the French colonial experience, is Cooper 2005.
  8.  
  9. Ageron, Charles-Robert, ed. Le Chemins de la décolonisation de l’empire française 1936–1956. Paris: Editions CNRS, 1986.
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  11. Essays by French and international scholars, mostly regional case studies of routes to decolonization.
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  13. Aldrich, Robert. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion. London: Macmillan, 1996.
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  15. Genuinely global in its approach, this is an excellent introduction for students new to the French Empire.
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  17. Clayton, Anthony. The Wars of French Decolonization. Harlow, UK: Longman, 1994.
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  19. Written primarily from French military sources, this is a succinct treatment that covers conflicts other than Indochina and Algeria.
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  21. Conklin, Alice L., Sarah Fishman, and Robert Zaretsky. France and Its Empire since 1870. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
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  23. The only textbook that directly makes French and colonial history part of the same analytical field.
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  25. Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question. Theory, Knowledge, History. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
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  27. The most thought-provoking study of what colonialism means in theory and in practice.
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  29. Thobie, Jacques, Gilbert Meynier, Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, and Charles-Robert Ageron. Histoire de la France Coloniale, 1914–1990. Paris: Armand Colin, 1990.
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  31. Largely narrative in style, this remains the most wide-ranging introductory work available in French.
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  33. Thomas, Martin, ed. The French Colonial Mind. 2 vols. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2011.
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  35. Two volumes of essays are covered here: the first concentrates on cultural aspects of the colonial encounter and the second covers its violent manifestations.
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  37. Comparative Works
  38.  
  39. With cultural and transnational approaches to the study of modern colonialism now more prevalent, historians and social scientists increasingly analyze the French experience comparatively. Some such as Cooper and Stoler 1997 contend that French and colonial pasts are inseparable and enmeshed. Stoler, et al. 2007 takes the point further, introducing the concept of “imperial formations” to describe the many ways in which imperial and colonial societies shaped and reshaped one another. Shipway 2008 and Thomas, et al. 2008 each begin their broad surveys from the proposition that the end of empire is better understood as a global phenomenon than as a series of national imperial experiences. Although narrowly focused on political impacts, Kahler 1984 remains useful in its comparative treatment of French and British decolonization. Cooper 2008 makes an important call for a reconceptualization of decolonization as something negotiable and anything but inevitable. Elkins and Pedersen 2005 offers a rewarding comparative survey of settler colonialism and its corrosive effects on colonial societies. Spruyt 2005 stands out among the political science literature on European colonialism in its engagement with historical interpretations.
  40.  
  41. Cooper, Frederick, and Ann Laura Stoler, eds. Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
  42. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520205406.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  43. An influential collection of essays, plus a much-cited introductory essay, that transformed academic approaches to the study of modern colonialism.
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  45. Cooper, Frederick. “Possibility and Constraint: African Independence in Colonial Perspective.” Journal of African History 49 (2008): 167–196.
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  47. An important article calling for a reconceptualization of decolonization and the supposedly inexorable march toward state independence.
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  49. Elkins, Caroline, and Pedersen, Susan, eds. Settler Colonialism in the Twentieth Century. New York: Routledge, 2005.
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  51. Informative essays, some with a French colonial focus, which highlight the centrality of settler cultures and settler resistance to the rise and demise of empire.
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  53. Kahler, Miles. Decolonization in Britain and France: The Domestic Consequences of International Relations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.
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  55. A useful analysis of how colonial collapse rebounded on French and British politics.
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  57. Shipway, Martin. Decolonization and Its Impact. Oxford: Blackwell, 2008.
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  59. Thematically organized and informative, this provides an engaging introduction for students new to the study of decolonization.
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  61. Spruyt, Hendrik. Ending Empire: Contested Sovereignty and Territorial Partition. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005.
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  63. Analyzes the contributory factors to non-violent and violent decolonization, linking these to the capacity of decolonization’s opponents to block colonial withdrawal.
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  65. Stoler, Ann Laura, Carole McGranahan, and Peter C. Perdue, eds. Imperial Formations. Santa Fe, NM: School for Advanced Research Press, 2007.
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  67. A multifaceted work that challenges the idea of European colonial exceptionality and argues for a more subtle reading of what empire comprises.
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  69. Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and L. J. Butler. Crises of Empire: Decolonization and Europe’s Imperial Nation States, 1918–1975. London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2008.
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  71. Comparative in focus, this is another textbook that introduces students to patterns of European colonial collapse.
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  73. Empire by Region
  74.  
  75. As a discipline, “new imperial history” has tended to move away from country-specific studies to investigate the impact of colonialism transnationally. That being said, much of the most illuminating work on the French Empire is rooted in more local and sometimes area-studies approaches that work upward and outward from regional experience. The subsections here provide a guide to some of this colony-specific work.
  76.  
  77. Algeria
  78.  
  79. Dominant among France’s overseas possessions, home to the French Empire’s largest European settler population, and riven by a cataclysmic war of decolonization, Algeria’s colonial experience is the most extensively studied within the corpus of French Empire scholarship. Separate subsections within this guide cover work on various aspects of Franco-Algerian conflict. Taken together, the books in this section, while being quite specialist, provide a wide-ranging introduction to colonial Algeria. Ruedy 1992 remains unsurpassed in his investigation of the processes and effects of French colonialism in Algerian society. Prochaska 1990 is equally outstanding in his explanation of European settler colonialism and the displacements it caused. Less theoretically engaged, Verdès-Leroux 2001 offers a very readable account of settler history and identity. Kateb 2001 is indispensable because it offers the only comprehensive exploration of Algerian demographic change over the colonial period. Lefeuvre 1997 also stands out as the fullest treatment of Franco-Algerian economic connections from the Depression years onward. Kaddache 2003 traces the emergence of an Algerian nationalist challenge after World War I while Hamed-Touati 1994 goes furthest in explaining the critical role played by Algerian immigrant workers to France in this emergent anti-colonialism.
  80.  
  81. Hamed-Touati, M’Barka. Immigration maghrébine et activités politiques en France de la première guerre mondiale à la veille du front populaire. Tunis: Publications de la Faculté des Sciences Humaines et Sociales de Tunis, 1994.
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  83. Explains the decisive role played by early North African immigrants in France in the emergence of organized nationalist groups.
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  85. Kaddache, Mahfoud. Histoire du nationalisme Algérien. Tome I: Question nationale et politique algérienne 1919–1951. 2d ed. Algiers, Algeria: Entreprise nationale du livre, 2003.
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  87. A detailed typology of Algerian nationalism in the decades preceding the war of independence.
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  89. Kateb, Kamel. Européens, “Indigènes” et Juifs en Algérie (1830–1962). Paris: Editions de l’Institut national d’études démographiques, 2001.
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  91. A meticulously researched study of Algeria’s changing colonial demography. Devastating in its conclusions.
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  93. Lefeuvre, Daniel. Chère Algérie: Comptes et mécomptes de la tutelle coloniale 1930–1962. Paris: Société Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer, 1997.
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  95. Dismantles numerous presumptions about Franco-Algerian economic relations by focusing on trade, investment, and the material costs of colonial rule.
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  97. Prochaska, David. Making Algeria French. Colonialism in Bône, 1870–1920. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
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  99. A fascinating reconstruction of the formation of a settler community, its cultural identity, and its impact in an Algerian provincial city.
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  101. Ruedy, John. Modern Algeria: The Origins and Development of a Nation. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992.
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  103. A comprehensive introduction for students.
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  105. Verdès-Leroux, Jeannine. Les Français d’Algérie de 1830 à aujourd-hui. Paris: Fayard, 2001.
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  107. Evaluates French settler culture on its own terms.
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  109. Morocco
  110.  
  111. Scholarship on the French protectorate of Morocco, useful on its own terms, is also remarkable in its analysis of broader French imperial motives and resultant methods of rule. Morocco’s first imperial proconsul, the much-studied Louis-Hubert Lyautey, is comprehensively discussed in Rivet 1988. A shorter, more accessible account of the early conquest years is Hoisington 1995, which is easier for undergraduates to digest. Gershovich 2000 picks up where Hoisington’s study ends, although Gershovich concentrates primarily on military aspects. Hart 2000 provides a succinct, anthropological treatment of Moroccan social organization during and beyond the period of French rule. Lafuente 1999 reassesses French efforts to disaggregate Morocco’s Berber peoples from their Arab neighbors. The discussion of Morocco’s mid-1920s Rif War in Pennell 1986 traces the deleterious consequences of such French intervention. Hoffman 2008 provides a thought-provoking investigation of colonialist thinking. Equally rewarding in this regard is Segalla 2009, the pick of recent work on the protectorate years.
  112.  
  113. Gershovich, Moshe. French Military Rule in Morocco: Colonialism and its Consequences. London: Frank Cass, 2000.
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  115. Predominantly focuses on the early years of conquest and consolidation making plain how protracted they were.
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  117. Hart, David M. Tribe and Society in Rural Morocco. London: Frank Cass, 2000.
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  119. A concise introduction to Morocco’s complex social anthropology during and after the French period.
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  121. Hoffman, Katherine E. “Purity and Contamination: Language Ideologies in French Colonial Native Policy in Morocco.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50.3 (2008): 724–752.
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  123. An important article highlighting flawed cultural presumptions and the limitations of administrative communication.
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  125. Hoisington, William A., Jr. Lyautey and the French Conquest of Morocco. London: Macmillan, 1995.
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  127. Clarifies how Morocco’s first French imperial pro-consul sought to fashion the protectorate according to his precepts of civilizing mission.
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  129. Lafuente, Gilles. La politique berbère de la France et le nationalisme marocain. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1999.
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  131. A useful counterpoint to Hoisington in its examination of French efforts to co-opt Morocco’s Berber community, thereby weakening nationalist opposition.
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  133. Pennell, C. R. A Country with a Government and a Flag: The Rif War in Morocco. Wisbech, UK: Middle East and North African Studies Press, 1986.
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  135. A study of the largest revolt against French colonial rule in the interwar years, which offers the Riffian Berber perspective on events.
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  137. Rivet, Daniel. Lyautey et l’institution du protectorat français au Maroc 1912–1925. 3 vols. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1988.
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  139. The fullest explanation of how the French protectorate came about.
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  141. Segalla, Spencer. The Moroccan Soul: French Education, Colonial Ethnology, and Muslim Resistance, 1912–1956. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.
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  143. Studies Franco-Moroccan clashes over the cultural capital inherent in control over schooling and depictions of Morocco and its people.
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  145. Tunisia
  146.  
  147. Less copious than the work on Algeria and sometimes overshadowed by work on Morocco, France’s other North African protectorate regime, scholarship on French Tunisia deserves greater prominence in its own right. Rather general in approach, Vermeren 2002 explores the changing composition of Tunisian (and Moroccan) elites across the colonial-postcolonial divide. Mouilleau 2000 examines the sociology and actions of Tunisia’s “civil controllers,” the military-administrative corps central to French implantation in the Tunisian interior. Bakalti 1996 and Marzouki 1993 each offer valuable introductions to women’s politics in colonial and postcolonial Tunisia. Mechat 2002 is the best study of the divisions within Tunisia’s Destourian movement. Lewis 2008 reinterprets the interaction of French and Tunisian legal jurisdictions, illuminating the resultant spaces opened for Tunisians to contest French power.
  148.  
  149. Bakalti, Souad. La femme Tunisienne au temps de la colonisation, 1881–1956. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1996.
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  151. Traces women’s reactions to various forms of colonial discrimination and their anticolonial activism.
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  153. Lewis, Mary Dewhurst. “Geographies of Power: The Tunisian Civic Order, Jurisdictional Politics, and Imperial Rivalry in the Mediterranean, 1881–1935.” Journal of Modern History 80.4 (2008): 791–830.
  154. DOI: 10.1086/591111Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  155. A revealing study of how Tunisians exploited competing local, colonial, and international legal jurisdictions to further their own interests.
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  157. Marzouki, Ilhem. Le mouvement des femmes en Tunisie au XXème siècle: Feminisme et politique. Tunis, Tunisia: Cérès, 1993.
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  159. A broad survey of the strong tradition of women’s political activism in colonial and postcolonial Tunisia.
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  161. Mechat, Samya El. Le Nationalisme Tunisien: Scission et conflits. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 2002.
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  163. Concise study of the two principal branches of Tunisia’s nationalist movement and the factionalism between them.
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  165. Mouilleau, Elisabeth. Fonctionnaires de la République et artisans de l’empire: Le cas des Contrôleurs Civils en Tunisie (1881–1956). Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 2000.
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  167. A profile of the army administrators charged with making protectorate government tangible in rural Tunisia.
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  169. Vermeren, Pierre. La formation des élites marocaines et tunisiennes: Des nationalistes aux islamistes 1920–2000. Paris: Editions La Découverte, 2002.
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  171. A comparative analysis of the changing complexion of political mobilization and elite identity in Morocco and Tunisia over the 20th century.
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  173. Syria and Lebanon Mandates
  174.  
  175. France’s position as a mandate power after World War I provoked bitter contestation in Syria and crystallized communal divides in Lebanon. Gelvin 1998 connects the shock at the French takeover in Syria to the preceding emergence of popular nationalism in the country during and after World War I. Khoury 1987 provides what remains the fullest account of Syrian responses to the French presence in town and countryside, tracing the co-option of elites and the consolidation of an organized nationalist challenge to mandatory control. In her assessment of gender politics, Thompson 2000 offers insights into changing social identities and issues of inclusion and exclusion in the civic order of the mandate states. Dueck 2010 also covers both Syria and Lebanon in her work, which is especially strong on matters of religious jurisdiction, the politics of education, and cultural identity. Watenpaugh 2006 links anticolonial sentiment to social status and changing urban politics in his study of Aleppo. Provence 2005 offers the most thoughtful treatment of the origins and outcome of the Great Syrian Revolt in the mid-1920s, a subject approached from an interesting political science standpoint in Neep 2012. Zamir 1997 offers a more generic treatment of Lebanon’s experience with the mandate.
  176.  
  177. Dueck, Jennifer. The Claims of Culture at Empire’s End: Syria and Lebanon under French Rule. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
  178. DOI: 10.5871/bacad/9780197264478.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  179. Studies clashes over educational, religious, and other institutions to explain how communal loyalties and cultural predominance were renegotiated in the mandate years.
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  181. Gelvin, James L. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.
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  183. Moves away from elite politics to study popular opposition to the imposition of French rule in Syria in World War I’s aftermath.
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  185. Khoury, Philip S. Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism, 1920–1945. London: I. B. Tauris, 1987.
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  187. Still the most comprehensive study of the mandate period; particularly illuminating on urban and rural elites and their attachments.
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  189. Neep, Daniel. Occupying Syria under the French Mandate: Insurgency, Space, and State Formation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  190. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511686856Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  191. Adapts both social theory and subaltern studies to demonstrate how violence informed French efforts to impose their vision of modernity on mandate Syria.
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  193. Provence, Michael. The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.
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  195. A revealing reconstruction of the motivations, objectives, and alignments among the Syrians who took up arms against French incursion in the 1920s.
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  197. Thompson, Elizabeth. Colonial Citizens. Republican Rights, Paternal Privilege and Gender in French Syria and Lebanon. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
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  199. Thompson shows that diverse groups and individuals (women’s activist networks in particular) mobilized imperial rhetoric to challenge paternalist authority and claim additional legal rights.
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  201. Watenpaugh, Keith. Being Modern in the Middle East: Revolution, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Arab Middle Class. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.
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  203. Refreshingly different in its focus on social class and “modern” civic identity among Aleppo’s emergent middle class in the early 20th century.
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  205. Zamir, Meir. Lebanon’s Quest: The Road to Statehood 1926–1939. London: I. B. Tauris, 1997.
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  207. A clear narrative account of Lebanese accommodation and resistance to the French mandate.
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  209. French West and Equatorial Africa
  210.  
  211. It is difficult to do justice to the variety of colonial experience in Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa, a vast region that encompassed the federations of French West Africa (AOF in French) and French Equatorial Africa (AEF). The works cited in this and the following section are, in their own unique ways, concerned with the ramifications of the colonial encounter. Readers will also find crucial works on the region in other sections: notably those on labor, ethnography, soldiering, and religion. Coquery-Vidrovitch and Goerg 1992 is a wide-ranging survey of French-African interaction throughout the colonial period. Becker, et al. 1997 takes this theme ever further over the course of two gargantuan volumes, bringing together African, French, and Anglophone scholars. Manning 1988 is the one undergraduate survey text to discuss the two African colonial federations in the round. Johnson 1971 remains a classic, its analysis of Senegalese elites and the politics of colonial citizenship essential reading. Keese 2007 updates the story, shifting the focus to the politics of decolonization. Cooper 1996 and Schmidt 2005 each examine the grassroots mobilization, which as they demonstrate was fundamental to the claims-making politics of French West Africa after 1945. Genova 2004 follows a more cultural approach, mapping questions of citizenship and rights onto changing identities in colonial West Africa.
  212.  
  213. Becker, Charles, Saliou Mbaye, and Ibrahima Thioub, eds. AOF: réalités et heritages: Sociétés ouest-africaines et ordre colonial, 1895–1960. 2 vols. Dakar: Direction des Archives du Sénégal, 1997.
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  215. A colossal collection of essays that cover multiple aspects of colonial life in West Africa.
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  217. Cooper, Frederick. “‘Our Strike’: Equality, Anticolonial Politics, and the 1947–48 Railway Strike in French West Africa.” Journal of African History 37.1 (1996): 81–118.
  218. DOI: 10.1017/S0021853700034800Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  219. Looks at the emergence of a claims-making politics as African workers challenged French authorities to live up to their egalitarian postwar rhetoric.
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  221. Coquery-Vidrovitch, Catherine, and Odile Goerg, eds. L’Afrique occidentale au temps des Français: Colonisateurs et colonisés, c. 1860–1960. Paris: La découverte, 1992.
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  223. Divided into two main sections: one thematic, the other comprising regional case studies. This is invaluable as both introductory text and as a source of reference.
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  225. Genova, James E. Colonial Ambivalence, Cultural Authenticity, and the Limits of Mimicry in French-Ruled West Africa, 1914–1956. New York: Peter Lang, 2004.
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  227. Focuses on the politics of identity among West Africa’s French-educated elite to demonstrate the limits of French claims to colonial inclusion.
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  229. Johnson, G. Wesley. The Emergence of Black Politics in Senegal: The Struggle for Power in the Four Communes, 1900–1920. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1971.
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  231. Takes a different approach to Schmidt in its assessment of African elites in the old Senegalese communes in which limited rights of French citizenship applied.
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  233. Keese, Alexander. Living with Ambiguity: Integrating an African Elite in French and Portuguese Africa, 1930–61. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2007.
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  235. A useful counterpart to Genova in its analysis of elite co-option in French and Portuguese Africa; more political than cultural in focus.
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  237. Manning, Patrick. Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa 1880–1985. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
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  239. A narrative account useful to students for its wealth of factual detail.
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  241. Schmidt, Elizabeth. Mobilizing the Masses: Gender, Ethnicity, and Class in the Nationalist Movement in Guinea, 1939–1958. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2005.
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  243. An investigation of popular mobilization, which contends that radical Guinean nationalism was forged from the bottom up.
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  245. French Black Africa and Decolonization
  246.  
  247. Few scholars would now suggest that French withdrawal from the black African federations was either “managed” or successful. Such interpretations were largely born of comparison with the greater levels of violence elsewhere in the French Empire after 1945. Chafer 2002 takes a more nuanced approach in a work that is equally useful to undergraduates and more specialist postgraduate students. Ginio 2006 is the one study squarely focused on the wartime years of Vichy French rule, while both Nwaubani 2001 and Rice 2010 highlight the growing importance of American influences. The contributors to Ageron and Michel 1992 provide country-by-country assessments of political and cultural contestation in the years immediately preceding French decolonization.
  248.  
  249. Ageron, Charles-Robert, and Marc Michel, eds. L’Afrique noire Française: L’heure des Indépendances. Paris: CNRS, 1992.
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  251. Many of these essays have a country-specific focus, supplemented by several examinations of leading nationalist groups in particular territories.
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  253. Chafer, Tony. The End of Empire in French West Africa, 1936–60: France’s Successful Decolonization? Oxford: Berg, 2002.
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  255. The most informative general account of decolonization in the region that highlights the levels of social and political contestation involved.
  256. Find this resource:
  257. Ginio, Ruth. French Colonialism Unmasked: The Vichy Years in French West Africa. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
  258. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  259. The clearest explanation of what Vichy colonialism amounted to in wartime West Africa.
  260. Find this resource:
  261. Nwaubani, Ebere. The United States and Decolonization in West Africa, 1950–1960. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2001.
  262. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  263. Ranges across French and British West Africa in its treatment of early US neo-colonialism in the region.
  264. Find this resource:
  265. Rice, Louisa. “Cowboys and Communists: Cultural Diplomacy, Decolonization and the Cold War in French West Africa.” Journal of Colonialism and Colonial History 11.3 (2010).
  266. DOI: 10.1353/cch.2010.0023Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  267. Well worth reading alongside Nwaubani, not least because of the more cultural focus adopted here.
  268. Find this resource:
  269. Smaller Territories
  270.  
  271. French island territories in the Caribbean and Pacific Oceania, as well as France’s treaty ports in India, do not fit easily within the broader historiography of French imperialism. Their cultural composition, their slaving or penal settlement origins, and their political trajectories bear stronger comparison with similar island or settlement enclaves than with French colonies elsewhere. Aldrich 1990 and Aldrich and Connell 1992 navigate readers through the multiplicity of French island settlements, stressing the uniqueness of the colonial experience in each. Laguerre 1990 provides a more sociological viewpoint, shining the spotlight on Martinique’s acute wealth disparities. Nicolas 1996 offers a clear narrative history of post-emancipation Martinique. Weber 1996 does much the same for the French settlements in India. The heart-rending account of France’s global network of colonial penal settlements in Toth 2006 speaks more generally to the racial and cultural dynamics of colonialism.
  272.  
  273. Aldrich, Robert. The French Presence in the South Pacific, 1842–1940. London: Macmillan, 1990.
  274. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  275. Something of a prequel to Aldrich and Connell 1992, but more analytical in its evaluation of colonial impacts on island societies.
  276. Find this resource:
  277. Aldrich, Robert, and John Connell. France’s Overseas Frontier: Départements et Territoires d’Outre-Mer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  278. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511584787Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  279. A case-by-case treatment of France’s remaining overseas possessions in the Pacific and the Caribbean.
  280. Find this resource:
  281. Laguerre, Michel S. Urban Poverty in the Caribbean: French Martinique as a Social Laboratory. London: Macmillan, 1990.
  282. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  283. Highlights the acute economic disparities and social marginalization in Martinique and their colonial roots.
  284. Find this resource:
  285. Nicolas, Armand. Histoire de la Martinique de 1848 à 1939. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1996.
  286. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  287. A good deal of factual information in a straightforward narrative history.
  288. Find this resource:
  289. Toth, Stephen A. Beyond Papillon: The French Overseas Penal Colonies, 1854–1952. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2006.
  290. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  291. Focused on the notorious Guiana “bagne” and the New Caledonia penal colony, this text examines the appalling treatment of colonial convicts and the representation of the penal settlements in France.
  292. Find this resource:
  293. Weber, Jacques. Pondichéry et les comptoirs de l’Inde française après Dupleix. Paris: Editions Denoël, 1996.
  294. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  295. A broad, colorful survey of the French Indian settlements, which are often entirely overlooked in studies of modern French imperialism.
  296. Find this resource:
  297. Madagascar and the 1947 Rebellion
  298.  
  299. France’s largest island territory, Madagascar was also the site of the first large-scale rebellion in Sub-Saharan Francophone Africa after 1945. Under-researched and remarkably overlooked in broader treatments of European decolonization, the Malagasy rebellion of 1947 understandably predominates in more specialist treatments of 20th-century French Madagascar. Arazalier and Suret-Canale 1999 give space to recent scholarship on the events of 1947, although this collection is rather short. Randrianja 2001 lends weight to the view that the rebellion marked the culmination of a more protracted cultural resistance to the French presence. Cole 2003 uses cultural anthropology to unlock Malagasy understandings of their bitter colonial heritage. Mosca 2007 provides domestic and international context to the critical French decisions to suppress the 1947 uprising. This subject is treated in the greatest depth in Tronchon 1986, a work that also includes valuable documentary evidence. Koerner 1994 offers a broad-brush approach to the rebellion’s longer-term origins and its legacies.
  300.  
  301. Arazalier, Francis, and Jean Suret-Canale, eds. Madagascar 1947 La tragédie oubliée. Paris: Temps des Cérises, 1999.
  302. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  303. Particularly revealing about the immediate origins of the 1947 rebellion and French reactions to it.
  304. Find this resource:
  305. Cole, Jennifer. “Narratives and Moral Projects: Generational Memories of the Malagasy 1947 Rebellion.” Ethos 31.1 (2003): 95–126.
  306. DOI: 10.1525/eth.2003.31.1.95Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  307. An anthropological perspective on collective memory that gets to the heart of the rebellion’s impact on Malagasy communities.
  308. Find this resource:
  309. Koerner, Francis. Madagascar: Colonisation Française et nationalisme malgache XXe siècle. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1994.
  310. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  311. A clear account of the connections between French treatment of Madagascar’s differing socio-ethnic groups and the resultant complexion of oppositional nationalism.
  312. Find this resource:
  313. Mosca, Liliana. “À l’origine de la répression de 1947 à Madagascar: Raisons nationales ou logique internationale?” Africa: Rivista trimestrale di studi e documentazione dell’Istituto italiano per l’Africae l’Oriente 62.2 (2007): 257–278.
  314. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  315. The best succinct account of how and why the rebellion triggered such extreme French counter-violence.
  316. Find this resource:
  317. Randrianja, Solofo. Société et luttes anticoloniales à Madagascar (1896 à 1946). Paris: Karthala, 2001.
  318. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  319. A companion to Koerner that also stressed the importance of communal discrimination to the colonial breakdown in Madagascar.
  320. Find this resource:
  321. Tronchon, Jacques. L’insurrection malgache de 1947. Paris: Karthala, 1986.
  322. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  323. The fullest account of the origins and course of the postwar rebellion and the punishment meted out to nationalist organizers.
  324. Find this resource:
  325. French Indochina
  326.  
  327. Certain recent studies of Indochina rank among the most significant studies of the 20th-century French Empire. Perhaps inevitably, Vietnam, the largest territory in the federal composite that was French Indochina, looms larger than Cambodia or Laos in the region’s colonial historiography. That being said, Brocheux and Hémery 2009 is at pains to cover the entire federation in the most comprehensive introductory text on the colonial period. More Vietnam-focused and cultural in approach is Cooper 2001, whose account is genuinely interdisciplinary. Bradley 2000 is essential to understanding the long-term origins of Vietnam’s war-torn contemporary history. So, too, are Bayly 2009, Hardy 1998, and Smith 1998. From the differing perspectives of a leading French cultural anthropologist, a far-sighted economist, and an emergent Vietnamese Communist leadership, each helps explain the misalignment between French governance and Vietnamese society in the mid-20th century. Keith 2012 added luster to this picture. The author explains how Catholic missionary enterprise gave rise to a hugely influential Vietnamese popular Catholicism, whose institutional structures became increasingly significant political actors as the colonial period unfolded. Ostensibly a study of Vietnam’s colonial prison system, Zinoman 2001 is also far more, as its examination of legal injustice, punishment regimes, and prison cultures are used to highlight the polarization of colonial society.
  328.  
  329. Bayly, Susan. “Conceptualizing Resistance and Revolution in Vietnam: Paul Mus’ Understanding of Colonialism in Crisis.” Journal of Vietnamese Studies 4.1 (2009): 192–205.
  330. DOI: 10.1525/vs.2009.4.1.192Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  331. Offers insight into how France’s preeminent ethnographer of Vietnamese society interpreted the mounting evidence that colonialism was failing.
  332. Find this resource:
  333. Bradley, Mark Philip. Imagining Vietnam and America: The Making of Postcolonial Vietnam, 1919–1950. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
  334. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  335. Steeped in Vietnamese sources, the book highlights the disjuncture between Vietnamese imaginings of America as a supporter of freedom and US visions of Vietnam as backward and threatening.
  336. Find this resource:
  337. Brocheux, Pierre, and Daniel Hémery. Indochina: An Ambiguous Colonization, 1858–1954. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.
  338. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  339. Well translated and easily the most comprehensive history of the colonial period. Written by two leading veteran scholars.
  340. Find this resource:
  341. Cooper, Nicola. France in Indochina: Colonial Encounters. Oxford: Berg, 2001.
  342. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  343. A thematic study of various ways in which colonialists and the French public created the idea and actuality of colonial Indochina.
  344. Find this resource:
  345. Hardy, Andrew. “The Economics of French Rule in Indochina: A Biography of Paul Bernard (1892–1960).” Modern Asian Studies 32.4 (1998): 807–848.
  346. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X98002911Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  347. Examines Bernard’s economic ideas to explain investment patterns and French understandings of Indochina’s depression in particular.
  348. Find this resource:
  349. Keith, Charles. Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.
  350. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  351. Traces the remarkable growth of Catholic observance in colonial Vietnam and the Church’s pivotal role in Vietnamese culture and politics before, during, and after the Indochina War of 1946–1954.
  352. Find this resource:
  353. Smith, R. B. “The Foundation of the Indochinese Communist Party, 1929–1930.” Modern Asian Studies 32.4 (1998): 769–805.
  354. DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X98002923Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  355. Explains how and why the Communist Party coalesced into a particular form at a particular time and with what consequences.
  356. Find this resource:
  357. Zinoman, P. The Colonial Bastille. A History of Imprisonment in Vietnam, 1862–1940. Berkeley: University Press of California, 2001.
  358. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  359. A rich investigation of colonial prison regimes, prisoner politicization, and revolt.
  360. Find this resource:
  361. World War I and Aftermath
  362.  
  363. The Great War had profound consequences for the French Empire. It presented new opportunities for imperial expansion, as explored in Andrew and Kanya-Forstner 1981, while also catalyzing opposition to colonial demands, a subject analyzed in Michel 1982. The changes wrought in French ethnocentrism and racial stereotyping by the presence of unprecedented numbers of colonial troops and civilian war workers in wartime France have yielded more profound insights into French concepts of colonial difference. Among a much larger body of work, Stovall 1998, Lunn 1999, and Fogarty 2008 stand out as essential first ports of call.
  364.  
  365. Andrew, Christopher M., and A. S. Kanya-Forstner. France Overseas: The Great War and the Climax of French Imperial Expansion. London: Thames and Hudson, 1981.
  366. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  367. A vivid history of the labyrinthine diplomacy and military maneuvering that secured the French hold over Syria and Lebanon.
  368. Find this resource:
  369. Fogarty, Richard S. Race and War in France: Colonial Subjects in the French Army, 1914–1918. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
  370. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  371. The most comprehensive analysis of the colonial presumptions and cultural precepts that conditioned French treatment of empire soldiers in World War I.
  372. Find this resource:
  373. Lunn, Joe. Memoirs of the Maelstrom: A Senegalese Oral History of the First World War. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999.
  374. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  375. A remarkable use of oral history to bring West African soldiers’ experiences of the Western Front to life.
  376. Find this resource:
  377. Michel, Marc. L’Appel à l’Afrique: Contributions et réactions à l’effort de guerre en AOF (1914–1919). Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1982.
  378. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  379. A broad survey that is especially valuable in its analysis of wartime recruitment drives and the reactions they provoked in French West Africa.
  380. Find this resource:
  381. Stovall, Tyler. “The Color Line Behind the Lines: Racial Violence in France during the First World War.” American Historical Review 103.3 (1998): 739–769.
  382. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  383. Analyzes the victimization and discrimination suffered by colonial war workers in France, most of who were removed after the conflict ended.
  384. Find this resource:
  385. Interwar
  386.  
  387. Geographically, the interwar period marked the zenith of France’s colonial power. Yet few contemporaries considered the 1920s and 1930s an age of “high imperialism.” Imperial decline became more widely anticipated as the material costs of colonial control surged ahead in the 1920s. Much of the work on the interwar French Empire is thus concerned with facets of imperial disintegration, whether in terms of failing reforms (Chafer and Sackur 1999), or deficient administrative structures, economic crisis, and violent dissent (Thomas 2005); Ageron 1990 is rich with detail about levels of French public engagement and attitude formation. Ezra 2000 sheds new light on the ways in which the French reimagined empire and its peoples in the early cinematic age. Marr 1981 offers the subtlest treatment of new discourses of anticolonial opposition in colonial Vietnam (Marr 1981). Hoisington 1984 provides the best account of the transition from interwar to wartime conditions under a particular colonial administration. Aissaoui 2009 highlights the early development of nationalist organization among North African immigrant communities in France.
  388.  
  389. Ageron, Charles-Robert. “Les colonies devant l’opinion publique Française (1919–1939).” Revue Française d’Histoire d’Outre-Mer 77.286 (1990): 31–73.
  390. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  391. Aids an understanding of when and where colonial affairs were present or absent in French associational life between the wars.
  392. Find this resource:
  393. Aissaoui, Rabah. Immigration and National Identity: North African Political Movements in Colonial and Postcolonial France. London: I. B. Tauris, 2009.
  394. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  395. A close reading of early nationalist consciousness emanating from within an immigrant community whose outlook was shaped by discrimination at variance with French republican universalism.
  396. Find this resource:
  397. Chafer, Tony, and Amanda Sackur, eds. French Colonial Empire and the Popular Front: Hope and Disillusion. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999.
  398. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  399. A thorough reassessment of the ambitions and frustrations of the most colonially liberal interwar French administration.
  400. Find this resource:
  401. Ezra, Elizabeth. The Colonial Unconscious: Race and Culture in Interwar France. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000.
  402. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  403. Shows how pervasive colonial imagery in film, popular literature, jazz, and the 1931 Vincennes Colonial Exhibition reinforced racial stereotyping.
  404. Find this resource:
  405. Hoisington, William A., Jr. The Casablanca Connection: French Colonial Policy, 1936–1943. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.
  406. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  407. Carefully reconstructs French administrative initiatives and Moroccan elite responses during General Charles Noguès’s term as proconsul in Rabat.
  408. Find this resource:
  409. Marr, David G. Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981.
  410. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  411. A landmark study of currents in Vietnamese intellectual thought that shows a vibrant civic culture that gave the lie to French and Communist readings of colonial society.
  412. Find this resource:
  413. Thomas, Martin. The French Empire between the Wars: Imperialism, Politics, and Society. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2005.
  414. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  415. A survey of the empire focused on early indicators of imperial breakdown as manifested in economic marginalization, rebellion, and the frustration of reform.
  416. Find this resource:
  417. World War II
  418.  
  419. The theme of incipient colonial crisis, manifest in much of the work on the interwar empire, emerges even more prominently in studies of the World War II years. Cantier and Jennings 2004 provides multiple regional and thematic perspectives on those overseas dependencies at least nominally controlled by the Vichy state. Jennings 2001 explores the phenomenon of Vichy colonialism through three regional case studies, each of which is expertly drawn. Munholland 2005 examines a particularly striking instance of misalignment between de Gaulle’s Free French movement and its allied backers. Zamir 2010 lifts the lid on the worst instance of Franco-British imperial chicanery in the Middle East. Thomas 2011 argues that the populations of French North Africa experienced the war years primarily as economic hardship and political repression.
  420.  
  421. Cantier, Jacques, and Eric Jennings, eds. L’Empire colonial sous Vichy. Paris: Odile Jacob, 2004.
  422. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  423. Themed essays on aspects of colonial life and imperial policymaking under the Vichy regime.
  424. Find this resource:
  425. Jennings, Eric T. Vichy in the Tropics. Pétain’s National Revolution in Madagascar, Guadeloupe, and Indochina, 1940–1944. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
  426. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  427. Consists of three linked regional case studies that highlight the ideological distinctiveness of Vichy’s colonial ambitions and their damaging effects.
  428. Find this resource:
  429. Munholland, Kim. Rock of Contention: Free French and Americans at War in New Caledonia, 1940–45. Oxford: Berghahn, 2005.
  430. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  431. A remarkable study of worsening Franco-American clashes over sovereignty, strategy, and much else in Gaullist New Caledonia.
  432. Find this resource:
  433. Thomas, Martin. “Resource War, Civil War, Rights War: Factoring Empire into French North Africa’s Second World War.” War in History 18.2 (2011): 225–248.
  434. DOI: 10.1177/0968344510394265Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  435. Suggests that extreme wartime economic distress and consequent social breakdown was the most important legacy of war in French North Africa.
  436. Find this resource:
  437. Zamir, Meir. “The ‘Missing Dimension’: Britain’s Secret War against France in Syria and Lebanon, 1942–45—Part II.” Middle Eastern Studies 46.6 (2010): 791–899.
  438. DOI: 10.1080/00263206.2010.520412Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  439. Exposes British efforts to unseat French authority in the Middle East.
  440. Find this resource:
  441. Colonial Soldiers
  442.  
  443. Colonial soldiers’ experiences are now analyzed less in military terms than in cultural ones. By focusing on some or all aspects of troops’ experience, from initial recruitment through combat to eventual return home, scholars have drawn much wider conclusions about markers of racial difference, colonial exploitation of social hierarchies, and the radicalization of supposedly loyalist groups. Echenberg 1990 remains the best introductory study to each of these issues as refracted through the experiences of soldiers from French West Africa. Mann 2006 digs more deeply into issues of social status, loyalism, and politicization in his landmark study of Malian soldiers. Lawler 1992 and Scheck 2008 highlight the often appalling treatment of colonial troops in World War II, while Lunn 1999 illustrates the fatal connections between French “martial race” profiling and the high casualty rates among West African troops on the Western Front.
  444.  
  445. Echenberg, Myron. Colonial Conscripts: The Tirailleurs Sénégalais in French West Africa, 1857–1960. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1990.
  446. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  447. A thorough exploration of the West African soldier experience, particularly revealing about the two world wars.
  448. Find this resource:
  449. Lawler, Nancy E. Soldiers of Misfortune: Ivoirien Tirailleurs of World War II. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1992.
  450. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  451. More tightly focused on an identifiable military cohort and an excellent complement to Echenberg.
  452. Find this resource:
  453. Lunn, Joe. “‘Les Races Guerrières’: Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War.” Journal of Contemporary History 34.4 (1999): 517–536.
  454. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  455. The clearest, most succinct analysis of French “martial race” theory.
  456. Find this resource:
  457. Mann, Gregory. Native Sons: West African Veterans and France in the Twentieth Century Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.
  458. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  459. An Africanist perspective on colonial soldiery from Mali that stresses the importance of slavery’s legacy and French reluctance to recognize the importance of the soldiers’ contribution.
  460. Find this resource:
  461. Scheck, Raffael. Hitler’s African Victims: The German Army Massacres of Black French Soldiers in 1940. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
  462. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  463. A searing account of the mass murder of colonial troops during the battle for France.
  464. Find this resource:
  465. Empire and the French Fourth Republic
  466.  
  467. During the Fourth Republic’s twelve-year existence between 1946 and 1958 ambitious plans to renovate the empire in the smarter, more inclusive colors of the French Union were soon eclipsed by rebellions and war in Indochina, Madagascar, Algeria, Cameroon, and elsewhere. Most remarkable about the empire-related scholarship covering this period is how little of it connects these colonial crises to the particularities of France’s restored multi-party democracy. Three of the most revealing examinations of postwar imperial policymaking are now of considerable vintage. Marshall 1973 has never been bettered as an analysis of how public opinion, party politics, and colonial reformism collided in the Fourth Republic’s formative stages. Shennan 1989 integrates early planning for a French Union into a broader study of wartime schemes for the restoration of republican democracy. And Wall 1991 rightly makes empire central to its analysis of Franco-American relations in the decade after 1945. Several contributors to Berstein and Milza 2000 illustrate the centrality of arguments about empire to France’s decisive shift to the political right in 1947. That same year also witnessed the finalization of the Algerian Statute, an ill-conceived proto-constitution whose shortcomings are explained in Lewis 1992. Vaïsse 1997 offers the fullest investigation of the untrammeled French imperialism that drove France into collusion with Israel and Britain during the 1956 Suez crisis. Readers may also find the selections covering the decolonization conflicts in Indochina and Algeria useful.
  468.  
  469. Berstein, Serge, and Pierre Milza, eds. L’Année 1947. Paris: Presses de Sciences, 2000.
  470. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  471. Not explicitly imperial in focus, this study explains how worsening colonial problems refashioned French coalition politics in postwar France.
  472. Find this resource:
  473. Lewis, James I. “French Politics and the Algerian Statute of 1947.” Maghreb Review 17.1 (1992): 147–172.
  474. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  475. Complements Shennan by explaining the significance of the Algerian adjunct to the French Union.
  476. Find this resource:
  477. Marshall, D. Bruce. The French Colonial Myth and Constitution-Making in the Fourth Republic. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1973.
  478. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  479. Still important in its identification of a misplaced postwar consensus about empire’s intrinsic importance to French reconstruction.
  480. Find this resource:
  481. Shennan, Andrew. Rethinking France. Plans for Renewal, 1940–46. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989.
  482. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  483. Particularly useful to students seeking to understand the origins of the French Union scheme.
  484. Find this resource:
  485. Vaïsse, Maurice, ed. La France et l’opération de Suez de 1956. Paris: ADDIM, 1997.
  486. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  487. Military and diplomatic historians contribute to the fullest analysis of France’s part in the disastrous Suez venture.
  488. Find this resource:
  489. Wall, Irwin M. The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945–1954. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
  490. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511523779Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  491. Like Berstein and Milza, while not primarily a work of colonial history, this work is especially strong on America’s widening contribution to France’s war in Indochina.
  492. Find this resource:
  493. Colonialism and Culture in France
  494.  
  495. The cultural turn in new imperial history has generated a wealth of outstanding scholarship, much of it concerned with issues of identity and the construction of difference in colonial and metropolitan societies. Blanchard and Lemaire 2003 brings together scholars who illustrate the breadth of colonial influences on the cultural life of mainland France. Chafer and Sackur 2002 achieves much the same, focusing in particular on imperialist propaganda. Lebovics 1992 shows convincingly how previous concepts of civic identity were supplanted by more ethnically determined ones in early-20th-century France. Boittin 2012 reverses the analytical lens to consider connections between colonial migrants and feminists as each responded to discrimination in interwar Paris. Stovall and van den Abbeele 2003 offers a longer view of the cultural roots of colonial discrimination. Wilder 2005 is path-breaking in its identification of the late Third Republic and its empire as a unitary analytical field best understood as an “imperial nation state.”
  496.  
  497. Blanchard, Pascal, and Sandrine Lemaire, eds. Culture coloniale. La France conquise par son Empire 1871–1931. Paris: Editions autrement, 2003.
  498. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  499. A book that prefigured several more on related themes of cultural representation and popular imperialism.
  500. Find this resource:
  501. Boittin, Jennifer. Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2012.
  502. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  503. A transnational study of political and cultural activism among the two largest disenfranchised groups in imperial France: women and colonial migrants.
  504. Find this resource:
  505. Chafer, Tony, and Amanda Sackur, eds. Promoting the Colonial Idea. Propaganda and Visions of Empire in France. London: Palgrave, 2002.
  506. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  507. Useful essays that focus on public opinion and migration, representations of empire, and science and memorialization.
  508. Find this resource:
  509. Lebovics, Herman. True France: The Wars over Cultural Identity, 1900–1945. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992.
  510. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  511. Refutes the myth that French national identity was “color blind” and defined by attachment to republican civic ideals.
  512. Find this resource:
  513. Stovall, Tyler, and Georges van den Abbeele, eds. French Civilization and Its Discontents: Orientalism, Colonialism, Race. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2003.
  514. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  515. A valuable reassessment of “Frenchness” in light of France’s colonial past.
  516. Find this resource:
  517. Wilder, Gary. The French Imperial Nation-State: Negritude and Colonial Humanism between the Two World Wars. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
  518. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  519. A deservedly influential work that uses analysis of the Negritude movement to examine the paradoxes of the “colonial humanism” professed by interwar reformers.
  520. Find this resource:
  521. Attitudes to Race and Identity
  522.  
  523. Closely linked to reassessments of French cultures of colonialism, the study of French attitudes to race and identity now ranks among the most vibrant subjects in the field. Bernardini 1997 and especially Savarese 1998 provide essential background to the pseudo-philosophical roots of modern French colonial racism. Peabody and Stovall 2003 explores the idiosyncrasies underlying French ideas of race and citizenship in a collection that encompasses two centuries and more. Lorcin 1999 remains the indispensable account of racial constructions of identity and communal difference in early colonial Algeria. MacMaster 1997 illustrates the consequences of such racial discrimination for France’s largest colonial immigrant group. Prochaska 1996 gives a lively account of the unapologetic vernacular racism among Algeria’s early-20th-century settlers. And Rosenberg 2002 reflects on the racial outlook of France’s preeminent interwar imperialist politician, Albert Sarraut.
  524.  
  525. Bernardini, Jean-Marc. Le Darwinisme social en France (1859–1918): Fascination et rejet d’une idéologie. Paris: CNRS Editions, 1997.
  526. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  527. Explores the extent to which social Darwinism affected French political, and imperialist, thought.
  528. Find this resource:
  529. Lorcin, Patricia M. E. Imperial Identities: Stereotyping, Prejudice and Race in Colonial Algeria. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999.
  530. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  531. Pioneering in its exploration of how colonial stereotyping shaped French attitudes and actions in Algeria.
  532. Find this resource:
  533. MacMaster, Neil. Colonial Migrants and Racism: Algerians in France, 1900–62. London: Macmillan, 1997.
  534. DOI: 10.1057/9780230371255Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  535. Studies the connections between social marginalization and nationalist self-awareness in addition to forms of racial discrimination.
  536. Find this resource:
  537. Peabody, Sue, and Tyler Stovall. The Color of Liberty: Histories of Race in France. Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
  538. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  539. Representations of the “other” are prominent here as well in a wide-ranging study of French ideas of race and colonial difference.
  540. Find this resource:
  541. Prochaska, David. “History as Literature, Literature as History: Cagayous of Algiers.” American Historical Review 101.3 (1996): 671–711.
  542. DOI: 10.2307/2169419Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  543. Uses a rough-and tumble fictional character to examine ideas of settler identity at the start of the century.
  544. Find this resource:
  545. Rosenberg, Clifford. “Albert Sarraut and Republican Racial Thought.” French Politics, Culture and Society 20.3 (2002): 97–114.
  546. DOI: 10.3167/153763702782369641Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  547. Shows that liberal republicans were not immune to scientific racism and ideas of civilizational hierarchy.
  548. Find this resource:
  549. Savarese, Eric. L’Ordre colonial et sa légitimation en France métropolitaine: Oublier l’autre. Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 1998.
  550. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  551. Draws on Said’s ideas to explain French “othering” of colonized peoples.
  552. Find this resource:
  553. Ideas of Governance and Administrative Practice
  554.  
  555. French promotion of empire as a cultural project guided by distinct ideas of social modernization and cultural transformation has fascinated scholars since the publication of a pioneering study in Betts 1961. Equally influential was Cohen 1971, which compiled the first sociological profile of France’s colonial administrators. Conklin 1997 has gone furthest in redefining this branch of the field, identifying a widespread shift away from ambitious but unachievable concepts of colonial assimilation with France toward the more conservative alternative of association. Osborn 2003 explores the indispensable role of local intermediaries to the implementation of such policies, a theme that is more widely examined in Lawrence, et al. 2006. Both of these works fundamentally question long-standing presumptions about the locus of agency and power in colonial administrative relationships.
  556.  
  557. Betts, Raymond. Assimilation and Association in French Colonial Theory, 1890–1914. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961.
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  559. Still immensely useful in delineating the basic outlines of the two predominant approaches to French colonial governance.
  560. Find this resource:
  561. Cohen, William B. Rulers of Empire: The French Colonial Service in Africa. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1971.
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  563. A study of France’s colonial bureaucracy, its sociological composition, and professional priorities.
  564. Find this resource:
  565. Conklin, Alice L. A Mission to Civilize. The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895–1930. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997.
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  567. Traces fundamental changes in the way the French Empire was governed and justified in the early 20th century.
  568. Find this resource:
  569. Lawrence, Benjamin N., Emily Lynn Osborn, and Richard L. Roberts, eds. Intermediaries, Interpreters, and Clerks: African Employees in the Making of Colonial Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2006.
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  571. A collection that reveals how pivotal junior functionaries were to the operation of colonial government and the production of knowledge about colonial societies.
  572. Find this resource:
  573. Osborn, Emily Lynn, “‘Circle of Iron’: African Colonial Employees and the Interpretation of Colonial Rule in French West Africa.” Journal of African History 44.1 (2003): 29–50.
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  575. Complements the foregoing study, illustrating that colonial government in Guinea and French Soudan was substantially African in composition.
  576. Find this resource:
  577. Colonial Ethnography and Knowledge Construction
  578.  
  579. The ways in which knowledge about colonial peoples was formulated underpinned colonialist attitudes and presumptions. Alongside anthropology, its near cousin ethnography, which was sometimes called “a science of colonialism,” emerged in the early 20th century as the academic discipline most critical to the process. Two highly informative edited collections, De l’Estoile, et al. 2005 and Tilley and Gordon 2007, demonstrate the power exercised by these disciplines in French and other European imperialist thinking. Bayly 2000 provides anthropological perspective on colonial anthropology itself. Amselle and Sibeud 1998 reexamines the career and ideas of France’s foremost colonial ethnographer, Maurice Delafosse. In similar vein, Sibeud 2002 reconstructs the attitudinal formation and networks of influence among Delafosse’s Africanist contemporaries. Trumbull 2009 deconstructs the “factual” knowledge assembled by colonial ethnographers in Algeria to demonstrate how particular cultural practices and religious beliefs were mobilized as evidence of colonial inferiority. Conklin 2002 shows how ethnography redefined French ideas of colonial knowledge production.
  580.  
  581. Amselle, Jean-Loup, and Emmanuelle Sibeud, eds. Maurice Delafosse: Entre orientalisme et ethnographie, l’itinéraire d’un africaniste (1870–1926). Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1998.
  582. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  583. A useful essay collection that illustrates the impact of the new colonial ethnography personified by Delafosse.
  584. Find this resource:
  585. Bayly, Susan. “French Anthropology and the Durkheimians in Colonial Indochina.” Modern Asian Studies 34.3 (2000): 581–622.
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  587. An excellent complement to the preceding collection and the clearest explanation of how colonial administrations selectively exploited social scientific ideas.
  588. Find this resource:
  589. Conklin, Alice, L. “The New ‘Ethnology’ and ‘la situation coloniale.’” French Politics, Culture, and Society 20.2 (2002): 29–46.
  590. DOI: 10.3167/153763702782369786Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  591. Focused on government anthropologist Georges Balandier, this article examines how ethnographic ideas achieved common currency in colonial administrative training and thinking.
  592. Find this resource:
  593. De l’Estoile, Benoît, Federico Neiburg, and Lygia Sigaud, eds. Empires, Nations, and Natives. Anthropology and State-Making. Durham: University of North Carolina Press, 2005.
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  595. Perhaps the most insightful of the collections dealing with aspects of colonial knowledge production and the contributions of professional anthropologists to it.
  596. Find this resource:
  597. Sibeud, Emmanuelle. Une science impériale pour l’Afrique? La construction des savoirs africanistes en France, 1878–1930. Paris: EHESS, 2002.
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  599. An impressive study of the professional ethnographers and museums, which produced the corpus of studies integral to French strategies of domination in colonial West Africa.
  600. Find this resource:
  601. Tilley, Helen, and Robert J. Gordon, eds. Ordering Africa. Anthropology, European Imperialism, and the Politics of Knowledge. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2007.
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  603. Ranks alongside De l’Estoile, et al. 2005 as a breakthrough collection of essays on anthropological readings of colonial difference.
  604. Find this resource:
  605. Trumbull, George R. An Empire of Facts: Colonial Power, Cultural Knowledge, and Islam in Algeria, 1870–1914. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
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  607. The clearest, single-colony treatment of how a colonial state generated its knowledge about the people it purported to rule.
  608. Find this resource:
  609. Economic Dimensions
  610.  
  611. The economics of French Empire has never elicited the weight of scholarship identified with its British counterpart. This is partly because Paris lacked London’s status as an imperial financial center but also because the fate of French heavy industry was less dependent on empire’s fortunes. Cultural readings of empire also pay minimal attention to economic factors. This is a pity for several reasons. Marseille 1984 demonstrated long ago how intertwined the industries and economic fates of France and its colonies became after World War I. Vorapheth 2004 has amplified the point in regard to colonial business interests in Indochina. Bonin, et al. 2008 is a vast compendium of knowledge about imperialist lobby groups, colonial banking consortia, and French commercial investment in imperial projects. Hodeir 2003 brings those concerns forward to the final years of empire, illustrating the vital importance of the phenomenon of “flight capital.” Boomgaard and Brown 2000 and Booth 2007 make important observations about colonial export economies in Southeast Asia during and after the Depression.
  612.  
  613. Bonin, Hubert, Catherine Hodeir, and Jean-François Klein, eds. L’esprit économique impérial (1830–1970): Groupes de pression et réseaux du patronat colonial en France et dans l’empire. Paris: Publications de la SFHOM, 2008.
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  615. A gargantuan study of the transnational networks of imperial influence and connection between bankers, industrialists, and local commercial consortia.
  616. Find this resource:
  617. Boomgaard, Peter, and Ian Brown, eds. Weathering the Storm: The Economies of Southeast Asia in the 1930s Depression. Pasir Panjang, Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2000.
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  619. A measured assessment of the varied impact of the global economic crisis on colonial societies, including French Vietnam.
  620. Find this resource:
  621. Booth, Anne. “Night Watchman, Extractive, or Development States? Some Evidence from Late Colonial Southeast Asia.” Economic History Review 60.2 (2007): 241–266.
  622. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0289.2007.00377.xSave Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  623. The essential complement to the preceding work.
  624. Find this resource:
  625. Hodeir, Catherine. Stratégies d’Empire: Le grand patronat colonial face à la décolonisation. Paris: Belin, 2003.
  626. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  627. A revealing investigation of how French business interests adapted to impending decolonization.
  628. Find this resource:
  629. Marseille, Jacques. Empire colonial et capitalisme Français: Histoire d’un divorce. Paris: Albin Michel, 1984.
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  631. The benchmark analysis of the gradual economic dislocation between France and its colonial dependencies: Marseille’s periodization of this process is hugely significant.
  632. Find this resource:
  633. Vorapheth, Kham. Commerce et colonisation en Indochine 1860–1945. Paris: Les Indes Savantes, 2004.
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  635. A comprehensive study of the connections between money, business, and French imperial expansion.
  636. Find this resource:
  637. Labor and Policing
  638.  
  639. Linked to the economics of French Empire, colonial labor histories are particularly revealing about the social changes precipitated by the shift to waged labor, the importance of economic migration in refashioning colonial identities, and the coercive aspects of worker surveillance and labor control. Cooper 1996 not only addresses the first of these topics but also offers an essential foundation for any student of colonial labor history. Manchuelle 1997 is a particularly useful examination of economic migration as a marker of communal identity. Filipovich 2001 and, above all, Roberts 1996 dissect the colonial dynamics inherent to the vast cotton cultivation schemes in the West African interior. Fall 1993 focuses on the persistence of forced labor throughout much of the region. Thomas 2012 connects colonial policing to the apparatus of labor control. And Rosenberg 2006 explores the intimate connection between the policing of Algerian workers and heightened immigration controls in interwar France.
  640.  
  641. Cooper, Frederick. Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  642. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511584091Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  643. A pioneering analysis of African worker responses to the spread of coercive labor practices in French and British black Africa.
  644. Find this resource:
  645. Fall, Bouboucar. Le travail forcé en Afrique occidentale française (1900–1946). Paris: Editions Karthala, 1993.
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  647. Reveals the continued importance of forced labor to economic activity and infrastructure projects throughout French West Africa in the early 20th century.
  648. Find this resource:
  649. Filipovich, Jean. “Destined to Fail: Forced Settlement at the Office du Niger, 1926–45.” Journal of African History 42.2 (2001): 239–260.
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  651. Well worth consulting to appreciate the sheer magnitude and breathtaking folly of the Office du Niger cotton cultivation scheme.
  652. Find this resource:
  653. Manchuelle, François. Willing Migrants: Soninke Labor Diasporas, 1848–1960. London: James Currey, 1997.
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  655. An important revisionist study suggesting that much labor migration from Senegal and Mali was voluntary and operated outside the boundaries of colonial restriction.
  656. Find this resource:
  657. Roberts, Richard L. Two Worlds of Cotton: Colonialism and the Regional Economy in the French Soudan, 1800–1946. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996.
  658. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  659. Demonstrates the linkages and ruptures between the French textile industry and cotton manufacture in French Soudan, the production of which became more coercive with the advent of the Office du Niger.
  660. Find this resource:
  661. Rosenberg, Clifford. Policing Paris: The Origins of Modern Immigration Control between the Wars. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.
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  663. Uses the introduction of heightened surveillance and immigration restrictions to illustrate how the French capital’s police adopted colonial-style techniques of repression.
  664. Find this resource:
  665. Thomas, Martin. Violence and Colonial Order: Police, Workers and Protest in the European Colonial Empires, 1918–1940. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
  666. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9781139045643Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  667. Draws on case studies from the French, British, and Belgian empires to indicate that colonial labor control increasingly determined police activity, which became more closely attuned to the political economy of individual colonies.
  668. Find this resource:
  669. Gender and Sexuality
  670.  
  671. Gendered readings of empire have transformed academic understanding of colonialism as a social process in which hierarchies of gender were no less rigidly encoded than those of race and ethnicity. Students new to the topic will find a reliable guide in Bryder 1998. Clancy-Smith and Gouda 1998 contains several outstanding case-study essays that illustrate the hypocrisy intrinsic in colonial attitudes to gender roles, legal responsibilities, and sex across colonial color lines. Deservedly the most influential work in the field is Stoler 2002, which brings the perspective of cultural anthropology to bear in its treatment of colonial attitudes to interracial relationships. Also illuminating in this regard is White 1999, which is a subtly devastating study of children of mixed-race parentage in West Africa. In her study of prostitution in colonial North Africa, Taraud 2003 offers a useful counterpoint to Lomo Myazhiom 2001 and its brief but incisive account of colonial efforts to alter the civil status of married Muslim women in Francophone black Africa. Aldrich 2003 provides a sophisticated analysis of homosexuality and homoerotic colonial subcultures that ranks among the best studies of sexuality and empire.
  672.  
  673. Aldrich, Robert. Colonialism and Homosexuality. London: Routledge, 2003.
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  675. Strikingly original and immensely wide ranging; the book’s coverage of French imperial and colonial attitudes to homosexuality is particularly strong.
  676. Find this resource:
  677. Bryder, Linda. “Sex, Race, and Colonialism: An Historiographical Review.” International History Review 20.4 (1998): 806–854.
  678. DOI: 10.1080/07075332.1998.9640841Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  679. An excellent introduction to key discursive problems and their interconnections.
  680. Find this resource:
  681. Clancy-Smith, Julia, and Frances Gouda, eds. Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998.
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  683. Outstanding essays, several of them on French African and Southeast Asian themes.
  684. Find this resource:
  685. Lomo Myazhiom, Aggée Célestin. Mariages et domination française en Afrique Noire (1916–1958). Paris: Editions L’Harmattan, 2001.
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  687. Concise examination of French efforts to disrupt the precepts of Islamic marriage codes.
  688. Find this resource:
  689. Saada, Emmanuelle. Empire’s Children: Race, Filiation, and Citizenship in the French Colonies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
  690. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226733098.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  691. English translation of a superb anthropologically driven study into racial stratification as refracted through citizenship codes in the empire.
  692. Find this resource:
  693. Stoler, Ann Laura. Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
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  695. The best theoretically informed account of the interplay between race, gender, and colonialism viewed through the prism of interracial relationships.
  696. Find this resource:
  697. Taraud, Christelle. La prostitution coloniale: Algérie, Tunisie, Maroc (1830–1962). Paris: Payot, 2003.
  698. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  699. Useful primarily because of the breadth of its coverage, which facilitates long-term comparison.
  700. Find this resource:
  701. White, Owen. Children of the French Empire: Miscegenation and Colonial Society in French West Africa 1895–1960. Oxford: Clarendon, 1999.
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  703. Another transformative account, and a valuable complement to Saada’s work, this study focuses on the lives of children born of mixed-race in colonial West Africa.
  704. Find this resource:
  705. Religion
  706.  
  707. There have been several important additions to what was once a rather anemic literature on the interactions between French colonialism and religion. Daughton 2006 revised our understanding of the fraught relationship between French missionary groups and secular republican authorities, demonstrating how frequently their shared colonialism transcended the ideological and religious differences between them. Focusing on Cameroon, first under German and then French colonial administration, Orosz 2008 illustrates that similar frictions between civil and religious authorities were eclipsed by sectarian rivalries between Catholic and Protestant mission educators. In its study of colonial and postcolonial Catholicism in Vietnam, Keith 2012 makes profitable use of David Marr’s analytical model of cultural adaptation to demonstrate the resilience of Christianity among the Vietnamese. Cumulatively, the contributors to White and Daughton 2012 suggest that the French Empire was anything but a secular republican project. Moving to the world of African Islam, Robinson 2000 remains the benchmark study of the uneasy accommodation between French colonialism and local devotional practice, exemplified in this case by West African Sufi brotherhoods. Babou 2007 suggests that Senegal’s principal Sufi order and its founder Amadu Bamba were never wholly constrained by or suborned to colonial authority. The primacy of Islamic identity also informs McDougall 2006 and its compendious study of Algeria’s Muslim religious scholars whose foundational influence on Algerian nationalism is made abundantly clear. For students fresh to the subject, Motadel 2012 reviews the wider literature on Islam and European imperialism.
  708.  
  709. Babou, Cheikh Anta. Fighting the Greater Jihad: Amadu Bamba and the Founding of the Muridiyya of Senegal, 1853–1913. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2007.
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  711. More than a biography of the Muridiyya leader, this book is the essential complement to Robinson 2000 below.
  712. Find this resource:
  713. Daughton, J. P. An Empire Divided: Religion, Republicanism, and the Making of French Colonialism, 1880–1914. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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  715. A highly influential study of the tensions and accommodations between republican imperialism and missionary proselytization.
  716. Find this resource:
  717. Keith, Charles. Catholic Vietnam: A Church from Empire to Nation. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012.
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  719. Important new study of an under-researched topic: the immense impact of Catholicism in colonial Vietnam.
  720. Find this resource:
  721. McDougall, James. History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
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  723. Another landmark study, this one using the Islamic scholars’ movement and the association of reformist ‘ulama to illustrate the interaction of Islamic identity and changing conceptions of cultural nationalism in Algeria.
  724. Find this resource:
  725. Motadel, David. “Islam and the European Empires.” Historical Journal 55.3 (2012): 831–856.
  726. DOI: 10.1017/S0018246X12000325Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  727. Wide-ranging survey of the historiography that illustrates how much new work is being done.
  728. Find this resource:
  729. Orosz, Kenneth J. Religious Conflict and the Evolution of Language Policy in German and French Cameroon, 1885–1939. New York: Peter Lang, 2008.
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  731. A rewarding study of the internecine warfare between Catholic and Protestant missionary groups, particularly during the French mandate period between the wars.
  732. Find this resource:
  733. Robinson, David. Paths of Accommodation: Muslim Societies and French Colonial Authorities in Senegal and Mauritania, 1880–1920. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2000.
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  735. Indispensable study of changing Muslim responses to the consolidation of the French colonial presence in West Africa.
  736. Find this resource:
  737. White, Owen, and J. P. Daughton. In God’s Empire: French Missionaries and the Modern World Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  738. DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195396447.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  739. The most wide-ranging survey of the impact of French missionary endeavor on the French Empire.
  740. Find this resource:
  741. Science, Medicine, and Health
  742.  
  743. The notion that colonial life could endanger the physical and mental health of French colonizers was embedded in metropolitan culture by the early 20th century. Equally, the certainty that Western science could improve colonial peoples’ lives became integral to French justifications for empire. Both ideas are examined in Osborne 1994 and in the essays in Macleod and Lewis 1988. Echenberg 2002, in its study of official and non-official efforts to counteract plague outbreaks in the Senegalese city of Dakar, exposes the conflict between segregationist colonial actions and discourses of medical modernity. The prevalence of epidemic illness and French efforts to harness advances in bacteriology to contain it are discussed in Headrick and Headrick 1994 and Pelis 2006. Each links their discussion of advances in treatment to the imperial mentalities or “mission” of the key practitioners involved. Jennings 2006 provides the most interesting analysis of colonial efforts to assuage the supposedly deleterious effects of prolonged exposure to the tropics and their colonized peoples. Keller 2007 ties French concepts of psychiatric disorder to the colonial experience itself.
  744.  
  745. Echenberg, Myron. Black Death, White Medicine. Bubonic Plague and the Politics of Public Health in Colonial Senegal, 1914–1945. Oxford: James Currey, 2002.
  746. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  747. Remarkable study of plague epidemics in colonial Dakar and the colonialist thinking that informed French responses.
  748. Find this resource:
  749. Headrick, Rita, and Daniel Headrick. Colonialism, Health and Illness in French Equatorial Africa, 1885–1935. London: African Studies, 1994.
  750. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  751. Comprehensive reassessment of French epidemiological policies, vaccination programs, and African reactions in the tropical Equatorial African belt.
  752. Find this resource:
  753. Jennings, Eric T. Curing the Colonizers: Hydotherapy, Climatology, and French Colonial Spas. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2006.
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  755. Focused on “taking the waters,” and ersatz colonial spa resorts, this is also a study in French ideas of the corruptive effects of colonial life itself.
  756. Find this resource:
  757. Keller, Richard. Colonial Madness: Psychiatry in French North Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.
  758. DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226429779.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  759. The best treatment of colonial ideas of innate psychiatric difference between the French and the colonized peoples of Northwest Africa.
  760. Find this resource:
  761. Macleod, Roy, and Milton Lewis, eds. Disease, Medicine, and Empire: Perspectives on Western Medicine and the Experience of European Expansion. London: Routledge, 1988.
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  763. An essay collection that teases out the commonalities in colonial medical experience.
  764. Find this resource:
  765. Osborne, Michael A. Nature, the Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.
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  767. Immensely valuable in its discussion of the French “acclimatization” movement, which evokes critical changes in French public engagement with empire before World War I.
  768. Find this resource:
  769. Pelis, Kim. Charles Nicolle, Pasteur’s Imperial Missionary: Typhus and Tunisia. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2006.
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  771. Explains how colonial ideas and policies shaped the work of Pasteur Institute bacteriologists fighting Tunisia’s worst source of epidemic illness.
  772. Find this resource:
  773. Urbanism and Environment
  774.  
  775. Much of the most fascinating work on French colonial urbanism connects the reconfiguration of cities, buildings, and public space to imperialist ideas about social order, hierarchies of power, and resultant segregation. Abu-Lughod 1980 was the pioneer here, its study of Rabat, royal capital, and seat of colonial authority in Morocco making plain the extent to which urban redesign imposed stricter racial divides. Çelik 1997 is more wide ranging in her assessment of the wholesale destruction and subsequent reconfiguration of Algiers. Çelik, et al. 2009 approaches the same subject from a more cultural and literary perspective. Rabinow 1989 is more interdisciplinary, explaining where colonial urbanism fits into French concepts of modernity and currencies of cultural power. Wright 1991 is essential reading, its three regional case studies revealing the connections between urban redesign and colonial theories of governance. Jennings 2011 does something similar in regard to Dalat, the Vietnamese hill station-cum-summer capital, whose laborious construction Jennings uses as a metaphor for the contradictions in French imperialism.
  776.  
  777. Abu-Lughod, Janet L. Rabat: Urban Apartheid in Morocco. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980.
  778. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  779. An indispensable study that explains colonial urban planning as a tool of social segregation.
  780. Find this resource:
  781. Çelik, Zeynep. Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
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  783. Complements Abu-Lughod, but ranges more widely chronologically and thematically, notably in relation to colonial architecture.
  784. Find this resource:
  785. Çelik, Zeynep, Julia Clancy-Smith, and Frances Terpak. Walls of Algiers: Narratives of the City through Text and Image. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2009.
  786. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  787. Places visual sources and artistic representations to the fore in exploring contrasting representations of Algiers from the Ottoman period to the war of independence.
  788. Find this resource:
  789. Jennings, Eric T. Imperial Heights: Dalat and the Making and Undoing of French Indochina. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011.
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  791. A study of the French summer capital in Vietnam, the building and population of which exposes the hollowness of French colonial claims to serve Vietnamese interests.
  792. Find this resource:
  793. Rabinow, Paul. French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.
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  795. A thought-provoking use of cultural anthropology to analyze French colonial thinking about the social environment, the regulation of public space, and ideas of social welfare.
  796. Find this resource:
  797. Wright, Gwendolyn. The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
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  799. Part of a trio of works, alongside Abu-Lughod and Çelik, which made the study of urban planning and architectural forms integral to the study of colonialism.
  800. Find this resource:
  801. Colonial Imagery and Film
  802.  
  803. Studying the way that empire was visualized in exhibitions, in photographs, and on film has generated important insights into the concepts of difference that underpin French cultures of colonialism. A good starting point for students is Norindr 1996, a highly theoretical but always insightful book showing that “Indochina” was substantially a product of the French imagination. Now available in English translation, Blanchard, et al. 2008 explains the objectification and denigration of indigenous cultures, often on spurious grounds of scientific inquiry. Bloom 2008 analyzes French colonial documentary filmmaking to reach similar conclusions. Slavin 2001 is the indispensable study of French colonial cinema, an entire genre whose enduring popularity with French audiences shaped public misunderstanding of empire. Furlough 2002 complements this nicely with her survey of upmarket empire tourism and the colonial gaze it induced.
  804.  
  805. Blanchard, Pascal, Nicolas Bancel, and Gilles Boetsch, et al., eds. Human Zoos: Science and Spectacle in the Age of Empire. Liverpool, UK: University of Liverpool Press, 2008.
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  807. A shocking account of the objectification of colonized peoples as exotic and savage. Recounts the popularization of scientific racism in Europe.
  808. Find this resource:
  809. Bloom, Peter J. French Colonial Documentary: Mythologies of Humanitarianism. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
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  811. Unique in its analysis of French colonial documentary filmmaking as a vector of changing metropolitan ideas about colonized peoples and racial difference.
  812. Find this resource:
  813. Furlough, Ellen. “Une leçon des choses: Tourism, empire, and the nation in interwar France.” French Historical Studies 25.3 (2002): 441–473.
  814. DOI: 10.1215/00161071-25-3-441Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  815. A succinct account of the early development of something approaching mass colonial tourism and the crass colonial stereotypes it perpetuated.
  816. Find this resource:
  817. Norindr, Panivong. Phantasmaic Indochina: French Colonial Ideology in Architecture, Film and Literature. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.
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  819. Applies postcolonial theory to explain French cultural constructions of Indochina as something more imagined than real; particularly useful in regard to the 1931 Vincennes Colonial Exhibition and its surrealist-inspired anticolonial rival.
  820. Find this resource:
  821. Slavin, David Henry. Colonial Cinema and Imperial France, 1919–1939: White Blind Spots, Male Fantasies, Settler Myths. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001.
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  823. Explores the exotic stereotypes and heroism themes that made “colonial cinema” so popular and influential in interwar France.
  824. Find this resource:
  825. The Indochina War
  826.  
  827. There are several remarkable as well as tragic features of the eight-year war that France fought in the Indochinese peninsula between 1946 and 1954. Primarily a Franco-Vietnamese conflict, the war followed hard on the heels of wartime Japanese occupation, famine in northern Vietnam, and months of protracted, on-off negotiations between a procession of short-lived French governments, their envoys, and representatives of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), a Hanoi-based regime led by Ho Chi Minh’s Communists. Argument persists over why these talks collapsed in late 1946, much as it does over subsequent French commitment to consolidate a pro-Western state in South Vietnam. For many years recounted in terms of Cold War rivalries, the eventual internationalization of the war typified by Chinese and American backing for the opposing combatants has been reframed in more recent accounts as subordinate to the conflict’s internal, intra-Vietnamese dynamics.
  828.  
  829. Origins and Early Development
  830.  
  831. Interpretations of the immediate origins to the Indochina War have, to varying degrees, engaged with three interrelated issues: the rise of a Communist-tinged Vietnamese nationalism during the World War II years; the significance of famine and foreign occupation in 1945–1946; and the breakdown in negotiations between the French authorities and the DRV in Hanoi. The contributors to Lawrence and Logevall 2007 bring political, international, and military perspectives to bear on the war’s origins and escalation. Marr 1997 provides a comprehensive analysis of social conditions and political rivalries in Vietnam prior to and following the August 1945 revolution that brought the DRV into existence. Duiker 1996 paints with a broader brush, tracing the ascendancy of Vietnamese Communism over the period of decolonization as a whole. Tønnesson 2009 exposes the factionalism in French colonial decision making that helped precipitate the outbreak of war in late 1946. Shipway 1996 untangles the reformist ideas that connected the Free French movement to the descent to war in Vietnam. Tertrais 2002 remains the indispensable account of the Indochina War’s mounting financial costs and damaging economic effects. Goscha 2011 offers the most wide-ranging analysis of how and why the Vietnamese fought and won.
  832.  
  833. Duiker, William J. The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam. 2d ed. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996.
  834. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  835. The longest-term analysis of the Vietnamese Communist Party from its inception through the wars against France, the USA, and China.
  836. Find this resource:
  837. Goscha, Christopher E. Vietnam: Un état né de la guerre. Paris: Armand Colin, 2011.
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  839. Indispensable new study of how Vietnamese society was reorganized to defeat the French.
  840. Find this resource:
  841. Lawrence, Mark Atwood, and Fredrik Logevall, eds. The First Vietnam War: Colonial Conflict and Cold War Crisis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
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  843. Essays in this collection explore French, Vietnamese, and international perspectives on the outbreak and course of the Franco-Vietnamese war.
  844. Find this resource:
  845. Marr, David, G. Vietnam 1945: The Quest for Power. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
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  847. A forensic, microhistorical analysis of the Vietnamese revolution that explains how misguided the French were in thinking their authority could be restored.
  848. Find this resource:
  849. Shipway, Martin. The Road to War: France and Vietnam, 1944–1947. Oxford: Berghahn, 1996.
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  851. Traces how planned French reforms to postwar Indochina were harnessed to governmental efforts to rebuilt imperial power.
  852. Find this resource:
  853. Tertrais, Hugues. La piastre et le fusil: Le coût de la guerre d’Indochine 1945–1954. Paris: CHEF, 2002.
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  855. Unique in its focus on the war’s tremendous financial costs and the resultant dependence on American support.
  856. Find this resource:
  857. Tønnesson, Stein. Vietnam 1946: How the War Began. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009.
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  859. A wonderfully vivid account, also microhistorical in its treatment of the precise origins of the war’s outbreak as a flawed negotiation process collapsed.
  860. Find this resource:
  861. Escalation and Outcome
  862.  
  863. The escalation and outcome of the first Indochina War are inextricably tied to the conflict’s internationalization, the literature on which is discussed in the next section. The purpose here is to highlight key works dealing with the expansion of the war after 1948–1949 and the changing nature of the rival regimes in Hanoi and Saigon. Brocheux 2000 discusses the war’s changing military dynamics, and Guillemot 2012 gives a lively account of early “Vietnamization” strategy, focusing on the South Vietnam regime’s military forces. More sophisticated still is Goscha 2012, which makes a powerful case for Vietnamese exceptionalism in the history of French colonial conflict. Miller 2004 and Miller 2013 provides an important corrective to dismissive treatments of Ngô Dình Diêm’s Saigon regime. De Hartingh 2003 is a rich, well-informed look at the Hanoi regime in the same critical years straddling war and all-too-contingent peace in Vietnam. Asselin 2007 helps explain why the Vietnamese acquiesced in the inconclusive outcome to the Indochina War at the Geneva Conference in 1954.
  864.  
  865. Asselin, Pierre. “Choosing Peace: Hanoi and the Geneva Agreement on Vietnam, 1954–1955.” Journal of Cold War Studies 9.2 (2007): 95–126.
  866. DOI: 10.1162/jcws.2007.9.2.95Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  867. Valuable for the Vietnamese perspective on the putative settlement to the first Indochina War.
  868. Find this resource:
  869. Brocheux, Pierre, ed. Du conflit d’Indochine aux conflits Indochinois. Paris: Editions Complexe, 2000.
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  871. A collection of conference-derived essays offering multiple perspectives on the conflict’s changing military character.
  872. Find this resource:
  873. de Hartingh, Bertrand. Entre le peuple et la nation: La République Démocratique du Viêt Nam de 1953 à 1957. Paris: École française d’Extrême-Orient, 2003.
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  875. Unusual in its chronological sweep in that it explains critical changes in the Hanoi regime both in anticipation of French departure and subsequent to it.
  876. Find this resource:
  877. Goscha, Christopher E. “A ‘Total War’ of Decolonization? Social Mobilization and State-Building in Communist Vietnam (1949–54).” War & Society 31.2 (2012): 136–162.
  878. DOI: 10.1179/0729247312Z.0000000007Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  879. Introduces the concept of a “totalizing war” to explain the popular mobilization central to Vietnamese defeat of the French.
  880. Find this resource:
  881. Guillemot, François. “Be men!’: Fighting and Dying for the State of Vietnam (1951–54).” War & Society 31.2 (2012): 184–210.
  882. DOI: 10.1179/0729247312Z.0000000009Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  883. A useful counterpoint to Goscha, which explores the limitations and misuse of South Vietnamese forces.
  884. Find this resource:
  885. Miller, Edward. “Vision, Power and Agency: The Ascent of Ngô Dình Diêm, 1945–1954.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 35.3 (2004): 433–458.
  886. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  887. An important reappraisal of Diêm’s consolidation of power in Saigon.
  888. Find this resource:
  889. Miller, Edward. Misalliance: Ngo Dinh Diem, the United States, and the Fate of South Vietnam. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  890. DOI: 10.4159/harvard.9780674075320Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  891. Takes the story of Diem’s Saigon regime forward from the end of the French war in Vietnam toward America’s military involvement.
  892. Find this resource:
  893. Foreign Intervention
  894.  
  895. Britain, the United States, neighboring Southeast Asian states and especially Nationalist (then Communist) China shaped the complexion and extent of war in French Indochina. The economic, political, cultural, and regional connections that helped sustain Vietnamese resistance to France are explored in Goscha 1999. The motivations behind the Chinese Nationalist occupation of northern Vietnam and the parallel British occupation of southern Vietnam in 1945–1946 are examined in Hua 1994 and Smith 2007. A forensic analysis of American and wider international engagement with the Indochina conflict is offered in Lawrence 2005. Zhai 2000 and the important article by Jian (Jian 1993) shed light on the full extent of China’s political and military influence. Kaplan, et al. 1990 presents essays that bridge the gap between the war’s dramatic conclusion at the siege of Dien Bien Phu, the multilateral Geneva Conference that sought to regulate the peace, and the diplomatic failings that left Vietnam’s future unresolved. Logevall 2012 provides the definitive account of precisely how and why the war between France and Vietnam triggered the later Americanization of the conflict.
  896.  
  897. Goscha, Christopher E. Thailand and the Southeast Asian Networks of The Vietnamese Revolution, 1885–1954. Richmond, London: Curzon, 1999.
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  899. Explores the state-making and transnational networking achieved by the Vietnamese revolutionary forces long before the French were ousted.
  900. Find this resource:
  901. Hua, Lin. Chiang Kai-shek, de Gaulle contre Hô Chi Minh: Viet-nam, 1945–1946. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1994.
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  903. A comprehensive account of Chinese Nationalist motivations during their occupation of northern Vietnam.
  904. Find this resource:
  905. Jian, Chen. “China and the First Indo-China War, 1950–54.” China Quarterly 133 (March 1993): 85–110.
  906. DOI: 10.1017/S0305741000018208Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  907. Takes the story forward to explain the ideological priorities and strategic influence of Mao’s regime.
  908. Find this resource:
  909. Kaplan, Lawrence, Denise Artaud, and Mark R. Rubin, eds. Dien Bien Phu and the Crisis of Franco-American Relations, 1954–1955. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1990.
  910. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  911. Wide-ranging collection that connects the course of the Dien Bien Phu siege to the diplomacy of the Geneva conference.
  912. Find this resource:
  913. Lawrence, Mark Atwood. Assuming the Burden: Europe and the American Commitment to War in Vietnam. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
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  915. Impressively wide-ranging account that demonstrates the early development of American involvement in Vietnam, sometimes at variance with western European partners.
  916. Find this resource:
  917. Logevall, Fredrik. Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America’s Vietnam. New York: Random House, 2012.
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  919. A panoramic investigation of the war, its global reach, and the crucial decisions that saw America supplant the French in Vietnam.
  920. Find this resource:
  921. Smith, T. O. Britain and the Origins of the Vietnam War: UK Policy in Indo-China, 1943–50. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.
  922. DOI: 10.1057/9780230591660Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  923. A useful counterpart to Hua’s account, this one focused on the brief interregnum of British military administration in southern Vietnam.
  924. Find this resource:
  925. Zhai, Qiang. China and the Vietnam Wars, 1950–1975. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000.
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  927. Especially useful for its early chapters dealing with China’s military support for the Hanoi regime and subsequent actions at the Geneva conference.
  928. Find this resource:
  929. The Algerian War
  930.  
  931. With over fifty years now passed since the climax of Algeria’s war of independence, recent historians of the conflict enjoy the advantages of greater long-term perspective and more diffuse archival sources through which to view the events of France’s most traumatic decolonization. Indeed, the issue of changing perspectives is central to the many reinterpretations of the war in Harbi and Stora 2004. Another useful collection that addressed the lived experiences of soldiers and civilians caught up in the conflict is Jauffret 2003. Alexander 2002 includes eye-opening testimonies from senior officers as well as key French opponents of the war. Approaching the issue from a political science perspective, Merom 2003 unravels the apparent paradox of French inability to win despite overwhelming military superiority. Among the more general histories of the war, three stand out. Horne 2006, originally published in 1977, retains its relevance and prescience. Branche 2005 is the most thought-provoking general work in French. Evans 2012 has a new standard with an accessible, thoroughly researched study valuable to specialists and general student readers alike. Tyre 2006 provides a succinct reading of the contradictions inherent to French colonial policy in war-torn Algeria.
  932.  
  933. Alexander, Martin, Martin Evans, and J. V. F. Keiger, eds. The Algerian War and the French Army: Experiences, Images, Testimonies. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
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  935. Useful essays supplemented by testimonies from senior military personnel and antiwar activists, whose views remain diametrically opposed.
  936. Find this resource:
  937. Branche, Raphaëlle. La guerre d’Algérie. Une histoire apaisée? Paris: Seuil, 2005.
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  939. The best single volume introduction to the war’s history and changing interpretations of its legacy.
  940. Find this resource:
  941. Evans, Martin. Algeria: France’s Undeclared War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
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  943. A nicely balanced, accessible account that explores Algerian and French perspectives on the war and the importance of the Mollet government’s fatal decision to expand the conflict in 1956.
  944. Find this resource:
  945. Harbi, Mohammed, and Benjamin Stora, eds. La Guerre d’Algérie, 1954–2004. La fin de l’amnésie. Paris: Robert Laffont, 2004.
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  947. Extensive reassessment by French and Algerian scholars of key actors and institutions, plus the war’s violence.
  948. Find this resource:
  949. Horne, Alistair. A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954–1962. New York: NYRB Classics, 2006.
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  951. Remains the classic, widely read account of the war, although Evans 2012 provides closer analysis of the FLN viewpoint.
  952. Find this resource:
  953. Jauffret, Jean-Charles. Des hommes et des femmes en guerre d’Algérie. Paris: Autrement, 2003.
  954. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  955. Another substantial edited collection with discrete sections on military and civilian experiences of the war.
  956. Find this resource:
  957. Merom, Gil. How Democracies Lose Small Wars: State, Society, and the Failures of France in Algeria, Israel in Lebanon, and the United States in Vietnam. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
  958. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511808227Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  959. Useful investigation of how domestic public’s respond to asymmetric warfare and the brutality involved.
  960. Find this resource:
  961. Tyre, Stephen. “From Algerie Française to France Musulmane: Jacques Soustelle and the Myths and Realities of ‘Integration,’ 1955–1962.” French History 20.3 (2006): 276–296.
  962. DOI: 10.1093/fh/crl010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  963. Incisive examination of the key colonial policy ardently pursued by Governor Jacques Soustelle and others with disastrous consequences for France and Algeria.
  964. Find this resource:
  965. The War in French Politics and Society
  966.  
  967. The extent to which the Algerian War divided France and refashioned French society continues to divide scholars. Some suggest that the extent of public disengagement from the war is more remarkable than levels of active support or opposition for it. The fullest treatment of the conflict’s impact on France locally and nationally is now Branche and Thénault 2008. Highly informative, although more tightly focused on parties and political elites, is Rioux 1992. Among those who identify watershed moments in French attitudes to the war, Bourdrel 1996 was the first to stress that Guy Mollet’s 1956 government made the decisive mistakes. Joly 1991 remains the only study devoted to the one French political party, the Communists, supposedly at odds with fighting the war. Amiri 2004 investigates the war’s internecine violence among the Algerian immigrant community in France. Dine 1994 offers the most rewarding cultural analysis of the war’s register in French film and literature. From a more postmodern perspective, Ross 1995 suggests that visceral dirty war clashed with France’s transition to consumerism. Shepard 2006 provides the most analytically sophisticated treatment of changing French constructions of Algeria and Algerians as the war unfolded.
  968.  
  969. Amiri, Linda. La Bataille de France: La guerre d’Algérie en France. Paris: Robert Laffont, 2004.
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  971. A straightforward account of the internecine struggle between rival Algerian nationalist groups as played out among the immigrant population in France.
  972. Find this resource:
  973. Bourdrel, Philippe. La dernière chance de l’Algérie française: Du gouvernement socialiste au retour de De Gaulle, 1956–1958. Paris: Albin Michel, 1996.
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  975. A detailed account of the war’s expansion and a valuable supplement to Evans 2012, cited under Algerian War.
  976. Find this resource:
  977. Branche, Raphaëlle, and Sylvie Thénault, eds. La France en guerre 1954–1962: Expériences métropolitaines de la guerre d’indépendance Algérienne. Paris: Autrement, 2008.
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  979. An essential study of French societal responses to the war with extensive coverage of local reactions, the media, and particular civil society groups.
  980. Find this resource:
  981. Dine, Philip. Images of the Algerian War: French Fiction and Film, 1954–1992. Oxford: Clarendon, 1994.
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  983. Ranges from highbrow writings to pulp fiction, philosophers to film directors in a rewarding study of war-related French writing and filmmaking.
  984. Find this resource:
  985. Joly, Danièle. The French Communist Party and the Algerian War. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 1991.
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  987. Concise account of internal divisions within the one French political party supposedly opposed to the conflict throughout.
  988. Find this resource:
  989. Rioux, Jean-Pierre, ed. La guerre d’Algérie et les Français. Paris: Fayard, 1992.
  990. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  991. A substantial collection of essays, strongest on governmental and party political responses to the war.
  992. Find this resource:
  993. Ross, Kristin. Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.
  994. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  995. A postmodern perspective that connects France’s cultural transformation during the war years to French societal disengagement from the actual violence of decolonization.
  996. Find this resource:
  997. Shepard, Todd. The Invention of Decolonization: The Algerian War and the Remaking of France. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2006.
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  999. A landmark study of identity politics in France before, during, and after the Algerian War that demonstrates how official efforts to redefine the Franco-Algerian relationship heightened the differential treatment of minority groups.
  1000. Find this resource:
  1001. Internationalization of the War
  1002.  
  1003. The inverse correlation between mounting international criticism of French actions in Algeria and the success of the Algerian nationalist National Liberation Front (FLN in French) in securing foreign support is now recognized as fundamental to the war’s outcome. Debate continues about the relative importance of key non-state actors when measured against the wider dynamics of Cold War antagonism. Fathi Al Dib 1985 was an early protagonist of the internationalization thesis, but only insofar as the author identified Egyptian backing for the FLN as vital. More sophisticated is Zoubir 1995, which highlights the limits of “superpower” engagements with the conflict. A different approach is taken in Wall 2001, which stresses the central importance of shifting American attitudes. Connelly 2000 and Connelly 2002 go further still, identifying the FLN’s mobilization of transnational networks of support in the Arab world and among Non-Aligned States at the United Nations and elsewhere as evidence of deeper changes in the international system wrought by decolonization. Klose 2011 explores a relatively new field of inquiry, highlighting the role of NGOs and charity groups in exposing colonialist double standards on human rights issues.
  1004.  
  1005. Connelly, Matthew. “Taking off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North-South Conflict during the Algerian War for Independence.” American Historical Review 105.3 (2000): 739–769.
  1006. DOI: 10.2307/2651808Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1007. Argues that the politics of race matched ideological rivalry in determining international alignments over Algeria’s decolonization.
  1008. Find this resource:
  1009. Connelly, Matthew. A Diplomatic Revolution: Algeria’s Fight for Independence and the Origins of the Post-Cold War Era. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
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  1011. A pioneering study that identifies the FLN’s transnational activism as central to its victory.
  1012. Find this resource:
  1013. Fathi Al Dib, Mohamed. Abdel Nasser et la Révolution Algérienne. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1985.
  1014. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1015. The Nasserite perspective on the Algerian War.
  1016. Find this resource:
  1017. Klose, Fabian. “The Colonial Testing Ground: The International Committee of the Red Cross and the Violent End of Empire.” Humanity 2.1 (2011): 107–126.
  1018. DOI: 10.1353/hum.2011.0010Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1019. An important study of the tribulations faced by NGOs confronted by official justification and concealment of colonial dirty war practices.
  1020. Find this resource:
  1021. Wall, Irwin M. France, the United States and the Algerian War. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
  1022. DOI: 10.1525/california/9780520225343.001.0001Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1023. Relates mounting American disillusionment with colonial actions in Algeria to decisive changes in French policy, military direction, and regime.
  1024. Find this resource:
  1025. Zoubir, Yahia H. “U.S. and Soviet Policies towards France’s Struggle with Anticolonial Nationalism in North Africa.” Canadian Journal of History 30 (1995): 439–466.
  1026. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1027. An even-handed account, particularly useful in its examination of Moscow’s responses to the war.
  1028. Find this resource:
  1029. The Sétif Uprising of 1945
  1030.  
  1031. Algeria’s war of independence was prefigured, some would say even unleashed, almost a decade before 1954 with an eastern Algerian uprising viciously suppressed by the French authorities in the aftermath of World War II. Ageron 1984 provides a clear introduction to the events. Thomas 2011 considers the role of intelligence, misinformation, and misperception in the actions of the colonial security forces. Rey-Goldzeiguer 2002 connects the uprising’s outbreak to preceding wartime experience. Planche 2006 offers the fullest account of nationalist preplanning, attacks on European settlers, and subsequent security force retribution across much of northeastern Algeria. Reggui 2006 recalls the human cost of that retribution and its unjustifiable brutality. Peyroulou 2009 is an indispensable account of the part played by settler vigilantism in the cycle of violence and counter-violence.
  1032.  
  1033. Ageron, Charles-Robert. “Les troubles du Nord-Constantinois en mai 1945: Une tentative insurrectionnelle?” Vingtième Siècle 4 (October 1984): 23–38.
  1034. DOI: 10.3406/xxs.1984.1714Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1035. Succinct explanation of the sequence of events at the beginning of the uprising.
  1036. Find this resource:
  1037. Peyroulou, Jean-Pierre. Guelma, 1945: Une subversion Française dans l’Algérie coloniale. Paris: Editions la Découverte, 2009.
  1038. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1039. Forensic analysis of the sociological roots of communal division in a region at the epicenter of violence in 1945 in which settler vigilantes played the leading role.
  1040. Find this resource:
  1041. Planche, Jean-Louis. Sétif 1945. Histoire d’un massacre annoncé. Paris: Perrin, 2006.
  1042. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1043. A broader treatment of the origins and course of the uprising; particularly revealing about the extent of French repression.
  1044. Find this resource:
  1045. Reggui, Marcel. Les massacres de Guelma: Algérie, mai 1945, une enquête inedite sur la furie des milice colonials. Paris: Editions la Découverte, 2006.
  1046. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1047. A heartrending personal indictment of settler retribution against the author’s family in Guelma.
  1048. Find this resource:
  1049. Rey-Goldzeiguer, Annie. Aux origines de la guerre d’Algérie 1940–1945: De Mers-el-Kébir aux massacres du nord-constantinois. Paris: Editions la Découverte, 2002.
  1050. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1051. Less detailed than Peyroulou or Planche, but useful in connecting preceding wartime experience to the uprising’s outbreak.
  1052. Find this resource:
  1053. Thomas, Martin. “Colonial Violence in Algeria and the Distorted Logic of State Retribution: The Sétif Uprising of 1945.” Journal of Military History 75.1 (2011): 523–556.
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  1055. Analyzes the misreadings, prejudices, and security fears that underpinned ultra-violent repression.
  1056. Find this resource:
  1057. Algeria’s FLN
  1058.  
  1059. Essential works on the FLN have yet to appear in English. Among the French-language sources, Ageron 1997 offers useful information about the movement’s supporters, its strategic priorities, and propagandist activities. Harbi 1985 brings personal experience to bear in an analysis of the FLN’s rise to power. Haroun 1986 is a riveting account of the FLN’s operations in France by their key organizer. Malek 1995 gives a similarly revealing insider’s account of the war’s negotiation process. Harbi and Meynier 2004 provides a wealth of original documentation in a collection invaluable to researchers. Meynier 2002 draws on this material and is now the definitive history of the FLN. Valette 2001 tells the story of the FLN’s rival nationalist movement and their demise.
  1060.  
  1061. Ageron, Charles-Robert, ed. La guerre d’Algérie et les Algériens, 1954–1962. Paris: Armand Colin, 1997.
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  1063. Discrete sections covering the conflict’s impact on the Algerian population, propaganda and opinion, and memories of the war.
  1064. Find this resource:
  1065. Harbi, Mohammed. Le F.L.N. Mirage et réalité des origines à la prise du pouvoir (1945–1962). 2d ed. Paris: Editions Jeune Afrique, 1985.
  1066. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1067. A defining study that explores the rivalries and policy shifts among the movement’s military and political leaders.
  1068. Find this resource:
  1069. Harbi, Mohammed, and Gilbert Meynier. Le F.L.N. Documents et Histoire, 1954–1962. Paris: Fayard, 2004.
  1070. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1071. Large collection of party documents well contextualized by the editors.
  1072. Find this resource:
  1073. Haroun, Ali, La 7e Wilaya. La guerre du FLN en France 1954–1962. Paris: Seuil, 1986.
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  1075. The definitive account of the FLN’s “French Federation” by its key figure.
  1076. Find this resource:
  1077. Malek, Redha. L’Algérie à Evian: Histoire des négociations secretes 1956–1962. Paris: ´Éditions du Seuil, 1995.
  1078. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1079. Malek, a key figure in the Franco-Algerian negotiation process, was editor of the FLN newspaper El Moudjahid between 1957 and 1962 and later went on to a diplomatic career after Algerian independence.
  1080. Find this resource:
  1081. Meynier, Gilbert. Histoire intérieure du FLN 1954–1962. Paris: Fayard, 2002.
  1082. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1083. The definitive account of FLN organization, factionalism, and often terrifying internal discipline.
  1084. Find this resource:
  1085. Valette, Jacques. La guerre d’Algérie des Messalistes 1954–1962. Paris: L’Harmattan, 2001.
  1086. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1087. Studies the FLN’s rivals for power in Algeria and among immigrants in France.
  1088. Find this resource:
  1089. Violence, Justice, and Human Rights Abuses
  1090.  
  1091. Violence including forced removal of populations, summary killings, torture, and psychological pressure was not only central to the Algerian War but a signifier of deeper colonial attitudes and processes. Not surprisingly, some of the most original work on the conflict lies in this analytical field, something for which Cole 2010 presents a sophisticated overview. Branche 2001 is written from a cultural historian’s perspective and Lazreg 2008 from a more sociological point of view: both works demonstrate how torture came to occupy so prominent a place in French actions. Thénault 2001 explains the more permissive judicial environment that made such abuses routine. Thénault 2011 delves deeper into the colonial juridical regime of removal and internment. Blanchard 2011 traces the repressive activities of the Paris police against Algerian immigrants, as does House and MacMaster 2006, which focuses in particular on police killings of well over a hundred Algerian demonstrators in the French capital in October 1961. Harrison 1989 offers insights into the ideological roots and counter-terrorist tactics of the Secret Army Organization (OAS in French), the most extremist supporters of French Algeria.
  1092.  
  1093. Blanchard, Emmanuel. La Police Parisienne et les Algériens (1944–1962). Paris: Nouveau Monde éditions, 2011.
  1094. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1095. A revealing account of the colonial methods and ideas that informed the repressive policing of Algerians in the French capital.
  1096. Find this resource:
  1097. Branche, Raphaëlle. La torture et l’armée pendant la guerre d’Algérie. Paris: Gallimard, 2001.
  1098. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1099. A pathbreaking study of the institutionalizaton of torture, its forms, and gender dimensions.
  1100. Find this resource:
  1101. Cole, Joshua. “Massacres and their Historians: Recent Histories of State Violence in France and Algeria in the Twentieth Century.” French Politics, Culture and Society 28.1 (2010): 106–126.
  1102. DOI: 10.3167/fpcs.2010.280107Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1103. An excellent survey essential for students new to the themes raised by the study of colonial violence.
  1104. Find this resource:
  1105. Harrison, Alexander. Challenging De Gaulle: The O.A.S. and the counterrevolution in Algeria, 1954–1962. New York: Praeger, 1989.
  1106. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1107. Remains the best English-language account of this counter-terrorist movement.
  1108. Find this resource:
  1109. House, Jim, and Neil MacMaster. Paris 1961: Algerians, State Terror, and Memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
  1110. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1111. A searing indictment of policing warped by colonial experience and the concealment of the Paris violence of October 1961.
  1112. Find this resource:
  1113. Lazreg, Marnia. Torture and the Twilight of Empire: From Algiers to Baghdad. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008.
  1114. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1115. Makes torture a central dynamic not just of the war but also of the psychologies informing French colonialism in Algeria.
  1116. Find this resource:
  1117. Thénault, Sylvie. Une drôle de justice. Les magistrats dans la guerre d’Algérie. Paris: Découverte, 2001.
  1118. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1119. A path-breaking analysis of the critical part by the French magistrature in Algerian repression and the corrosion of legal protections for FLN supporters.
  1120. Find this resource:
  1121. Thénault, Sylvie. Violence ordinaire dans l’Algérie coloniale: Camps, internements, assignations à résidence. Paris: Odile Jacob, 2011.
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  1123. Another essential work that analyzes the development of internment camps and the attendant changes in legal process to handle the thousands of FLN suspects rounded up by police and military during the conflict.
  1124. Find this resource:
  1125. Intellectuals and War Opposition
  1126.  
  1127. The Algerian conflict, and violent decolonization more generally, was integral to the emergence of New Left ideology, Third Worldism, and intergenerational conflicts in France and elsewhere that would climax in the events of May 1968. This strand of intellectual opposition is capably dissected in Schalk 2005. Leading anticolonial intellectuals, most famously Frantz Fanon, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Simone de Beauvoir (as well as Algerian writers such as Mouloud Feraoun and French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu) expressed their outrage at the war in word and deed. Le Sueur 2001 provides incisive analysis of their varied motivations and impact. Goodman and Silverstein 2009 explores Bourdieu’s reading of an Algerian society degraded by colonialism and war while Le Sueur 2000 has expertly edited Feraoun’s agonizingly honest personal reflections on the conflict. Zeilig 2013 is an important landmark in studies of Fanon. The ideas and recollections of French supporters of the FLN cause are examined in Evans 1997 and Ulloa 2007.
  1128.  
  1129. Evans, Martin. The Memory of Resistance. French opposition to the Algerian War (1954–1962). Oxford: Berg, 1997.
  1130. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1131. A pioneering oral history of the French supporters of the FLN.
  1132. Find this resource:
  1133. Goodman, Jane E., and Paul A. Silverstein, eds. Bourdieu in Algeria: Colonial Politics, Ethnographic Practices, Theoretical Developments. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.
  1134. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1135. Essays exploring Algeria’s centrality to sociologist Pierre Bourdieu’s thought.
  1136. Find this resource:
  1137. Le Sueur, James D. Uncivil War: Intellectuals and Identity Politics during the Decolonization of Algeria. Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 2001.
  1138. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1139. Outstanding analysis of the agonizing moral and ethical choices faced by intellectuals in France and Algeria as the conflict escalated.
  1140. Find this resource:
  1141. Le Sueur, James D., ed. Mouloud Feraoun, Journal 1955–1962. Reflections on the French-Algerian War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
  1142. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1143. Feraoun, an Algerian writer and teacher murdered by the OAS in 1962, kept a personal journal that offers the clearest insights into the war’s corrosive effects on Algerian families and society.
  1144. Find this resource:
  1145. Schalk, David. War and the Ivory Tower: Algeria and Vietnam. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005.
  1146. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1147. Reprint of a landmark 1991 study of public intellectuals and their motives for opposing France’s largest colonial wars.
  1148. Find this resource:
  1149. Ulloa, Marie-Pierre. Francis Jeanson: A Dissident Intellectual from the French Resistance to the Algerian War. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007.
  1150. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1151. English translation of a 2001 French biography that explores the connections between Jeanson’s World War II involvement in resistance and publishing to his principled opposition to the Algerian War.
  1152. Find this resource:
  1153. Zeilig, Leo. Frantz Fanon: The Militant Philosopher of Third World Liberation. London: I. B. Tauris, 2013.
  1154. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1155. Indispensable analysis of the development of Fanon’s thinking about colonialism and violent decolonization.
  1156. Find this resource:
  1157. Women and the War
  1158.  
  1159. The situation of women in the Algerian conflict as fighters, activists, observers, and victims has triggered some of the most original work on French Algeria. Written within a broader chronological framework, Lazreg 1994 remains an essential introduction to the subject. So, too, does Amrane 1994, thanks to its collection of interviews with fellow women FLN militants. Surkis 2010 is the best short exploration of one such fighter’s crucial role in mobilizing opposition to colonial torture. MacMaster 2009 and Vince 2010 have untangled the war’s gender dynamics as encoded by both the colonial authorities and the FLN. Lorcin 2012 looks beyond the war, and beyond Algeria, in an erudite study of European women settlers’ writing ranging across the 20th century.
  1160.  
  1161. Amrane, Djamila. Des femmes dans la guerre d’Algérie: Entretiens. Paris: Karthala, 1994.
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  1163. Invaluable for the interviews with former fighters gathered together by one of their best-known French supporters.
  1164. Find this resource:
  1165. Lazreg, Marnia. The Eloquence of Silence: Algerian Women in Question. London: Routledge, 1994.
  1166. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1167. A wide-ranging, interdisciplinary survey, especially useful on the women’s changing status during and after the war.
  1168. Find this resource:
  1169. Lorcin, Patricia M. E. Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia: European Women’s Narratives of Algera and Kenya, 1900–Present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012.
  1170. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1171. Spans a century of women’s writing to explore changing identities and gendered perspectives on a disappearing colonial lifestyle.
  1172. Find this resource:
  1173. MacMaster, Neil. Burning the Veil: The Algerian War and the ‘Emancipation’ of Algerian Women, 1954–62. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2009.
  1174. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1175. Explains how Algerian women were trapped between both sides in the war by examining colonial and nationalist expectations of them.
  1176. Find this resource:
  1177. Surkis, Judith. “Ethics and Violence: Simone de Beauvoir, Djamila Boupacha, and the Algerian War.” French Politics, Culture, and Society 28.2 (2010): 38–55.
  1178. DOI: 10.3167/fpcs.2010.280204Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1179. Considers how and why Boupacha’s torture became an emblematic cause for the war’s high-profile opponents.
  1180. Find this resource:
  1181. Vince, Natalya. “Transgressing Boundaries: Gender, Race, Religion, and ‘Françaises Musulmanes’ during the Algerian War of Independence.” French Historical Studies 33.3 (2010): 445–474.
  1182. DOI: 10.1215/00161071-2010-005Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1183. The best concise analysis of the war’s gender dimensions as seen from the perspective of Algerian women.
  1184. Find this resource:
  1185. Memorialization and Legacies
  1186.  
  1187. Memorials, exhibitions, and other public commemorations of empire are increasingly analyzed discretely as physical markers of deeper changes in cultural attitudes to the imperial past. Aldrich 2005 provides a breezy but always thoughtful examination of these factors in past and present-day France. Aldrich and Ward 2010 offers an invaluable guide to students new to this subject, particularly those interested in comparative perspectives. Stora 1991 remains the most influential study of colonial memory in modern-day France, a society whose discrete ethnic subcultures are examined in Hargreaves and McKinney 1997. Shepard 2012 offers a powerful reminder that poisonous colonialist stereotyping has not been entirely consigned to history.
  1188.  
  1189. Aldrich, Robert. Vestiges of the Colonial Empire in France: Monuments, Museums and Memories. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
  1190. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1191. Shows how public buildings, memorials, place names, and other artifacts illustrate decisive shifts in French collective memories of their colonial past.
  1192. Find this resource:
  1193. Aldrich, Robert, and Stuart Ward. “Ends of Empire: Decolonizing the Nation in British and French Historiography.” In Nationalising the Past: Historians as Nation Builders in Modern Europe. Edited by Stefan Berger and Chris Lorenze, 259–281. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  1194. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1195. Invaluable to students for its comparative historiography survey.
  1196. Find this resource:
  1197. Hargreaves, Alec G., and Mark McKinney, eds. Post-Colonial Cultures in France. London: Routledge, 1997.
  1198. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1199. The most accessible study of multiethnic, postcolonial France.
  1200. Find this resource:
  1201. Shepard, Todd. “‘Something Notably Erotic’: Politics, ‘Arab Men,’ and Sexual Revolution in Postdecolonization France, 1962–1974.” Journal of Modern History 84.1 (2012): 80–115.
  1202. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1203. An important discussion of the colonial hangovers evident in ultra-right-wing stereotyping of North African sexuality.
  1204. Find this resource:
  1205. Stora, Benjamin. Le Gangrène et l’oubli: La mémoire de la guerre d’Algérie. Paris: Découverte, 1991.
  1206. Save Citation »Export Citation »E-mail Citation »
  1207. A little outdated now, but this is still the most thoughtful treatment of what France chose to remember and what to forget about the Algerian War.
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